ME3393 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Bulk Deformation Processes

3.1 Introduction
Mechanical working of a metal is a simply plastic deformation performed to change the
dimensions, properties and surface conditions with the help of mechanical pressure.
Depending upon the temperature and strain rat, mechanical working may be either hot
working or cold working, such that recovery process takes place simultaneously with the
deformation.
The plastic deformation of metal takes place due to two factors i.e. deformation by slip
and deformation by twin formation.
During deformation the metal is said to flow, which is called as plastic flow of the metal
and grain shapes are changed.
If the deformation is carried out at higher temperatures, then the new grains start
growing at the locations of internal stresses.
When the temperature is sufficiently high, the grain growth is accelerated and continues
till the metal comprises fully of new grains only.
This process of formation of new grains is called as recrystallization and the
corresponding temperature is the recrystallization temperature of the metal.
Recrystallization temperature is the point which differentiates hot working and cold
working.
Mechanical working of metals above the recrystallization temperature, but below the
melting or burning point is known as hot working whereas; below the recrystallization
temperature, is known as cold working.
3.2 Hot working
Hot working is accomplished at a temperature above the recrystallization temperature
but below the melting or the burning point of the metal, because above the melting or
the burning point, the metal will burn and become unsuitable for use.
Every metal has a characteristic hot working temperature range over which hot working
may be performed.
The upper limit of working temperature depends on composition of metal, prior
deformation and impurities within the metal.
The change in structure form hot working improves mechanical properties such as
ductility, toughness, resistance to shock and vibration, % elongation, % reduction in the
area, etc.

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The principal hot working process applied to various metals are as follows:
1. Hot rolling
2. Hot extrusion
3. Hot spinning
4. Roll piercing
5. Hot drawing
6. Hot forging
Advantages
Due to hot working, no residual stresses are introduced in the metal.
Hot working refines grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal.
Any impurities in the metal are disintegrated and distributed throughout the metal.
Porosity of the metal is minimized by the hot working.
During hot working, as the metal is in plastic state, large deformation can be
accomplished and more rapidly.
Hot working produces raw material which is to be used for subsequent cold corking
operations.
Disadvantages
As hot working is carried out at high temperatures, a raid oxidation or scale formation
takes place on the metal surface which leads to poor surface finish and loss of metal.
Due to the loss of carbon from the surface of the steel piece being worked, the surface
layer loses its strength.
This weakening of the surface layer may give rise to fatigue crack which results in
failure of the part.
Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
Hot working involves excessive expenditure on account of high tooling cost.

3.3 Cold working

The working of metals at temperatures below their recrystallization temperature is called
as cold working.
Most of the cold working process are performed at room temperature.
Unlike hot working, it distorts the grain structure and does not provide an appreciable
reduction in size.
Cold working requires much higher pressure than hot working.
If the material is more ductile, it can be more cold worked.

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Residual stresses are setup during the process, hence to neutralize these stresses a
suitable heat treatment is required.
The principal methods of cold working are as follows:
1. Cold rolling 2. Cold drawing
3. Cold spinning 4. Stretch forming
5. Cold forging and swaging 6. Cold extrusion
7. Coining 8. Embossing
9. Cold bending 10. Roll forming
11. Shot peening 12. High Energy Rate Forming (HERF)
Advantages
Better dimensional control is possible because there is not much reduction in size.
Surface finish of the component is better because no oxidation takes place during the
process
Strength (tensile strength and yield strength) and hardness of metal are increased.
It is an ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals which do not respond to the
heat treatment.
Disadvantages
Ductility of the metal is decreased during the process.
Only ductile metals can be shaped through the cold working.
Over-working of metal result in brittleness and it has to be annealed to remove this
brittleness.
To remove the residual stresses setup during the process, subsequent heat treatment is
mostly required.

3.4 Comparison between Hot working and Cold working

Sl.No. Hot Working Cold Working
1. Hot working is carried out above the Cold working is carried out below the
recrystallization temperature but recrystallization temperature and as such
below the melting point, hence there is not appreciable recovery of
deformation of metal and recovery metal.
takes place simultaneously.
2. During the process, residual stresses During the process, residual stresses are
are not developed in the metal. developed in the metal.
3. Because of higher deformation The stress required to cause deformation
temperature used, the stress required is much higher.

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for deformation is less.

4. Hot working refines metal grains, Cold working leads to distortion of
resulting in improved mechanical grains.
properties.
5. No hardening of metal takes place. Metal gets work hardened.
6. If the process is properly perfumed, It improves ultimate tensile strength,
it does not affect ultimate tensile yield and fatigue strength but reduces
strength, hardness, corrosion and corrosion resistance of the metal.
fatigue resistance of the metal.
7. It also improves some mechanical During the process, impact strength and
properties like impact strength and elongation are reduced.
elongation.
8. Due to oxidation and scaling, poor Cold worked parts carry better surface
surface finish is obtained. finish.
9. Close dimensional tolerance cannot Superior dimensional accuracy can be
be maintained. obtained.
10. Hot working is most preferred where Cold working is preferred where work
heavy deformation is required. hardening is required.

3.4.1 Warm working

Warm working refers to plastic deformation carried out at intermediate temperatures of
hot and cold working. Thus, the temperature during warm working is above the room temperature
and below the crystallization temperature. Also, the working temperature is usually about 0.3 to
0.5 times the melting temperature of metal. Warm working requires less force to perform an
operation than cold working hence it is more preferable than the cold working.
3.5 METAL FORMING
Metal forming includes a large number of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation property is used to change the shape and size of metal workpieces.
During the process, for deformation purpose, a tool is used which is called as die. It
applies stresses to the material to exceed the yield strength of the metal.
Due to this the metal deforms into the shape of the die. Generally, the stresses applied
to deform the metal plastically are compressive.
But, in some forming processes metal stretches, bends or shear stresses are also applied
to the metal.

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For better forming of metal, the desirable properties of metal are low yield strength and
high ductility.
These properties are highly affected by the temperature. When the temperature of the
metal is increased, its ductility increases and yield strength decreases.
The other factors which affect the performance of metal forming process are, strain rate,
friction, lubrication, etc.
Metal forming processes can be classified as follows:

3.5.1 Bulk Deformation Processes

These process are characterized by significant deformations and massive shape changes
but the surface area to the volume of the work is relatively small. The workpieces which have
this low area to volume ratio is called as bulk. Initial workpiece shape for bulk deformation
processes include cylindrical billet (hot material) and rectangular bars. Figure 3.2 shows the
basic operations in bulk deformation process.
1. Rolling
It is a compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate or slab (hot) is
reduced by two opposing cylindrical rolls. The rolls rotate in order to draw the workpiece into
the gap between them and squeeze the workpiece. Refer Figure 3.2 (a).
2. Forging
In this process, the workpiece is compressed between the two opposing dies in order to
produce the die shapes on the workpiece. Refer Figure3.2 (b). It is generally a hot working process
but sometimes it can be included in cold working also.

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3. Extrusion
It is a compressive deformation process in which the work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening as shown in figure3.2 (c). During the flow through a die, the work metal
takes the shape of the opening as its cross-section.
4. Wire drawing
In this type of forming process, the diameter of a round bar (billet) is reduced by pulling
it through a die opening. Figure 3.2 (d) shows the drawing process.
3.5.2 Sheet Metal Working Processes
In this type of metal forming processes, the operations are performed on metal sheets,
strips and coils. In these processes, the surface area to volume ratio is high.

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Generally, the sheet metal working processes are carried out on punching press machine,
hence sheet metal working is also called as press working. A component produced by sheet
metal working process is called as stamping. These operations are performed as cold working
processes. The tools used for the operations is called as punch and die. The punch is a positive
portion whereas the die is a negative portion of the tool set. Figure 3.3 shows the basic
operations in sheet metal working process.
1. Bending
In this process, there is straining of metal sheet or plate to take an angle along a straight
axis. Refer figure 3.3(a). The bending may be of V shape, U shape or any other shape.
2. Drawing or Cupping
It refers to the forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape like a cup by
stretching the metal. During the process, a blank holder is used to hold the blank and the punch
pushes into the sheet metal. Refer figure 3.3(b).

HOT WORKING PROCESSES

3.6 HOT ROLLING:

The process of rolling consists of passing the hot ingot through the two rolls, rotating in
opposite directions, at a uniform peripheral speed. To confirm the desired thickness of the rolled
section, the space between the rolls is adjusted and is always less than the thickness of the ingot
being fed. Hence, to reduce the cross-section and increase the length of passing ingot, the rolls
are squeezed. Refer Figure 3.4.

When the metal passes through the rolls, there is change in its grain structure. Due to
squeezing, the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and the velocity of material at the
exit is higher than that at the entry. After crossing the stress zone, the grains start refining.

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3.6.1 Basic Definitions

The following are the basic terms used related to rolling process:
1. Ingot: Ingot is a large casting section of suitable shape made for further processing.
2. Bloom: A bloom is a square or rectangular piece formed after reducing ingots. The
size of bloom ranges between 150 mm × 150mm to 250 mm × 250 mm. Rolling
products from bloom: Structural shapes, Rails, etc.
3. Billets: Billets also formed after reducing ingot but have smaller cross sections. The
size of billet ranges from 50 mm × 50 mm to 150 mm × 150mm. Rolling product
from billets: Road, wires, etc.
4. Slabs: Slabs are metal pieces with rectangular cross section. It has thickness
between 50-150 mm and width between 300-1500 mm. Rolling products from slabs:
Sheets, plates, strips, etc.

3.6.2 Rolling of Various Sections

The main purpose of rolling is to convert larger sections such as ingots into smaller
sections, which can be used directly in as rolled state or stock for working through other
processes.
As a result of rolling, there is an improvement in physical properties of cast ingot such
as strength, toughness, ductility, shock resistance, etc.

Various useful articles like structural section, sheets, rails, plates and bars, etc. are
produced through rolling.

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Figure 3.5 shows some commonly used rolled steel sections.

The desired reduction in the cross-section of the billet and the required shape of the
rolled section are not obtained in a single pass.

Figure 3.6 shows the sequence of rolling and the number of passes required to reduce the
cross-section of a billet to a round steel bar.
The process starts with the reduction of ingots which have been heated in a gas fired
furnace up to a temperature of 1200 °C.
The ingots are then taken to the rolling mill where they are rolled into immediate shapes
as blooms, billets or slabs.
A bloom has a square cross section with minimum size of 150 × 150 mm and a billet is
smaller than bloom and it may have any square section from 38 mm up to the size of a
bloom.
Slabs have a rectangular cross section with a minimum width of 250 mm and minimum
thickness of 38 mm.
3.6.3 Types of Rolling Mills
According to the number and arrangement of the rolls, rolling mills are classified as
follows:
1. Two-high rolling mill 2. Three-high rolling mill
3. Four-high rolling mill 4. Tandem rolling mill
5. Cluster rolling mill 6. Planetary rolling mill
7. Universal rolling mill
1. Two-high rolling mill:
It consists of two heavy horizontal rolls placed exactly one over the other.
The space between the two rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll,
whereas the position of the lower roll is fixed.
Both the rolls rotate in opposite direction to each other. Refer figure 3.7 (a).

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