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Prophase I

The replicated strands of chromatin condense into X-shaped

chromosomes; the homologous chromosomes pair up and
exchange segments of DNA in a process known as crossing
over; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear, and
the spindle fibres develop from centrioles.

Metaphase I

The homologous chromosomes line up in pairs across the

equator of the cell. The spindle fibres guide this movement.
Telophase I / Interkinesis

The chromosomes have reached their respective poles in the

cell. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil into loose chromatin.
The cell divides into two daughter cells
through cytokinesis (Cytokinesis I), and each daughter cell
has half the genetic information as the parent cell.
Prophase II

The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus begin to disappear,

the spindle fibres begin to reappear, and the chromatin
condenses into chromosomes once again.

Metaphase II

The chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell

singularly (spindle fibres guide this movement).
Anaphase II

The spindle fibres contract and pull on the centromeres of

the chromosomes, splitting them apart into sister
chromatids. The sister chromatids are then pulled to
opposite poles of the cell by the
spindle fibres.

Telophase II

Four nuclei develop around the sister chromatids in each

cell, and the spindle fibres begin to disappear. Each sister
chromatid is now considered a chromosome.
Final Cytokinesis (Cytokinesis II)

Finally, the two cells divide into 4 haploid gametes, each

with half the genetic information as the original parent cell.
v

ani | December 20, 2023

Meiosis is the biological process by which reproductive cells
produce haploid gametes, specifically sperm and ova. A
single cell divides into either four sperm or ova that each
contains half the number of chromosomes (and thus genetic
information) as somatic cells. Through this process, males
produce 4 haploid sperm cells and females produce 1 haploid
ovum. Together, these are the proponents of fertilization and
ultimately sexual reproduction.

Some key terms to know when studying Meiosis and

Sexual Reproduction:

 Gametes: specialized cells that are necessary for

reproduction. In males, these
are spermatocytes (sperm cells); in females, they
are oocytes (ova or eggs).
 Genetic Diversity: Inherited genetic variations in a
species that give many organisms a survival
advantage.
 Diploid number: Two sets of chromosomes (2n).
The diploid number for a human cell is 46 (23 pairs of
chromosomes).
 Embryo: The stage in the early development of a
multicellular organism that develops from genetic
information from both the male and female gametes
(sperm and ova).
 Fertilization: The process during which an egg cell
is penetrated by a sperm cell and the genetic
information from both the haploid male and female
gametes combine.
 Haploid number: Each set of inherited
chromosomes, half the diploid number (n); humans
inherit one set of 23 chromosomes from their female
parent and one set of 23 chromosomes from their
male parent.
 Homologous Chromosomes: A pair of matching
chromosomes; chromosomes that have the same
locations of genes on them, are the same shape, and
are the same size.
 Zygote: The new diploid (2n) cell formed by the
process of fertilization, which receives half its
chromosomes from the female parent and the other
half from the male parent.
 Crossing Over: An event in Prophase I during which
parts of non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes cross over each other and exchange
segments of DNA, resulting in a recombination of
genes and thus, genetic variation in gametes.
The Stages of Meiosis

Credit: sciencefacts.net

Prophase I

The replicated strands of chromatin condense into X-shaped

chromosomes; the homologous chromosomes pair up and
exchange segments of DNA in a process known as crossing
over; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear, and
the spindle fibres develop from centrioles.
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Metaphase I

The homologous chromosomes line up in pairs across the

equator of the cell. The spindle fibres guide this movement.
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Anaphase I

The spindle fibres contract and pull on the centromeres of

the homologous chromosomes, separating them apart and
pulling them to opposite poles of the cell.
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Telophase I / Interkinesis

The chromosomes have reached their respective poles in the

cell. A nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes. The chromosomes uncoil into loose chromatin.
The cell divides into two daughter cells
through cytokinesis (Cytokinesis I), and each daughter cell
has half the genetic information as the parent cell.

Credit: sciencefacts.net

Independent Assortment: An event in Anaphase I /

Telophase I during which homologous chromosomes
separate and sort themselves into daughter cells.
Independent Assortment is essentially a shuffling of genes
that contributes to variation and genetic diversity.

Interkinesis

Between the two rounds of meiosis, interkinesis occurs.

During interkinesis, the two daughter cells grow and produce
the proteins necessary for Meiosis II, however the DNA does
not replicate again. In a sense, interkinesis is similar
to interphase in somatic cells except DNA synthesis does
not occur.

Credit: https://www.slideserve.com/vicki/meiosis-i-and-ii-stages

Prophase II

The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus begin to disappear,

the spindle fibres begin to reappear, and the chromatin
condenses into chromosomes once again.
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Metaphase II

The chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell

singularly (spindle fibres guide this movement).
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Anaphase II

The spindle fibres contract and pull on the centromeres of

the chromosomes, splitting them apart into sister
chromatids. The sister chromatids are then pulled to
opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibres.
Credit: sciencefacts.net

Telophase II

Four nuclei develop around the sister chromatids in each

cell, and the spindle fibres begin to disappear. Each sister
chromatid is now considered a chromosome.

Credit: sciencefacts.net

Final Cytokinesis (Cytokinesis II)

Finally, the two cells divide into 4 haploid gametes, each
with half the genetic information as the original parent cell.

Credit: sciencefacts.net

*There is no Interphase between Meiosis I and Meiosis

II because the DNA is not supposed to replicate twice,
as the goal of Meiosis is to produce haploid gametes
with half the genetic information as somatic cells.
When Meiosis Goes Wrong: Chromosomal Mutations

Credit: https://www.pathwayz.org/Tree/Plain/CHROMOSOMAL+MUTATIONS

 Genetic disorders result when segments of

chromosomes
are deleted, translocated, duplicated,
or inverted within a chromosome.
 Chromosomal mutations often occur during the
process of meiosis. They usually occur due to the
failure of chromosomes to properly separate in
Meiosis I or the failure of sister chromatids to
properly separate in Meiosis II. One example of this
is meiotic nondisjunction: a genetic anomaly that
occurs when homologous chromosomes or sister
chromatids fail to separate properly, leading to an
uneven distribution of genetic material in the
resulting cells. If nondisjunction occurs in the first
division of meiosis, it results in two cells with an
extra chromosome (trisomy). If it occurs in the
second division, one cell receives an extra
chromosome, and the other lacks that chromosome
(monosomy). Nondisjunction can lead to genetic
disorders such as Down syndrome, caused by the
presence of an extra chromosome 21.
Credit: BioNinja

 Mutations can also affect individual genes within a

chromosome and may alter the instructions that the
genes contain for synthesizing a specific protein.
 Other than meiosis, mutations in chromosomes can
occur when cells are exposed to mutagens:
substances or factors such as radiation or certain
chemicals that can cause genetic or chromosomal
mutations.

Summary of Main Ideas

The process of Meiosis results in the production of
reproductive cells called gametes.

 Gametes in humans are sperm and egg cells. They

have half the number of chromosomes as body cells.
 Somatic (body) cells have 46 chromosomes (2n),
while gametes have 23 chromosomes (n).
 Cell division occurs twice in Meiosis. At the end of
Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate. At
 the end of Meiosis II, the sister
chromatids separate.
 Meiosis shuffles genetic information and results
in genetic variation in gametes.
 Gamete Formation: In females, Meiosis I produces
two egg cells, but there is an unequal division of the
cytoplasm and the organelles suspended within.
Following Meiosis II, three of the cells will
disintegrate, while the remaining large egg cell (or
ovum) retains most of the cytoplasm / the other cell
contents and is therefore available for fertilization. In
males, however, 4 equal sperm cells are produced by
meiosis. During the process of fertilization, the
ovum’s cellular membrane produces an electric
charge through a chemical reaction to ensure that
only one sperm cell penetrates it so that one set of
chromosomes from each parent can combine inside
the nucleus of the ovum to produce a diploid zygote.
 Genetic Variation: Inherited genetic differences in
a species that is the result of reproduction, which
randomly shuffles DNA. Because of the combination
of genes received from its parents, an organism may
be better equipped to cope with transformations in
its living environment.

Other Key Takeaways

Process of Reproduction:

 A haploid sperm cell unites with a haploid egg cell in

a female’s fallopian tube.
 Fertilization occurs and a zygote forms.
 Through repeated mitosis, the zygote develops into a
multicellular organism.
Chromosomal Mutations in Meiosis may occur when:

 Homologous chromosomes fail to separate properly

in Meiosis I.
 Sister chromatids fail to separate properly in Meiosis
II.

A visualization of the diploidy and haploidy of cells and their varying proportions at different stages of
Meiosis.

Meiosis is like the secret sauce of sexual

reproduction. It’s the behind-the-scenes process
that cooks up the special ingredients for genetic
diversity. By shuffling and swapping genetic
material during crossing-over and independent
assortment, meiosis ensures that every generation
gets a unique mixture of traits that ensures
adaptability to future environmental changes. It’s
the reason why siblings (often) aren’t identical and
why there’s so much variety in a population.
Meiosis is nature’s way of keeping things
interesting and adaptable, kind of like a genetic
party trick. So, in a sense, when it comes to the
circle of life, meiosis is the DJ spinning the tunes
that keep the genetic dance floor packed and
constantly evolving.

Final Cytokinesis (Cytokinesis II)

Finally, the two cells divide into 4 haploid gametes, each

with half the genetic information as the original parent cell.
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