See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/249867265

Process-oriented approach to modeling the gravity signature of continental

margins

Article in The Leading Edge · February 1999

DOI: 10.1190/1.1438270

CITATIONS READS
72 781

1 author:

A. B. Watts
University of Oxford
339 PUBLICATIONS 23,197 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by A. B. Watts on 19 October 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 A process-oriented approach to modeling the
gravity signature of continental margins
A. B. WATTS, Oxford University, U.K.
J. D. FAIRHEAD, GETECH, University of Leeds, U.K.

T he gravity anomaly at a continen- Traditionally, the edge effect has differences. Sometimes, the differ-
tal margin can be regarded as the been interpreted as the result of the ences are apparent along the length
result of all the processes that have juxtaposition of thick continental of the same age margin. At the east
shaped it through time. These include crust and thin oceanic crust. The coast (U.S.) margin, for example, the
rifting, sedimentation, and magmatic anomaly can be explained by a model high alternates between being some-
underplating. This article discusses a in which the continent-ocean transi- times larger in amplitude than the
new Òprocess-orientedÓ approach to tion is localized to the region of the flanking low (profiles 2 and 3 on the
gravity interpretation which uses present-day shelf break. However, right of Figure 1) and sometimes
seismic constraints on sediment the edge effect is very sensitive to the smaller (profiles 1 and 4). We have
thickness and the underplate at con- location of the transitionÑchanging observed a similar pattern at other
tinental margins to estimate the grav- abruptly if it is displaced a few tens margins. Offshore West Africa the
ity anomaly that is associated with of km landward or seaward of the high is dominant along parts of the
rifting, sedimentation, and magmatic shelf break (left inset in Figure 1). margin (e.g., Namibia) and more sub-
underplating. By comparing the cal- Since the transition zone at rifted dued along others (e.g., Gabon).
culations to the observed free-air margins is the product of rifting, the
gravity Òedge-effectÓ anomaly, we edge effect has the potential to tell us Process-oriented gravity modeling.
have been able to determine the elas- about the styles, geometry, and To better understand the cause of
tic thickness and crustal structure, dynamics of continental breakup. these edge-effect variations, an
and to provide an estimate of the Recent compilations of terrestrial attempt has been made to compute
location of the ocean-continent tran- and satellite-derived gravity anomaly the gravity anomaly that is associ-
sition. Since crustal structure is a data have revealed complexities in ated with the different processes
proxy for the amount of heating that the simple edge-effect anomaly pat- occurring at margins such as sedi-
occurred at the time of rifting, the tern. While some margins display the mentation and magmatic underplat-
approach has important implications ÒtypicalÓ edge-effect of a similar ing. We therefore have adopted a
for the deep-water hydrocarbons amplitude and wavelength landward Òprocess-orientedÓ rather than a Òsta-
industry. high and a seaward low, others show ticÓ modeling approach to gravity
Rifted continental margins form as
a result of the breakup of continents
and the formation of new ocean basins. Free-airFree-air
Gravity Anomaly "Edge Effect"
Gravity Anomaly "Edge Effect"

Some margins (e.g., the U.S. east coast; Worzel ( 1968)

Worzel ( 1968)

100 1

Labrador) correlate with up to 15 km 100 Rifting 1

mGal

Rifting
0
mGal

0 -100

in thickness of seaward-dipping sed-

2

-100
Edge effect high
2

iments. Others (e.g., Goban Spur) have 40

0
-10
Crustal structure (Airy)

only a thin sedimentary cover. Many Crustal structure (Airy)

gh

-20 1
0 2
Hi

-30
-10
margins (e.g., Voring) are associated
ity

-20 -400 -300 -200

1 -100 0 100 200 300 Edge effect low
av

elf

2
km
Gr

with abundant magmatism which is -30

Sh

Fig
pe
ian

4
slo

.4
expressed in the form of high P-wave -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
h
lac
pa

velocity lower crustal bodies and sea-

Ap

East Coast, USA

ward-dipping reflector sequences. 4 Shelf break
While differences in the thicknesses of 3
sediments and the amount of mag-
matic material explain the diversity of 35 3

rifted margins, they obscure our phys-

ical understanding of the rifting
2
2
process.
1 Gravity

The edge-effect anomaly. One of the 1 Topography

Depth (m)

most distinctive geophysical features

-2000
-4000
-6000

of rifted continental margins is the 100 200

Distance (km)
300 400

free-air gravity edge-effect anomaly. 30

In its simplest form, the anomaly
comprises a gravity ÒhighÓ which -85 -80 -75 -70 -65
correlates with the outer shelf and a
ÒlowÓ associated with slope and rise
regions. At some margins (Figure 1), -150 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 300
there is an additional low landward
of the high or a high seaward of the Figure 1. The free-air gravity anomaly field of the east coast (U.S.) based
low. on DNAG data.

258 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 1999 FEBRUARY 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 anomaly interpretation. In static gether, these anomalies define the modeling approach. The first step is
modeling, the density structure is sedimentation anomaly. to use knowledge of the sediment
determined that best explains the The sedimentation anomaly, as and underplate from seismic data to
gravity anomaly. Such an approach Figure 2 shows, depends strongly on calculate the depth that basement
has been useful in determining the the elastic thickness, Te, of the litho- would have been in the absence of
physical properties of the crust and sphere which is a measure of its long- sediment loading and underplating.
mantle in continental margin regions. term (i.e., > 1 Ma) strength. Sediment In the case of sediments, this can be
However, it has told us little about the loading of a strong margin (Te = 35 carried out by progressively back-
role that processes such as sedimen- km), for example, produces a single stripping each stratigraphic layer,
tation and magmatic underplating, large-amplitude gravity anomaly summing the contributions, and then
together with their loading effects, high which is flanked by low-ampli- adding them to the water that still
may play in the evolution of a mar- tude, long-wavelength lows. In con- remains (the unfilled part of the mar-
gin. trast, the same load, when deposited gin). The resulting curve should rep-
on a weak margin (Te = 5 km), results resent the sum of all the tectonic
Sediment loading. Sediment load- in two highsÑthe wider one being subsidence and uplift that has
ing can contribute significantly to the located over the original shelf break occurred at the margin. In the case of
edge-effect anomaly. Figure 2 shows and the narrower one over the new underplating, the uplift that is asso-
the case of a rifted margin which is one. The net result of sediment load- ciated with a particular underplate
subject to a wedge-shaped prograd- ing is to modify the rifting anomaly can be subtracted from this sum. Both
ing sediment load. Prior to loading, in such a way that the edge-effect the sediment and underplate calcu-
the rifted margin has a typical edge- high and flanking low migrate from lations require an assumption about
effect high and low which reflect the the original shelf break to the new Te. The second step is to calculate the
transition from normal thickness con- one (the migration being more obvi- depth to the Moho from the tectonic
tinental crust across a region of rifted ous for the case of the strong margin subsidence and uplift, assuming
continental crust to oceanic crust. We than the weak one). some form of isostatic model (the
term this the rifting anomaly. The Òback-stripÓ Moho). This calculation
wedge-shaped sediment load, how- Magmatic underplating. Magmatic yields the crustal and mantle struc-
ever, is associated with a central high underplating also modifies the rifting ture associated with rifting. The
that is flanked by two lows. The high anomaly. Figure 3 shows that the final step is to calculate the gravity
arises because sediments are denser gravity anomaly associated with anomaly of rifting and add it to the
than the water that they displace magmatic underplating of the slope anomaly due to sedimentation and
while the low is the result of the and rise region comprises two effects, underplating. By comparing ob-
downward displacement of the rela- a low due to the low-density under- served and calculated anomalies, we
tively low-density crust into a denser plated material and a high due to the can then constrain the Te structure at
mantle by the sediment load. To- displacement of water by the uplifted a rifted margin.
crust. The underplating anomaly
Sediment Loading depends strongly on lithospheric
100 strength. At a weak margin (Te = 0 Underplating
Rifting
0 km), underplating reduces the ampli- 100
Rifting
mGal 50
-100
tude of the edge-effect ÒhighÓ and mGal 0
the flanking ÒlowÓ and increases its -50
0 wavelength. At a strong margin (Te -100
0
km -10 = 20 km), however, the opposite effect
-10
-20 occurs, with underplating increasing km
-30 Te = 35 km the amplitude of the high and low -20

100 Sedimentation and decreasing its wavelength. -30

Underplating
Te = 0 km
50
mGal 0 Both models in Figures 2 and 3 mGal 0
-100 Te = 5 km are Òforward modelsÓ in the sense -50
-100 Te = 10 km
Backstrip that the rifting geometry (i.e., the 0
Te = 20 km
Flexed Uplift
Backstrip
0 amount of initial crustal thinning),
-10 -10
km the sediment thickness and the con- km
-20 -20
Backstrip Moho figuration of the underplated region, Backstrip Moho
-30 Flexed Moho -30
Te = 35 km and Te were all specified prior to cal- 100 Underplate
100 Sum Sum
culating the gravity anomalies. The 50
mGal 0 mGal 0
5 km sediment and underplate are often -50
-100 Te = 20 km
imaged in seismic reflection and -100 Te = 10 km Te = 0 km
-150
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 refraction data at rifted margins and Te = 20 km
Distance (km) so are ÒobservableÓ quantities. The -300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Distance (km)
Figure 2. The gravity anomaly rifting structure and Te, however, are
associated with sediment loading unknown. What is of interest then is Figure 3. The gravity anomaly
and its influence on the anomaly whether we can develop a method associated with magmatic under-
due to rifting based on an that uses observations of the sedi- plating and its influence on the
assumed density of the water, ment and underplate to deduce the anomaly due to rifting based on a
crust, and mantle of 1030, 2400, rifting structure and, hence, Te in a density of the underplated mater-
and 3330 kg/m3, respectively, and rifted margin setting. ial of 2900 kg/m3 (other densities
elastic thickness values of 5, 20, One way to do this is to take a as in Figure 2) and elastic thick-
and 35 km. combined back-stripping and gravity ness values of 0, 10, and 20 km.

260 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 1999 FEBRUARY 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 Lithosphere flexure and the signif-
Hinge icance of Te. We know from flexure
Shelf Break
studies that significant differences
Zone ECMA
exist between the T e structure of
oceanic and continental lithosphere.
In the oceans, Te is given approxi-
Te = Z 450 o C
mately by the depth to the 450¡C
"Strong" isotherm based on cooling plate
* models. For example, Te increases
from 4 to 12 km at the midoceanic
ridge where the lithosphere is rela-
tively young and hot to >30 km
Observed where it is old and cold. Studies in
the continents, however, do not show
such a simple relationship between Te
and thermal age. Rather, there is a
spread in the data such that Te may
change by several tens of km over
length scales that are as short as a
few tens of km. In general, though,
weak zones (low Te) seem to typify
Te = Variable rifts while strong zones (high T e)
appear to characterize cratonic shield
regions.
The results of flexure studies sug-
gest that if we can determine the Te
structure at a margin, then it might
75 "Weak" be possible to determine whether the
50
25
* Te = Z 150 oC
sediment or underplate has been
emplaced on oceanic or continental-
mGal

0 type crust. For example, if the ob-

-25 served edge-effect anomaly is best
-50 COST explained by a model in which the
-75 B-2 sediments-loaded lithosphere that
was initially weak and then became
ESP stronger with time, then this would
1 2 3 4 5 argue that the sediments were
Rise deposited on oceanic rather than con-
Coastal Plain Shelf Slope
Tectonic Subsidence
tinental crust. If, on the other hand,
0 Tertiary from Flexural Backstripping the anomaly is best explained by a
Cretaceous
L.Jurassi
c
model in which sediments-loaded
M.Jura
ssic weak lithosphere which remained
10 Continental E.Ju
rass weak following rifting, then this
ic
Crust Oceanic would favor rifted continental crust
Crust over oceanic crust.
km

20 Backstrip Moho
based on Airy Isostasy Modeling of the edge effect at the
Flexed
Seismic Moho east coast (U.S.) margin. An example
30 Moho of the application of a combined
Weak Strong back-stripping and gravity modeling
? ? Te=Z 150oC Te=Z 450oC approach to explain the edge-effect
40 anomaly at the east U.S. coast mar-
Craton Stretched Ocean gin is shown in Figure 4. We chose the
Continental
Crust Baltimore Canyon Trough region
because a wealth of high-quality seis-
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
mic and gravity-anomaly data exists
from this part of the margin.
km The first step in the modeling was
to progressively back-strip the main
Figure 4. Combined back-stripping and gravity modeling of a seismically stratigraphic units using a Te that
constrained profile of the Baltimore Canyon Trough (see Figure 1 for pro- depends on the depth to a particular
file location). The black dots show the observed free-air anomaly based on oceanic isotherm. The tectonic subsi-
shipboard measurements. The blue profiles show the calculated anomalies dence obtained by back-stripping
obtained by combining the rifting and sedimentation anomalies. Three was then used to compute the back-
cases of margin strength have been considered: one (upper profile) that strip Moho assuming, in this case,
corresponds to oceanic lithosphere; one (lower profile) that corresponds to airy isostasy. The next step was to
rifted continental lithosphere; and a combination of both cases. calculate the rifting anomaly (from

0000 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 1999 FEBRUARY 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 261
 the tectonic subsidence and uplift and that we would expect given the rift- Off the west coast of Gabon, for
the back-strip Moho), the sedimen- ing and sediment-loading history of example, the best-fitting model is one
tation anomaly (from the sediment the margin. This is not the case at in which stretched continental crust
load and its compensation), combine all rifted margins, however. At the underlies the slope and lower rise
the two anomalies, and compare southwest approaches to the U.K. regions. This region is associated with
them to the observed anomaly. The margin, the seismic Moho is deeper a large-amplitude gravity anomaly
combined anomalies were calculated than the back-strip Moho, suggesting low (Figure 5) which extends for some
for two cases of TeÑone where Te that the Moho is relatively young 500 km along the length of the mar-
was given by the depth to the 450¡C compared to the age of rifting and gin. The low ends abruptly at about
and one where it followed the 150¡C. that material has subsequently been 2¡S and 5.6¡S where it changes to a
Figure 4 shows that neither case added to the crust. At other margins high. Unfortunately, we do not yet
explains all the details of the (such as the western Mediterranean), have access to seismic reflection pro-
observed profile. Portions of the pro- the seismic Moho is shallower, file data from the gravity high regions.
file, however, can be explained. The suggesting that material has been It would be interesting, for example,
eastern end of the profile, for exam- removed. to see if the crust that underlies these
ple, can be best explained by the cal- The successful application of the regions is also stretched continent or
culated anomaly that is based on a Te process-oriented modeling approach whether it is oceanic. Irrespective of
that depends on the depth to the to the determination of Te, and hence the origin, it is clear from Figure 5
450¡C isotherm while the western crustal structure, at the Baltimore that there is a distinct gravity Òseg-
end of the profile seems to be best fit Canyon Trough has encouraged us to mentationÓ along the length of the
by the 150¡C isotherm. Since we apply it to other margins, especially Gabon margin.
know that oceanic Te depends on the those where there is little or no seis-
depth to the 450¡C isotherm, this sug- mic constraints on the depth to Moho. Limiting the ambiguity inherent in
gests that the eastern end of the pro-
file is underlain by oceanic crust. The
western end of the profile, however,
appears too weak to be explained by
an oceanic model, suggesting that it
is underlain by rifted continental
crust instead. A combination model
in which a strong crust to the east of
the shelf break abuts a weak one to
the west (i.e., a variable Te) explains
the observed data well.
Once the T e structure is con-
strained, it is a relatively simple mat-
ter to predict the crustal structure. At
the Baltimore Canyon Trough, Figure
4 shows that the crustal structure pre-
dicted by combined back-stripping
and gravity modeling is in good over-
all agreement with that based on seis-
mic refraction data. This indicates
that the seismic Moho is at the depth

Figure 5. The gravity anomaly field (Bouguer onshore, free-air offshore) of

the West Africa margin based on GETECH data. Upper right inset shows
the interpreted crustal structure along Profile AB of the Gabon margin,
based on a combined back-stripping and gravity modeling approach.

262 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 1999 FEBRUARY 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 0000
 potential-field data. Our modeling rich fluviatile lake beds. Second, the structure, together with the increas-
approach is based on potential-field crustal structure is an important con- ing availability of high-quality grav-
data, so there is an inherent ambigu- straint on heat flow at a rifted mar- ity anomaly and seismic data, suggest
ity in the results. However, we gin. The change in crustal thickness that it would be useful in the future
believe that by adopting a combined along a profile provides a measure of to develop the modeling approach
back-stripping and gravity modeling the amount of extension and, hence, outlined here. Such an effort would
approach (which takes into account heating that occurred at a margin be timely, especially in view of the
plausible schemes for the manner during rifting. Since the rate of mat- shift by the hydrocarbon industry
that sediment and magmatism flex- uration of organic matter in sedi- into the slope and rise regions. We
urally load the crust), we have sig- ments depends strongly on the know (from detailed seismic studies,
nificantly reduced the ambiguity. duration of heating, the crustal thick- scientific ocean drilling and bottom
We caution, however, that the ness can be used, together with the sampling) that offshore western
approach does not always yield a depositional architecture (e.g., poros- Europe (Goban Spur, Galicia Bank)
definitive answer on crustal type. ity, permeability), to better under- rifted continental crust underlies
This is partly because of problems to stand the subsurface fluid circulation water depths >4 km. Water depths of
do with data. The approach relies, in rifted margins. >3 km are already within the capa-
for example, on high-quality seismic In addition, there are the impli- bility of current oil and gas industry
images of the postrift sedimentary cations of a gravity segmentation at drilling technology. The problem is
fill and the underlying Òbasement.Ó rifted margins. The segmentation that at many margins where there
Because of salt tectonics or basaltic may be due to the extension of has been deep water drilling (e.g.,
flows, however, such images may be oceanic fracture zones into the mar- Gulf of Mexico) the deep structure is
difficult to obtain. Other problems gin, in which case we would expect too poorly known to determine
concern the rheological behavior of differences in the pattern of tectonic whether a particular well is located
the lithosphere. For example, the subsidence and uplift along the on rifted continental crust or not.
lithosphere may have a finite strength length of a margin. Alternately, the Combined back-stripping and grav-
during rifting which, if correct, segmentation may be caused by the ity modeling studies offer an exciting
would modify the rifting anomaly. juxtaposition of lithosphere of dif- new low-cost prospect to address this
Indeed, the existence of finite ferent Te structure. Such strength problem in the future.
strength is indicated in the rift flank variations would influence not only
uplifts that persist for long periods of the tectonic history but also the pat- Suggestions for further reading.
time at many rifted margins. A tern of faulting (e.g., fault lengths) in Ò3-D subsidence analysis and gravity
related problem is that there may not the basement and, hence, the geom- modeling of the continental margin
have been sufficient time for the etry of the syn-rift sedimentary fill. offshore NamibiaÓ by Stewart et al.
youngest part of the sedimentary sec- Either way, the segmentation would (submitted to the Geophysical Journal).
tion on rifted margins to have been be expected to influence the hydro- ÒGravity anomalies, crustal structure
isostatically compensated. This is carbon play. Some margins (e.g., east and flexure of the lithosphere at the
suggested by the close association of coast of Canada) are highly seg- Baltimore Canyon TroughÓ by Watts
large-amplitude free-air gravity mented as regards their productivity (Scientific Letters, 1988). ÒGravity
anomaly highs with Plio-Pleistocene in oil and gas, with some segments anomalies and magmatism at the
river delta systems (e.g., Ebro). Thus, being rich (e.g., Newfoundland) and British Isles continental marginÓ by
margins may appear to be strong and others being poor (e.g., Nova Scotia), Watts and Fairhead (Geological Society
have a high Te even if most of their even though the age of rifting is of London, 1997). ÒGravity anomalies
sediment fill actually accumulated approximately the same along the and segmentation of the continental
on a weak lithosphere. length of the margin. Also, segmen- margin offshore West Africa, Earth
We believe, however, that with tation implies basement structures PlanetÓ by Watts and Stewart,
the application of the approach to and/or stratigraphic ÒaxesÓ that are (Scientific Letters, 1998). LE
more margin systems we should be at a high angle to the local trend of
able to address the rheology prob- the margin, and these may exert some Corresponding author: J. D. Fairhead 44-113-
lems in the future. We have recently controls on fluid migration paths. 233-5240; fax 44-113-242-9234; email
developed a method that is able to The complexity of rifted margin [email protected]
use the tectonic subsidence and uplift
deduced from back-stripping to com-
pute the back-strip Moho that takes
into account the possibility of
strength during rifting.

Implications for the hydrocarbon

industry. Our modeling results have
a number of implications to the
hydrocarbons industry. First, the
determination of crustal type beneath
a sedimentary basin (i.e., whether
stretched continent or oceanic) is
important with regard to source
rocks. Stretched continental crust is
often associated with narrow half-
grabens, some infilled by organic-

0000 THE LEADING EDGE FEBRUARY 1999 FEBRUARY 1999 THE LEADING EDGE 263

View publication stats