Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Short Communication

Black carbon pollution in snow and its impact on albedo near the Chilean
stations on the Antarctic peninsula: First results
Francisco Cereceda-Balic a,b,⁎, Víctor Vidal a,b, María Florencia Ruggeri a, Humberto E. González c
a
Centre for Environmental Technologies, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
b
Department of Chemistry, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
c
Universidad Austral de Chile, Centro FONDAP-IDEAL, Valdivia, Punta Arenas, Chile

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• BC concentration in snow was mea-

sured for first time in four sites of
Antarctica.
• BC levels in snow were one order of
magnitude higher in sites near Antarctic
Stations.
• Total particulate matter collected in
snow samples (TPM) was lower in
sites far from Antarctic Stations.
• BC percentage in TPM was proposed as
an indicator of source influence.
• The rate of change of albedo with BC in
snow showed to be higher at lower BC
levels.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: BC can be transported through the atmosphere from low and mid-latitudes to Antarctica, or it can be emitted in
Received 31 May 2020 the Antarctica in situ. To establish a possible relationship between BC and the human activities in Antarctica, shal-
Received in revised form 5 July 2020 low snow samples were taken in four sites from Antarctic peninsula during summer periods (2014–2019):
Accepted 5 July 2020
Chilean Base O'Higgins (BO), La Paloma Glacier (LP) (6 km away from BO); Chilean Base Yelcho (BY) and P4
Available online 7 July 2020
(5 km away from BY). BC concentration in snow samples was determined by using a novel methodology recently
Editor: Pavlos Kassomenos developed, published and patented by the authors. The methodology consisted in a filter-based optical transmis-
sion method at a wavelength of 880 nm. Results showed that snow from BO presented the highest BC concentra-
Keywords: tion (3395.7 μg kg−1), followed by BY (1309.2 μg kg−1), LP 2016 (745.9 μg kg−1), LP 2015 (233.6 μg kg−1) and
BC in snow finally P4 (179.4 μg kg−1). BC values observed in Antarctic snow were higher than others previously reported
Snow albedo in the literature and showed the influence of anthropic activities in the study area, considering that the two
Chilean Stations in Antarctica highest values of BC concentration in snow were found at sites near the bases. To evaluate the impact of the
BC concentrations found in the snow of the study area, snow albedo modeling was performed, using the on-
line version of the “Snow, Ice, and Aerosol Radiative” (SNICAR) Model. Modeling outputs exposed that the mea-
sured variations in BC content caused large differences in the modeled albedo in the visible range of the spectra,
which showed to be more sensitive at lower BC concentrations. These data could help to understand the role of
BC in the actual scenario of climate change, in which Antarctica is presented as a very fragile environment that
needs to be protected, starting with the management of the activities developed in-situ.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⁎ Corresponding author at: Centre for Environmental Technologies, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Cereceda-Balic).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140801
0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 F. Cereceda-Balic et al. / Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801

1. Introduction in the snowpack is of special interest, not only as an indicator of the

quality of the surrounding air, but also to measure its impact on reflec-
Black carbon (BC) is a substance emitted by fossil fuel combustion tive surfaces and their impact in climate change.
and biomass burning, that takes part of the atmospheric aerosol and In the last ten years, there have been a limited number of studies
the atmospheric particulate matter (PM) (Bond et al., 2013). The envi- reporting BC content in surface snow from Antarctica, all of them using
ronmental concern about BC lies in its superior ability to absorb solar ra- SP2 method for BC determinations. Casey et al. (2017) presented a quan-
diation over other substances, which impacts the Earth's radiation titative data set of measured BC concentrations from clean to heavily
budget and makes it the second most important radiative forcing of contaminated superficial snow from the austral summer 2014–2015 in
the climate after carbon dioxide (Bond and Bergstrom, 2006). However, the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (USA), Antarctica. They found
unlike carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases which are effectively concentrations in the range of 0.14–7000 μg kg−1 and they related
mixed in the atmosphere and produce a global climatic effect, BC, as part these concentrations with radiative forcing spanned from b1 W m−2
of aerosols, presents strong spatial gradients which determine that con- for clean snow to ~70 W m−2 for snow with high BC content. Khan
sequent radiative forcing has greater implications on a regional scale, et al. (2019) took surface snow samples during May 2015 in a 1.7 km
where some regions and ecosystems could be more impacted (Bisiaux transect starting from the Palmer Station (USA) and determined BC con-
et al., 2012). Over snow/ice covered areas, BC produces darkening of centrations between 0.4 and 16.5 μg kg−1, with BC levels decreasing
the surfaces, decreasing their natural albedo, which means an increas- with increasing distance from Palmer Station. Kinase et al. (2020) also
ing in the absorption of incident solar energy, and accelerated melting measured BC levels in surface snow samples taken between April and
of ice/snow (Skiles et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2017). The magnitude of December 2011 in the vicinity of the Syowa Station (Japan), East
this phenomenon is closely related to the amount of BC deposited on Antarctica, which were in the range of 0.29 to 2.12 μg kg−1, with the
the surfaces (Cereceda-Balic et al., 2019). higher values found in December, when the human activities in the Sta-
In the Southern Hemisphere, BC generated in the continents can be tion were more intense.
transported through the atmosphere from low and mid-latitudes to Considering that the previously reported content of BC in snow from
Antarctica, or it can be emitted in Antarctica by anthropogenic activities different places in Antarctica showed high spatial variations, and the ex-
developed in situ (Arienzo et al., 2017), and even though Antarctica is istence of large uncertainties in estimations of BC climate effects in the
often described as a pristine environment, there is an increasing aware- area due in part to the scarcity of observations of BC levels, the aim of
ness of the potential impacts from local pollution sources and long- this work is to present recent measurements from BC concentrations
range transport (Graf et al., 2010). Several studies reported atmospheric in snow from four places in Antarctica, being the first report of these
concentrations of BC measured using active samplers in Antarctica and data in the selected sites, and the most updated data set of this nature
agreed that the levels recorded near the human settlements are higher in the entire Antarctic continent. Additionally, to evaluate the impact
than those recorded in remote locations far from local emissions. of the BC concentrations found in the snow of the study area, snow al-
Hansen et al. (2001) measured atmospheric BC in McMurdo Station bedo modeling was performed. The results here presented will be useful
(USA) on the Antarctic coast. The authors concluded that their results, to evaluate BC sources, pathways and transport and will be used as
with max. values of 300 ng m−3, were higher than those found at input for climate models, a valuable contribution to assess the climate
other remote Antarctic locations and indicated direct impact of local impact of BC.
emissions from combustion activities at the station. Pereira et al.
(2006) determined atmospheric BC in Ferraz Station (Brazil), located 2. Materials and methods
on the King George Island, Antarctica. They found that an increase on
BC concentration during summer could be explained by a local effect 2.1. BC determinations in snow
linked to the human activities at the station. The study of Wolff and
Cachier (1998) presented aerosol BC concentrations determined at Hal- Snow samples were collected in four sites of the Antarctic Peninsula
ley station (UK), located on the Brunt Ice Shelf. The complete record was during austral summers (Table 1, Fig. 1). First sampling site were Base
dominated by events of high concentration related with contamination O'Higgins (BO) (63°19′15″S, 57°53′55″W), located on the Isabel
from the station generators. As well as these, there are numerous works Riquelme Islet at the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. BO was
that can be consulted about atmospheric levels of BC in Antarctica (i.e. the first permanent Chilean settlement placed on the Antarctic conti-
Hara et al., 2008; Weller et al., 2013). nent, it was built and founded in 1948 as a military Base and it has
Although the information that this type of active measurements can been in constant operation since that date. During austral winter its per-
provide about the sources, pathways and transport of BC in the Antarctic manent population reaches 21 people, mainly military. In the months
atmosphere is very relevant, it should be considered that, since it is a re- from December to February (austral summer), the maximum number
mote location, with extreme weather conditions and a very limited of inhabitants is reached about 45 with many scientists during this sea-
availability of facilities and electrical energy for the correct installation son. The second sampling site was located on the Infantry plateau, on
and operation of expensive instruments, measurement campaigns are the Continental Antarctic Peninsula, 6 km south-east from BO, in a sec-
highly demanding in terms of logistics, costs and efforts. tor known as La Paloma glacier (LP) (63°21′20″S, 57°48′21″W, 409
In this context, snow is considered an effective matrix for studying masl). Because LP is a pristine site with no nearby human settlements,
the load of pollutants in the atmosphere of snowy ecosystems because it was considered as background for BC in reference to BO. The third
they get trapped in snow, either during its fall or in a later deposition, sampling site was placed at Base Yelcho (BY) (64°52′33″S, 63°35′00″
and they dilute in pure water, creating a natural system of passive sam- W), located on Doumer Island. BY is a Chilean scientific base built in
pling. Also, the larger specific surface and lower falling speed of snow- 1962 for a maximum capacity of 22 people and is only inhabited during
flakes in comparison with liquid precipitation, allow capturing more summer. The fourth sampling point has been named P4 (64°52′25″S;
atmospheric pollutants during their fall (Francova et al., 2017). BC con- 63°33′51″W), because its location does not have a formal name. This
centration in snow can be unambiguously measured even at very low site, located 5 km from BY, was selected as a background site regarding
concentrations by using instruments with the appropriate sensibility, BY for the purposes of this work, since is also a pristine site with no
and the simplicity of the sampling procedure results highly valuable in nearby human settlements.
a remote and extreme environment such as the Antarctic. Finally, it Snow samples were collected in Whirl-Pak plastics bags (Nasco,
should be noted that, as mentioned above, one of the main effects of USA) from the top of the snowpack, in an area of 1 m2 and 5 cm thick
BC on the environment lies in the decrease in albedo that its deposition layer, using a clean plastic shovel and disposable dust-free nitrile gloves.
produces on snow/ice surfaces. For this reason, quantifying its presence Sample weighed around 1200–1500 g, and they were kept always
 F. Cereceda-Balic et al. / Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801 3

Table 1
Sampling sites on the Antarctic Peninsula and the corresponding measured BC concentrations in snow, its contribution to the total material collected and the modeled broadband albedo.

Sampling site-Year Location Altitude (m.a.s.l) BC in snow Collected material in filter BC Other material than BC Modeled broadband
(μg kg−1) (mg L−1) (mg L−1/%) (mg L−1/%) albedo

Base O'Higgins (BO) -2014 63°19′15″S 0 3395.7 25.18 3.4/13.5 21.8/86.5 0.668
57°53′55″W
Base Yelcho (BY)-2019 64°52′33″S 0 1309.2 9.37 1.3/14.0 8.1/86.0 0.725
63°35′00″W
La Paloma (LP)-2016 63°21′20″S 409 745.9 0.89 0.75/84.1 0.14/15.9 0.748
La Paloma (LP)-2015 57°48′21″W 298 233.6 0.28 0.23/81.8 0.05/18.2 0.779
P4–2019 64°52′25″S 0 179.4 0.58 0.18/32.1 0.4/67.9 0.784
63°33′51″W

frozen (−20 °C), during transport and storage, until they could be proc- The BC mass concentration was calculated using a 5-points calibra-
essed. All sampling material were washed using acid to avoid contami- tion curve, previously prepared using real diesel BC soot as standard.
nation according to the procedure published by Cereceda-Balic et al. The reader is referred to the original publication (Cereceda-Balic et al.,
(2012). 2019) for more details about the methodology, its validation and quality
BC concentration in snow samples was determined by using a novel assurance/quality control assessment.
methodology recently developed and validated by Cereceda-Balic et al.
(2019) and included in the patent application registered in the US Patent 2.2. Albedo modeling
Office: US 16/690,013-Nov, 2019. Briefly, the methodology consisted in a
filter-based absorption method where snow samples were microwave- Spectral albedo was simulated by incorporating the measured BC
assisted melted, then filtered through a special designed filtration sys- concentrations in snow in the on-line version of the “Snow, Ice, and
tem able to generate a uniform BC spot on Nuclepore 47 mm polycar- Aerosol Radiative” (SNICAR) Model (http://snow.engin.umich.edu/)
bonate filters (Whatman, UK), weighted before and after filtration. BC (Flanner et al., 2007), widely used for snowpack simulations globally
deposited in filters was analyzed using a SootScan™, Model OT21 Opti- (He et al., 2018). SNICAR is based on the theory from Warren and
cal Transmissometer (Magee Scientific; Berkeley, CA, USA), where opti- Wiscombe (1980) and the multi-layer two-stream radiative transfer so-
cal transmission was compared between the sample collected in the lution from Toon et al. (1989). The input parameters were introduced in
filter and a reference blank filter at a wavelength of 880 nm. For clarifi- the SNICAR model using the default values proposed by the developers,
cation, it is known that there are other substances than BC that can ab- while the concentration of BC in snow used in each case was that mea-
sorb light and would be measured. Nevertheless, the term BC as an sured in this work. The input parameters include: Direct incident radia-
equivalent is used since in the optical method the absorption is con- tion, zenith angle of 48° (considered for Antarctic in January), clear sky
verted into mass by applying a BC mass-specific absorption coefficient surface spectral distribution, Snowpack thickness = 1 m, Snow den-
(Weller et al., 2013), considering that, at 880 nm, BC is by far the main sity = 400 kg m−2, albedo of underlying ground = 0.2 (visible range,
absorber of radiation, having the imaginary part of refractive index default value) and 0.4 (near infrared, default value), Snow grain effec-
N0.44; which is two orders of magnitude higher than that of organics tive radius = 100 μm (default value), BC coating = uncoated, BC con-
or dust (Chaubey et al., 2010). centration in snow = variable, according to measured data. As output,

Fig. 1. Study area and location of sampling sites.

4 F. Cereceda-Balic et al. / Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801

the model calculates fluxes within 470 spectral bands at 10 nm resolu-

tion from 0.3–5.0 μm, giving spectral albedo and solar broadband al-
bedo. It is important to mention that other variables included in the
SNICAR model, such as grain radius or particle coating, could have a sig-
nificant effect on albedo (He et al., 2018; Cereceda-Balic et al., 2018) and
that have not been explored in this case. What has been wanted to show
here is how the found variations in BC concentration could affect the
albedo.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. BC concentrations in snow

Table 1 shows the BC concentrations in snow from Antarctica. Snow

from BO presented the highest BC concentration, followed by snow
from BY, LP 2016, LP 2015 and P4 (Fig. 2). As expected, the higher BC
concentrations were found in the sampling sites in the vicinity of Fig. 3. Percentage of BC in the material collected in filters after snow filtration.
Bases (BO and BY), where anthropogenic activities are developed, and
emissions sources are present. BY presented lower BC levels than BO,
probably because BY registers less activity and its facilities are smaller BC concentrations in snow were high, so was the amount of total impu-
than those of BO, so the emissions are proportionally lower. As a perma- rities, probably due to the deposition of coarse particulate matter near
nent station, BO has diesel engines for power generation, in addition to the emission sources. On the other hand, in the most distant sites,
heavy machinery that also uses diesel as fuel for the activities of the which were cleaner, the contribution of BC to the collected material
base. As a trend, it can be said that the samples from the bases (BO- was higher, suggesting that the BC found in these locations could be re-
BY) presented BC concentrations one order of magnitude higher than lated to long-range transport, considering that the BC is primary part of
those from sites considered background in each case (LP – P4). These the fine particulate matter that can travel larger distances before depo-
findings are in agreement with BC concentrations in snow from sition. The difference in the value of the percentage of BC v/s the total
Antarctica previously reported by Casey et al. (2017), who also found mass of the material collected in filters after filtering in the case of LP
the highest values near the Station and a decreasing with increasing dis- (83% on average), compared to P4 (32%), indicates that P4 is likely
tance from it. Other works above mentioned informed lower levels of BC more pristine than LP, despite the lower % of BC in this sample would in-
in snow samples (Khan et al., 2019; Kinase et al., 2020), which, beyond dicate a higher composition of coarse particulate matter, its concentra-
an expected spatial variability, may be related to the methodology used tion value of BC in snow is the lowest of all the observed sites.
for BC quantification. Both cited studies used the SP2 method, which
due to uncertainty in calibration and size dependent nebulization effi- 3.2. Impact of BC on broadband and spectral snow albedo
ciency presented underestimation in measured BC concentrations
with uncertainties higher than 60% (Casey et al., 2017; Cereceda-Balic Results of the albedo modeling with SNICAR are shown in Figs. 4 and
et al., 2019; Kaspari et al., 2014). 5. Fig. 4 presents spectral albedo obtained between 0.3 and 1.5 μm of
Fig. 3 shows the percentage composition of the material collected in wavelength, where variations in the BC content cause large differences
filters (total particulate matter obtained from snow sample filtration) in the modeled albedo in the visible range of the spectra, which become
(Table 1). The samples from the surroundings of the bases (BO-BY) insignificant after 1.2 μm of wavelength.
showed higher amounts of collected material than those from back- Fig. 5 presents the simulated broadband albedo values incorporating
ground sites (LP-P4). However, these samples presented lower percent- the measured values of BC in snow from studied sites in Antarctica,
ages of BC in the collected material, understood as BC the fraction of the where it can be seen higher albedo values in pristine studied sites. Al-
total particulate matter, which is capable to absorb light at 880 nm, though it is well known that BC deposition may dominate snow albedo
while the background sites exhibited the opposite trend, with higher reductions, there are several sources of uncertainty on its quantification
percentages of BC in the collected material. These data provide evidence that cause that estimated snow albedo reductions here obtained could
on the influence of the bases on the surrounding sites, where although

Fig. 4. Simulated values of spectral surface albedo (0.3–1.5 μm) obtained with SNICAR
Fig. 2. BC concentration measured in snow samples from different sites of Antarctica. incorporating the measured values of BC in snow from studied sites in Antarctica.
 F. Cereceda-Balic et al. / Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801 5

that passes through two points on the curve where its rate of change
is approximately constant. When observing the curve, two sections of
this nature can be differentiated, one before and the other after what
would be an inflection point for a value of BC = 1000 μg kg−1. Based
on this, two lines were drawn between known points on the curve,
and their slopes were calculated using Eq. (1) (Table 2).

Δ Alb Alb ðP2Þ−AlbðP1Þ

¼ ð1Þ
Δ BC BC ðP2Þ−BC ðP1Þ

These results indicate that in the first section of the curve (approxi-
mate derivative by line A, lower values of BC) the albedo decreases 6.3E-
05 units for each unit that increases the concentration of BC in snow. In
the second section, a “deceleration” is evident (approximate derivative
by line B, highest values of BC), where the albedo decreases 2.7E-
05 units for each unit that increases the concentration of BC in snow,
which means that from about 1000 μg kg−1, the effect of BC on albedo
Fig. 5. Simulated values of broadband surface albedo obtained with SNICAR incorporating
the measured values of BC in snow from studied sites in Antarctica.
is reduced by less than a half.
This analysis emphasizes the great impact that BC deposition could
have on those sites considered pristine, as Antarctic, where the BC
values found in the snow are generally low, so an apparently small in-
differ by up to a factor of 4 (He et al., 2014, 2018) depending on: crease in them can produce significant decreases in albedo and conse-
(1) snow grain shape and size, (2) particle size and composition that af- quently in the speed of melting snow and ice.
fects the assumed “mass absorption cross section” (MAC), (3) the
amount of dust, algae or colored organics that are also light absorbing, 4. Conclusions
(4) BC-snow mixing state, and (5) how impurities accumulate at the
surface and how radiative forcing progresses. In this sense, further ob- This study provides the first observational data set of BC concentra-
servational studies are needed to assess the additional contribution of tions in snow from Chilean Bases in Antarctica. Results showed a signif-
different absorbing impurities and snow features to albedo reductions icant and localized impact of human facilities in the surroundings
and snow and ice melt (Cereceda-Balic et al., 2018.). Nevertheless, and environments, considering the BC levels measured in the snow, the
despite all these uncertainties in the modeling, the obtained results amount of material collected in filters and the simulated albedo. These
herein yield information that furthers our knowledge, considering findings demonstrate that snow can be used as a suitable matrix to
that, actually data gaps are the main source of uncertainty. trace anthropogenic pollution in the Antarctica, where not only BC can
Fig. 6 presents the simulated broadband albedo values (Alb) vs BC be quantified but also other pollutants as metals or organics. Finally, it
concentrations in snow (BC), and it shows that the relation between is expected that this novel data could be used in the implementation
BC concentration in snow and albedo was not linear. The curve that rep- of models that could help to understand the role of BC in the actual sce-
resents this relationship (red) has a high rate of change (how much Alb nario of climate change, in which Antarctica is presented as a very fragile
changes for each unit that changes BC) at the beginning and later this environment that needs to be protected, starting with the management
rate becomes slower. Mathematically, that rate of change at each of the activities developed in-situ.
point on the curve is defined by the first derivative of the function
Alb = f(BC), that is, d(Alb)/d(BC), where Alb is the dependent variable CRediT authorship contribution statement
and BC the Independent one. Since in this case the mathematical ex-
pression of this function was unknown, its derivatives were calculated Francisco Cereceda-Balic: Conceptualization, Project administra-
by sections, using an approximation that considers the slope of a line tion, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing - original draft. Víctor
Vidal: Investigation, Resources, Writing - original draft. María Florencia
Ruggeri: Investigation, Software, Writing - original draft. Humberto E.
González: Investigation, Writing - review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.

Table 2
Calculation of rates of change of Albedo (Alb) with BC in snow (BC).

LINE A BC (μg kg−1) Alb

P1 (P4 2019) 179.4 0.784

P2 (LP 2016) 745.9 0.748
SLOPE −6.3E−05
LINE B BC (μg kg−1) Alb
P1 (BY 2019) 1309.2 0.725
Fig. 6. Simulated broadband surface albedo values vs BC concentrations in snow. A and B
P2 (BO 2014) 3395.7 0.668
represent the trend lines between the variables for low and high values of BC in snow,
SLOPE −2.7E−05
respectively.
6 F. Cereceda-Balic et al. / Science of the Total Environment 743 (2020) 140801

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