Chapter 2

- Cognition really jumpstarted ideas of brain section and function just recently within
the last 50 years
- Brain Is hardware and cognitive processes are like the computer
- Brain organization is based on brain structure in terms of the order they have
evolved

Phylogenetic division

- Hindbrain, midbrain: non cognitive function→ basic life support and relay of
information from spinal cord to the rest of the brain
- Forebrain: vast majorities of cognitive abilities and capacities where cognition
happens
o Sub-cortical regions
▪ Underneath cerebral cortex
▪ Thalamus (right centre): switching and relaying sensory information
around the brain, information that has been perceived or processed
by multiple regions integrated and communicate using thalamus
▪ Hypothalamus (right next to thalamus): regulate basic biological
function (hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual arousal , basic emotional
reactions)
▪ Hippocampus (sub-cortically right under temporal lobes of brain):
learning and memory damage to is no longer have ability to
consciously recollect personal events
▪ Amygdala (right next to hippocampus): supports cognitive process,
emotion and aggression are the main ones. Relationship with the
hippocampus is important as It is involved with memories specific to
emotions and modulate memories strength via emotional content
o Cortical regions;
▪ Cerebral cortex (outermost layer of the brain): several layers of
densely packed neurons with white matter underneath.
• White matter (connects cerebral cortex to subcortical regions)
• Macro level has 4 main lobes
o Frontal lobe (underneath forehead)
o Parietal lobe (underneath top rear part of the skull)
▪ Spatial processing and attention and have
somatic sensory cortex which senses
 information from the body like pain pressure
touch or temperature
o Occipital lobe (back of head)
▪ Visual information processing from visual
information like orientation shape and colour to
recognition what objects are
o Temporal lobe (one side of the head)
▪ Auditory information and memory (encoding and
long term retrieval ) due to proximity to
hippocampus and amygdala
• Two hemispheres (both have all 4 lobes)
o No direct connection but communicate subcortically
using the Corpus Callosum and anterior commissure

Frontal Lobe: has three sections

- Motor cortex (precentral gyrus next to parietal lobe furthest back of frontal) fine
motor movement direction
- Premotor cortex (anterior to the motor cortex) planning directed movements
- Prefrontal cortex (largest part of frontal lobe everything anterior to premotor cortex)
executive function
o Executive functioning: planning making decisions implementing strategies
inhibiting inappropriate behaviour and using working memory to process
information

Localization of Function: (Franz Gall) human abilities and traits like human natures
consciousness and constructive ness associated with specific brain regions.

- Abilities and traits were autonomous and independent one domain doesn’t impact
abilities in another
- Strength and weakness of specific traits correlate to relative size of the region that
support them (Johan Spurzheim)
- Phrenologist → phrenology : looked at size of different regions and predict human
traits and characteristics using hands and phrenology machine
o Problem: was autonomous and independent as our processes don’t exist in a
vacuum but are very interactive and brain size doesn’t directly correspond to
relative power
Double dissociation: isolate specific components of mind and brain, brain damage and
behaviour are dissociated from each other completely and mirror image patterns

- Broca’s Aphasia: Damage in Broca’s area ( left frontal lobe) major deficit in
expressive language and speech production comprehension is still there though
- Wernicke’s Aphasia: Damage to area in auditory association cortex i.e.. Wernicke’s
Area have deficit in comprehending language with intact speech production
- Regions in primary motor cortex led to loss of a specific motor control of select body
part
o Damage to top or dorsal portion affect control of feet
o Damage to ventro or lower portion affect mouth control
- Somatic sensory cortex similar each part receives info from a specific body part
- Finding these relationships between brain part and function came form those with
brain damage

Montreal Producer (Wilder Penfield): localizes sources of epileptic seizures put under
local anaesthetic and through consciousness and communication would probe and
expose brain tissue and search for scar that caused the epilepsy based on sensation that
they explained that coincided with those they felt before a seizure

- Led to mapping specific function that are performed by various regions of the brain
based on cortical stimulation

Case studies make it hard to confirm brain functions as it is only one individual

Static imaging: focus in on brain structure, helpful for brain damage and abnormalities

- CAT scan: computerized axial tomography uses converging beams of x-rays that are
passed through the head from different angles. And due to different densities the
deflections are different and allows us to visualize the organ
- MRI scan: magnetic resonance imaging more often chosen to image the brain uses
different magnetic properties of tissue in the brain and use a powerful magnetic
field producing and electromagnetic signal that the scanner detects procuring
visualization of brain structure
o Preferred because: no radiation, more detailed image, other powerful
functions that you cant do with CAT
Dynamic brain imaging: focus is on function of the working brain

- ERP Event related potentials: measure time of an activity and source or location
the activity occurs to the brain responding to different cognitive stimuli, via the
electrical activity the brain produces
- fMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging, measures byproduct of neuroactivity
is metabolism or blood flow in the brain
o oxygenated and de oxygenated have different magnetic propertied so we
measure the inflow and outflow in the brain using magnetic properties
o Bold function: blood oxygenation level dependent function
o Blood flow to brain region increases as activity increases and it is used and
then the blood is deoxygenated
o Look around brain and find regions that show BOLD function and is time
locked
o Caveat: hard to know what regions measured are part of which function
involved in the task, so we look at different tasks and that have and don’t
have desired function being studied
- PET: Positron Emission Tomography, measures byproduct of neuroactivity is
metabolism or blood flow in the brain