COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT BIOLOGY

Virology Seminar

No Name of the Students Id.No

1 Yaykob Sapena Sharo SNS/2196/10
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This Seminar Submitted to: Sintayehu Tseha (PhD)

August 6, 2024

ARBAMINCH ETHIOPIA
Contents
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... iii

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1. Overview and Goals ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Importance of Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Viruses ................................ 1

1.3. Background and Context .................................................................................................. 2

1.3.1. Definition and Classification of Viruses ................................................................... 2

1.3.2. Key Differences between Emerging, Re-emerging, and Endemic Viruses .............. 2

1.4. Historical Overview ......................................................................................................... 3

1.4.1. Notable past Pandemics and Outbreaks........................................................................ 3

1.4.2. Lessons Learned from Past Viral Outbreaks ............................................................ 4

2. Mechanisms of Emergence and Re-emergence ....................................................................... 4

2.1. Genetic Mutation and Re-assortment ............................................................................... 4

2.2. Zoonotic Transmission ..................................................................................................... 5

2.2.1. Animal Reservoirs and the Jump to Humans............................................................ 5

2.2.2. Environmental and Ecological Factors ..................................................................... 6

2.2.3. Impact on the Spread of Viruses ............................................................................... 6

3. Key Emerging and Re-emerging Viruses ................................................................................... 7

3.1. Emerging Viruses ................................................................................................................. 7

3.2. Re-emerging Viruses ............................................................................................................ 8

3.3. Surveillance and Early Detection ......................................................................................... 8

3.3.1. Global Surveillance Systems ......................................................................................... 8

3.3.2. Technological Advances................................................................................................ 9

3.4. Prevention and Control Measures ........................................................................................ 9

3.4.1. Vaccination and Immunization Strategies ..................................................................... 9

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 3.4.2. Public Health Interventions ........................................................................................... 9

3.4.3. Therapeutics and Antiviral Treatments ......................................................................... 9

4. Future Trends and Challenges .................................................................................................. 10

4.1. Predicting Future Outbreaks............................................................................................... 10

4.2. Case Studies and Lessons Learned..................................................................................... 10

5. Summary /Conclusion:.............................................................................................................. 11

6. References: ................................................................................................................................ 11

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 Acknowledgement

We extend our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Sintayehu Tseha for providing an insightful course on
virology and guiding us through the assignment on "Emerging and Re-emerging Viruses." Your
expertise and dedication have greatly enriched our understanding of this critical topic.

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1. Introduction

1.1. Overview and Goals

The primary objectives:

1. Educate: Provide a comprehensive understanding of the nature of emerging and re-

emerging viruses, including their characteristics, origins, and transmission mechanisms.
2. Analyze: Examine the factors contributing to the emergence and re-emergence of viruses,
including genetic mutations, zoonotic transmissions, and environmental changes.
3. Explore: Discuss the latest advancements in surveillance, prevention, and control
measures, as well as the role of global health systems in managing outbreaks.
4. Forecast: Identify potential future trends in virology, public health responses, and the
broader implications of viral diseases on society and healthcare systems.
5. Engage: Encourage interactive discussions and knowledge sharing among participants,
fostering a collaborative approach to tackling these global health challenges.

1.2. Importance of Understanding Emerging and Re-emerging Viruses

The study of emerging and re-emerging viruses is crucial for several reasons:

1. Global Health Threats: Viruses can spread rapidly across borders, leading to global
pandemics, as seen with COVID-19. Understanding these viruses is essential for preparing
and responding to such crises.
2. Public Health Preparedness: Knowledge of how viruses emerge and re-emerge helps in
developing effective public health strategies, including surveillance, vaccination, and
treatment protocols, which are vital for protecting populations.
3. Scientific and Medical Advancements: Research on these viruses drives innovation in
diagnostics, vaccines, and antiviral therapies, contributing to overall advancements in
medicine and science.
4. Socioeconomic Impact: Viral outbreaks can have profound economic, social, and
psychological effects. By studying these viruses, we can better anticipate and mitigate these
impacts.

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 5. Ethical and Policy Considerations: Understanding the dynamics of viral diseases informs
ethical decision-making and policy development, particularly in areas like resource
allocation, public communication, and individual rights versus public safety.

1.3.Background and Context

1.3.1. Definition and Classification of Viruses

What Are Viruses?

Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that are unable to reproduce independently, relying on
the host cell's machinery for replication. They consist of genetic material (either DNA or RNA)
enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid, and sometimes an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are
unique in that they can only replicate inside the living cells of an organism, making them obligate
intracellular parasites. They infect a wide range of hosts, including animals, plants, fungi, and
bacteria (bacteriophages).

1.3.2. Key Differences between Emerging, Re-emerging, and Endemic Viruses

1.3.2.1. Emerging Viruses:

 Definition: Viruses that have recently appeared within a population or whose incidence or
geographic range is rapidly increasing.
 Examples: SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19), Zika virus, Ebola virus.
 Characteristics: Often arise due to zoonotic spillover (transmission from animals to
humans), genetic mutations, or ecological changes.

1.3.2.2.Re-emerging Viruses:

 Definition: Viruses that were once controlled or decreased in prevalence but are
reappearing as a health threat.
 Examples: Measles virus, Dengue virus, Poliovirus.
 Characteristics: Their resurgence can be due to factors like decreased vaccination
coverage, changes in public health policies, or viral evolution.

1.3.2.3.Endemic Viruses:

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  Definition: Viruses that are consistently present within a particular geographic area or
population group.
 Examples: Human rhinoviruses (common cold), Influenza virus, Hepatitis B virus.
 Characteristics: These viruses maintain a steady-state presence within populations, often
with predictable seasonal or cyclical patterns.

1.4.Historical Overview

1.4.1. Notable past Pandemics and Outbreaks

1. Spanish Flu (1918-1919):

 Virus: H1N1 influenza A virus.

 Impact: Infected about one-third of the global population, resulting in an estimated 50
million deaths.
 Significance: Highlighted the need for rapid response and public health infrastructure, as
well as the challenges of managing a highly infectious respiratory pathogen.

2. HIV/AIDS (First identified in 1981):

 Virus: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

 Impact: A global pandemic with significant social, economic, and health implications. It
has caused over 32 million deaths worldwide.
 Significance: Led to advances in virology, antiretroviral therapies, and public health
approaches to chronic disease management and prevention.

3. SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) (2002-2003):

 Virus: SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV).

 Impact: Caused an outbreak with over 8,000 cases and nearly 800 deaths across multiple
countries.
 Significance: Demonstrated the potential for coronaviruses to cause severe human disease
and highlighted the importance of international cooperation and rapid response in outbreak
control.

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 1.4.2. Lessons Learned from Past Viral Outbreaks

1. Importance of Surveillance and Early Detection: Effective monitoring systems are

crucial for early identification and response to emerging threats. The lack of timely
information can lead to delays in containment efforts.
2. Public Health Infrastructure: Robust healthcare systems, including well-trained
personnel and adequate resources, are essential for managing outbreaks. Weaknesses in
infrastructure can exacerbate the impact of pandemics.
3. Global Collaboration and Coordination: The interconnected nature of the world
necessitates international cooperation in research, resource sharing, and policy
development. Unified global responses can help control the spread of infectious diseases.
4. Public Communication and Education: Clear, accurate, and timely information is vital
for maintaining public trust and compliance with health measures. Miscommunication or
misinformation can lead to public panic or apathy.
5. Research and Development: Investments in scientific research, including vaccine
development and antiviral drugs, are critical for preparedness and response. The rapid
development of vaccines for COVID-19 was a testament to the importance of prior research
and international collaboration.

NB. These historical experiences provide valuable insights into the dynamics of viral pandemics
and the multifaceted approaches required to mitigate their effects. They emphasize the need for
continued vigilance, preparedness, and innovation in public health.

2. Mechanisms of Emergence and Re-emergence

2.1. Genetic Mutation and Re-assortment

How Viruses Evolve and Adapt?

Viruses constantly evolve through genetic changes, allowing them to adapt to new hosts, evade
immune responses, and sometimes increase transmissibility or virulence. The primary mechanisms
for viral evolution include:

1. Mutation: Changes in the viral genome can occur due to errors in replication. RNA
viruses, in particular, have high mutation rates because their replication enzymes lack

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 proofreading abilities. These mutations can lead to variations in the virus's surface proteins,
potentially allowing it to escape recognition by the host immune system.
2. Re-assortment: This process occurs in segmented viruses, such as influenza, where two
different viruses infect the same host cell and exchange genetic segments. This can result
in a new virus with a mix of genes from both parental viruses, potentially creating a novel
virus with unique characteristics, such as altered infectivity or host range.

Examples:

 Influenza: The influenza virus frequently undergoes both mutation (antigenic drift) and
re-assortment (antigenic shift). Antigenic drift leads to seasonal flu variants, while
antigenic shift can result in new pandemic strains, such as the H1N1 "swine flu" in 2009.
 HIV: The high mutation rate of HIV enables it to rapidly develop resistance to antiviral
drugs, making treatment challenging. HIV's ability to recombine its RNA during
replication also contributes to its genetic diversity.
 SARS-CoV-2: The virus responsible for COVID-19 has evolved through mutations,
leading to the emergence of new variants with different properties, such as increased
transmissibility or partial escape from immunity.

2.2. Zoonotic Transmission

2.2.1. Animal Reservoirs and the Jump to Humans

Zoonotic transmission refers to the transfer of viruses from animals to humans, often through direct
contact, consumption of animal products, or through vectors like insects. Animal reservoirs are
natural hosts in which the virus is maintained and can spill over into human populations under
certain conditions.

Case Studies:

 Ebola Virus: Thought to originate from fruit bats, Ebola can spill over to humans through
contact with infected animals, including primates. Human-to-human transmission then
occurs through contact with bodily fluids of infected individuals.

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  Nipah Virus: Also linked to fruit bats, Nipah virus can infect humans directly or through
intermediate hosts, such as pigs. Human outbreaks have been associated with consumption
of contaminated date palm sap or close contact with infected animals.
 COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): Likely originated in bats, with a potential intermediate host
facilitating transmission to humans. The initial outbreak was linked to a seafood market in
Wuhan, China, highlighting the risks associated with wildlife trade and consumption.

2.2.2. Environmental and Ecological Factors

Climate Change, Deforestation, and Urbanization:

Environmental and ecological changes significantly influence the emergence and re-emergence of
viruses by altering the interactions between hosts, vectors, and pathogens. Key factors include:

 Climate Change: Altered climate patterns can expand the geographic range of vectors like
mosquitoes, potentially increasing the spread of diseases such as dengue and Zika. Warmer
temperatures may also influence the breeding and survival rates of vectors.
 Deforestation: Destruction of natural habitats can bring humans into closer contact with
wildlife, increasing the risk of zoonotic spillover. Deforestation disrupts ecosystems and
can drive wildlife into urban areas, where viruses may jump to new hosts.
 Urbanization: The growth of urban areas often leads to increased human density, poor
sanitation, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure, which can facilitate the spread of
infectious diseases. Urbanization also contributes to habitat loss and increases human-
wildlife interactions.

2.2.3. Impact on the Spread of Viruses

Environmental changes can lead to the emergence of new viral pathogens and the re-emergence of
known viruses by altering the dynamics of transmission. For example, changes in vector
populations due to climate change can affect the incidence of vector-borne diseases.

2.2.3.1. Human Behavior and Societal Factors

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Globalization, Travel, and Trade

Globalization has increased the movement of people, animals, and goods across borders,
facilitating the rapid spread of infectious diseases. Key aspects include:

 International Travel: The global movement of people can quickly spread viruses to new
regions, as seen with the rapid global dissemination of COVID-19.
 Trade: The international trade of wildlife and livestock can introduce new pathogens to
human populations. The importation of exotic animals and animal products poses risks for
zoonotic disease transmission.

2.2.3.2. Vaccination Rates and Public Health Infrastructure

 Vaccination Rates: The success of vaccination programs in controlling diseases can be

undermined by vaccine hesitancy or insufficient coverage. For example, declining
vaccination rates have led to the resurgence of measles in some areas.
 Public Health Infrastructure: Strong public health systems are essential for disease
prevention, surveillance, and response. Inadequate infrastructure can lead to delayed
detection and response to outbreaks, exacerbating their impact.

NB. Understanding these mechanisms is critical for anticipating and mitigating the risks associated
with emerging and re-emerging viruses. It requires a multidisciplinary approach that considers
biological, environmental, and societal factors, as well as international cooperation and robust
public health strategies.

3. Key Emerging and Re-emerging Viruses

3.1. Emerging Viruses

1. Novel Coronaviruses

 SARS-CoV-2: The virus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, notable for its high
transmissibility and global impact.
 MERS-CoV: Causes Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, with a high fatality rate but
limited human-to-human transmission.

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 2. Zika Virus

Spread primarily by Aedes mosquitoes; known for causing birth defects such as microcephaly
when pregnant women are infected.

3. Nipah Virus

Transmitted from animals (such as fruit bats or pigs) to humans and can cause severe respiratory
and neurological symptoms.

3.2. Re-emerging Viruses

1. Measles

 Highly contagious; its resurgence is often linked to declining vaccination rates.

2. Dengue Virus

 Transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, causing flu-like symptoms and sometimes severe

complications like dengue hemorrhagic fever.

3. Tuberculosis (TB)

 A bacterial infection, re-emerging in many areas due to factors like drug resistance and
HIV co-infection.

3.3. Surveillance and Early Detection

3.3.1. Global Surveillance Systems

1. WHO's Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN)

 Coordinates international efforts to combat outbreaks.

2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Systems

 Manages domestic and international monitoring and response to infectious diseases.

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3.3.2. Technological Advances

1. Genomic Sequencing and Bioinformatics

 Enable rapid identification of pathogens and tracking of mutations.

2. AI and Big Data in Outbreak Prediction

 Utilizes machine learning to predict outbreaks and spread patterns by analyzing diverse
data sources.

3.4. Prevention and Control Measures

3.4.1. Vaccination and Immunization Strategies

1. Current Vaccines and New Developments

 Overview of existing vaccines and ongoing research for emerging diseases.

2. Challenges in Vaccine Distribution and Acceptance

 Addressing logistical, cultural, and economic barriers to vaccination.

3.4.2. Public Health Interventions

1. Quarantine, Isolation, and Travel Restrictions

 Measures to prevent the spread of contagious diseases.

2. Contact Tracing and Public Education

 Key components in controlling outbreaks and informing the public.

3.4.3. Therapeutics and Antiviral Treatments

1. Antiviral Drugs and Monoclonal Antibodies

 Current treatments and their effectiveness against various viruses.

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 2. Future Directions in Treatment Development

 Research on novel therapies, including broad-spectrum antivirals and innovative treatment

strategies.

4. Future Trends and Challenges

4.1. Predicting Future Outbreaks

1. Emerging Hotspots and Potential Pandemics: Identification of regions and

conditions likely to produce new pandemics.
2. The Role of One Health Approach
3. Integrating Human, Animal, and Environmental Health: The importance of a
holistic approach in preventing zoonotic diseases.
4. Ethical and Socioeconomic Considerations
5. Global Disparities in Healthcare Access: Addressing inequalities in health
systems and resources.
6. Balancing Public Health and Individual Rights: Navigating ethical issues in
implementing public health measures.

4.2. Case Studies and Lessons Learned

1. COVID-19 Pandemic
 Response and Impact: Analysis of global and national responses, including public health
measures and economic implications.
 Innovations and Challenges Faced: Innovations in vaccine development and distribution,
and challenges in communication and policy.

2. Ebola Outbreaks
 Successes and Areas for Improvement: Lessons from past outbreaks, focusing on
successful containment strategies and challenges faced.

3. H1N1 Influenza

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  Comparison with Seasonal Flu Management: Evaluation of the H1N1 pandemic
response in comparison to seasonal influenza management.

5. Summary /Conclusion:

This seminar is designed to offer a thorough understanding of the issues and strategies related to
emerging and re-emerging viruses, equipping participants to better handle future public health
challenges. The references provided include a diverse selection of studies on emerging infectious
diseases, public health responses, and specific case studies relevant to the seminar's focus areas.

Emerging and re-emerging viruses remain a significant global health concern due to their
unpredictable nature and potential for rapid dissemination. Progress in surveillance, diagnostics,
and vaccine development is crucial for early detection and control. Future directions highlight the
need for a One Health approach, which encompasses human, animal, and environmental health, to
prevent and manage outbreaks. Continuous research and international collaboration are vital for
improving preparedness and response strategies against future viral threats.

6. References:

Here are recent references relevant to the topics covered in the seminar/assignment outline:

1. Rasmussen, A. L., & Temte, J. L. (2021). Emerging Infections and the Role of Public
Health Laboratories in Detection, Investigation, and Response. Journal of Public Health
Management and Practice, 27(5), 508-513.
2. Morens, D. M., & Fauci, A. S. (2020). Emerging Pandemic Diseases: How We Got to
COVID-19. Cell, 182(5), 1077-1092.
3. Thompson, R. N., & Hollingsworth, T. D. (2021). Quantifying the Impact of Human
Mobility on Malaria. Nature Communications, 12, 2791.

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4. Drexler, J. F., Corman, V. M., & Drosten, C. (2014). Ecology, Evolution and
Classification of Bat Coronaviruses in the Aftermath of SARS. Antiviral Research, 101, 45-
56.
5. Hoffmann, M., Kleine-Weber, H., & Pöhlmann, S. (2020). A Multibasic Cleavage Site
in the Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Is Essential for Infection of Human Lung Cells.
Molecular Cell, 78(4), 779-784.
6. Ostrowsky, B., Katz, L. M., & Carter, R. J. (2022). The Emergence and Impact of
COVID-19 Variants. The Lancet, 399(10326), 1024-1025.
7. Garnier, R., & Graham, A. L. (2021). One Health: A Call for Ecologists to Embrace the
Complexity of Global Health. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 36(6), 539-549.

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