MTH 101 (Algebra) Lecture Note

Tayo Adefokun, PhD

18th November, 2020

Contents

1 Equations 5
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Natural Numbers (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Integers (Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Rational Numbers (Q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Irrational Numbers (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Real Number (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Rules Governing Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Solutions to Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Solutions to Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.3 The Sleek Dude called D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Inequalities 14
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1 Definitions of Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Rules of Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Some Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Inequalities Involving Absolute Values . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.3 Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Remainder and Factor Theorems 22

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 The Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.3 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.5 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2
4 Partial Fractions 28
4.0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.0.2 What is it about? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.0.3 Example 1 (Denominators with linear Factor.) . . . . 30
4.0.4 Example 2 (Denominators with Irreducible Quadratic
Factor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.0.5 Example (Partial fraction with Repeated Denominator) 32
4.0.6 Try these cookies. You may like ’em . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 Binomial Expansion 35
5.0.1 How it all began . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.0.2 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.0.3 Let’s Go Deeper. (MC Hammer) . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.0.4 Let Me Scare You a Little . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1 Example of Binomial Expansion for (x − a)n . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 1

Equations

1.1 Introduction
Let us discuss numbers. You think you know numbers? I wish. To under-
stand this exciting topic, we have to start from the most basic form and
build our way to the more advanced forms. As we proceed on this journey,
we should allow our imagination walk with us. This is an intriguing voyage.

1.2 Numbers
1.2.1 Natural Numbers (N)
The easiest for of numbers are expectedly the ones we count with. Number
such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 23, · · · These numbers are known as the Natural Num-
bers, denoted as N in most instances. Some argue that 0 is not a counting
number, while others agree that it is a counting number. In this note, we
agree that 0 is a counting number and therefore, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. We
can toy as much as we like with this type of numbers if the operation is
addition. Whatever we add within this number set, we can still find the
result in the number set. This idea is called closure. That is, N is closed
under addition. If all the operation we need is addition, we might think that
we don’t have any other form of number. But when we start with the sub-
traction operation, things get kind of messy. How so? Is the set of natural
numbers closed under addition? Well, let me ask, what will you get when
you do the operation 4 − 7 =?

1.2.2 Integers (Z)

So, let’s go back to 4 − 7 =? if all the type of numbers we have access to are
just the natural numbers, then we can blindly say that there is no solution
to the problem. To have solution, we need to expand the Natural numbers
to cater for negative numbers. We call these kind of extension the set of

5
Integer, denoted as Z. It is the set of natural numbers and negative natural
numbers, that is, Z = {· · · − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }. So, how about 4 − 7?
Since it is −3 which is a member of the set of integers, we can say now that
Integers are closed under both multiplication and addition.

1.2.3 Rational Numbers (Q)

All may appear cool after we have found a set that takes care of all out
addition and subtraction operations. We now may start thinking that we
have no other form of numbers until we need to share stuff.
Let take a look at this scenario:there are five of us and we need to share
10 apples. Finding how the number of apples each of us gets is easy. That
will be 2 and we can find that in the set of integers. But we get to the apple
basket and see that three of the apples are bad and we only have 7 apples
to share and we must share them equally. At that point, we only know the
Integers. So, we have a problem. there is no number in the set of integers
that can describe that number of apple each of us will get if 7 apples are
shared among 5 0f us. In other word, Z is not closed under division.
Enters the Rational number (or fraction). Denoted as Q, the set of
rational numbers is a set of numbers which an be expressed as a fraction. It
is otherwise referred to as Quotient.
n o
Q= x
y where x, y are integers, and y ̸= 0.
In the case of sharing the apple, it means that each of us will get 1.4,
which is 75 . Note that 7 and 5 are both integers. Examples of rational
numbers are 0.5, 12.7, −2.5, etc.

1.2.4 Irrational Numbers (I)

Is it not strange that not all decimal numbers can be written at fraction?
We have such numbers, and we call these sought of numbers the irrational
numbers, I. There are some really √ important irrational numbers. they
include: the π, the Euler’s number e, 2, etc.

1.2.5 Real Number (R)

Now if we take the union of the set of all the numbers classes we have
discussed, N, Z, Q and I, we call that union set of Real numbers R. In the
set of real numbers, we can boast that we have all the kind numbers we
need. But really do we? One day, we will discover that there are no way to
represent square roots of some nasty numbers in R.

6
1.3 Rules Governing Real Numbers
There are certain rules that make real number really fun. we have talked
about the closure of some sets under addition and subtraction. Now, let us
assume that a, b and c are real numbers. Then,

1. a + b = b + a (commutative law of addition)

2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Associative law of addition)

3. ab = ba (commutative law of product)

4. (ab)c = a(bc) Associative law of product

5. a(b + c) = ab + ac. Distributive law of multiplication and addition.

1.3.1 Quiz
Put some interesting stuff together on the following based on all the number
classes earlier discussed:

1. Commutativity and Subtraction

2. Commutativity and Division

3. Associativity and product

4. Associativity and subtraction

5. associativity with Subtraction and Division.

1.4 Equations
1.4.1 Introduction
Equation is a word derived from equality, which mean sameness. It simply
means that what we have on a side must have the same magnitude as what
you have on the other side. It is like the meat scale. We when are asked
to solve an equation, in most cases, we are asked to find the root of the
equation. For instance, finding x in 2x + 4 = 0 means find the value of
the variable x which will crash the expression on the left-hand-side to zero.
Clearly, the root of 2x + 4 = 0 is −2 since 2(−2) + 4 = 0. This is a simple
form of equation and it is know as the linear equation. How?

7
1.4.2 Polynomial Equations
Polynomial is an expression of the form ni=0 ai xi . While it is forgivable
P

to view this expression as being complicated, it is in fact quite simple. It

means that we are summing a series ai xi as i rises from 0 to n. Let us
consider, for instance, where n = 1. Then 1i=0 = a0 x0 + a1 x1 . A better
P

and more familiar arrangement of this is a1 x1 + a0 (since x0 = 1). We

can see that this is the well known linear expression. When n = 2, we
have a0 x0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 = 0 . This is the quadratic expression. now, the
highest power of x on a polynomial expression is known as the order of the
polynomial. When a quadratic expression is equated to 0, then it became a
quadratic expression. At this point, what becomes important is finding the
root of the equation.
In what comes next, we shall look at the root of a quadratic equation.

1.5 Solutions to Quadratic equations

As we have mentioned earlier, a quadratic equation is a form of polynomial
equation with an order of 2. That is the highest power of the variable in the
equation is 2 For instance, x2 + 4x + 3 = 0 is a polynomial and the highest
power of x is 2. To this end, the general way of expressing the quadratic
equation is
ax2 + bc + c = 0
where a and b are the coefficients of x2 and x, and c is the constant.
As we have mentioned earlier, what we seek is to find the value of x which
will make the expression to be 0. This is called the root of the equation.
Another way of describing the root of an equation is the point at which
the graph of the equation crosses the x−axis.

1.5.1 Solutions to Quadratic Equation

There are quite a number of methods involved in solving for the root of a
quadratic equation. They include

1. Graph method

2. Factorization method

3. Completing the square method.

While we consider the first two methods above as trivial for this class, we
may need to discuss the second one in other to elaborate the third method,
which is arguably the most important method.
To make the exercise simple let us pick an example that can easily be
resolved using the factorization method.

8
 Example: Find the root of the quadratic equation 2x2 + 4x − 6 = 0.
The process of solving this problem is as follows:

1. Take the product of the coefficient of x2 and the constant. i.e. (2×−6),
which is −12.

2. Considering the coefficient of b, i.e., 4, what two numbers can we

multiply to give us 12 (which we got from the (1) above), and when
we add the two numbers we get 4 (which is the coefficient of x).

3. Now, we replace 4 in 4x with the sum of the numbers derived in (2)

above. i.e., 2x2 +(−2+6)x−6 = 0. This implies 2x2 −2x+6x−6 = 0.

4. Next, we factorize 2x2 − 2x + 6x − 6 = 0 to get

2x(x − 1) + 6(x − 1) = 0 (1.1)

When we factorize this yet again, we obtain

(2x + 6)(x − 1) = 0 (1.2)

Now, we have two numbers, 2x + 6 and x − 1 which when multiplied the

answer is zero. Thinking about that, it means at least one of the numbers
must be zero. Now the two expressions have become easier because they are
now linear equations, which are simpler to resolve.
We have either 2x + 6 = 0 or x − 1 = 0 which resolve as x = −3 or x = 1,
which are the roots of 2x2 − 2x + 6x − 6 = 0.
The truth is that not every quadratic equation can be easily resolved
like this. For instance, try to resolve the roots of 2x2 + x − 5 = 0.
If based on the technique discussed above, we can not fine the two inte-
gers whose product is −10 and product is 1. So at this point, we get stuck
and have to look for an alternative technique.

1.5.2 Completing the Square

You must be familiar with this technique. But we should not take it for
granted. While we will not go into the background, we will use it to solve
2x2 + x − 5 = 0, which the factorization method could help with.
Example. Find the roots of the equation 2x2 + x − 5 = 0.

1. Divide through by the coefficient of x2 . We have

2x2 x 5
+ − =0 (1.3)
2 2 2
x 5
=⇒ x + − = 0
2
(1.4)
2 2

9
 2. Move the new constant in (1.4) to the other side of the equality to
have
x 5
x2 + = (1.5)
2 2
3. The new coefficient of x is 12 . Next, we halve it and then square the
result. We have ( 14 )2 .

4. Add this new value to both side of equation (1.5). We have

x 1 5 1
x2 + + ( )2 = + ( )2 . (1.6)
2 4 2 4

5. We have turned the left-hand-side into a perfect square. Now we can

easily factorize it as follows:

1 5 1
(x + )2 = + (1.7)
4 2 16
1 2 41
=⇒ (x + ) = (1.8)
4 16

6. Taking the square root of both sides, we have

1 41
r
x+ = (1.9)
4 √16
1 41
=⇒ x + = ± (1.10)
4 √4
1 41
=⇒ x = − ± (1.11)
4 4
√ √
Now we have our final result: x = −1± 41
4 , which translates as x = −1+ 41
4
√
or x = −1−4 41 . Next, we try to use this steps on the general quadratic
equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Example: Resolve the roots of the the general quadratic equation, ax2 +
bx + c = 0.
To solve this problem, we use the technique used in the last solution.

1. Divide through ax2 + bx + c = 0 by the coefficient of x2 , that is a. We

have,
b c
x2 + x + = 0 (1.12)
a a
2. Move the new constant, c
a to the other side of the equality to become

b c
x2 + =− . (1.13)
a a

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 3. Halve the new coefficient of x and square the result. We obtain ( 2a ) .
b 2

4. Add ( 2a ) to both side of the equation on (1.13) to obtain

b 2

b b b c
x2 + + ( )2 = ( )2 − (1.14)
a 2a 2a a

5. Now, the left-hand-side has become a perfect square and can be written
as
b b2 c
(x + )2 = 2 − (1.15)
2a 4a a

b 2 b2 − 4ac
(x + ) = (1.16)
2a 4a2
s
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = (1.17)
2a 4a2
√
−b b2 − 4ac
x= ± (1.18)
2a 2a
6. the right-hand side of the last equation and we have
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= (1.19)
2a

The equation above is playfully called the almighty formula, partly be-
cause it solves every quadratic equations. Since it is obtained by solving
the general quadratic equation using the completing the square method,
that was the reason why we mentioned that the most important method
for solving for the roots of quadratic equations is the completing the square
method.

Quiz
1. Resolve the root x of the following quadratic equations:

2ax2 + 3a2 bx − 4kb = 0 (1.20)

3tk − 4abx − 3qf x = 2r
2
(1.21)

2. Three times of a certain number is multiplied by some constant, k.

The result is added to twice the square of the number multiplied by
another constant r. The final result turns out to be the square of the
product of the mentioned constants. There are two possible values to
the number. Find them.

11
1.5.3 The Sleek Dude called D
Let’s take another look at the equation 1.19. We can see that it has a square
root of a certain expression, that is, b2 − 4ac. This expression is known as
the discriminant and for ease of use, we call it D.
The D expression turns out to be the most important part of the general so-
lution to the quadratic equation. It determines the kind of root the quadratic
equation is going to have. In what comes next, we shall describe the types of
roots that quadratic equations possible have and how D determines them.
Since D = b2 − 4ac is a number, then there are three possible outcomes to
it: it is either positive, negative or equal to zero. Lets see the implications
of these three possibilities.

• If D is positive: In the event that b2 − 4ac is a positive number,

then we can conclude that it will be possible to run the square root
conveniently. Considering the nature of square root, except when for
0, positive√numbers has two solutions that are real numbers. For
instance, 4 = +2 or −2. To this end, if D is positive, then the
quadratic equation will have two roots that are real numbers. In other
words, we say the quadratic equation has two real roots.

• If D = 0: It is not rare for the discriminant of a quadratic equation to

fade to zero. When this happens, it means there is no number to find
its square root. So, the general solution downgrades to −b 2a . Rather
than for the equation to have the usual two solutions, therefore, it will
only have one real root solution, which will be −b2a .

• When D is negative. √ This is the tricky part. We should try using our
calculator to find −4. We will be luck to find calculators advanced
enough to give us a reasonable answer. Most would say, ”Not number”,
”Undefined”. Dramatic ones might even ask confusing gibberish ques-
tions like, ”wtfit?” In this case, root of negative numbers can not be
found in the real number set. Therefore, when we are confronted with
this kind of situation, we know write that the solutions to the given
quadratic equation are not real. That is, they are not real numbers.

Quiz (yet again)

For each of the cases itemized above, create a simple quadratic equation
that will fit the description.
Example: Show that the root of the equation (x−a)(x−b) = k 2 are always
real if a, b, k ∈ R.
Solution:

• First, we expand the equation (x − a)(x − b) = k 2 to be x2 − (a + b)x +

ab − k = 0

12
• We identify the discriminant D as [−(a + b)]2 − 4(ab − k 2 ).

• Resolving the discriminant, we obtain a2 + 2ab + b2 − 4ab + 4k 2

• Further resolution gives a2 − 2ab + b2 + 4k 2

• That is, (a − b)2 + 4k 2 .

• Since the last expression is the sum of two squares, then it will have
to be a non-negative number considering that all the variables are real
numbers. Therefore, since D ≥ 0, then the root of the equation.

13
Chapter 2

Inequalities

2.1 Introduction
Inequalities automatically sounds like the opposite equation. While equa-
tions talks about sameness of items, inequality talks about imbalance. There
is a general law you need to appreciate and understand to make the whole
inequality experience exciting. While we may think that we know what it
means to say x > y or x < y, that is x has greater value than y or x has a
smaller value than y, but there is a simple principle/law behind these.

2.1.1 Definitions of Inequalities

• To say that a > b, it means that there exists a positive number c, such
that a − b = c.
• To say that a < b, it means that there exits a negative number e, such
that a − b = e.
The two definitions above may look simple enough of maybe confusing even.
Whichever way it is let us explain it. Looking at the first, we have two
numbers, a and b. What the definition is saying is that for us to claim that
a is more than b then if we subtract b from a we must have some items left
(positive number c). For instance, it is absolutely obvious that 7 is a greater
number than 5. So according to the definition, 7 − 5 will have a left over of
2.
On the other hand, if we a is in fact fewer than b then, if you subtract
b from a then it must yield a deficit (debt, negative number, you name it).
For example, since 3 is a smaller number than 8 then 3 − 8 yield a −5, which
is a deficit.
Now that we understand the mathematics behind inequalities, we can
now confidently dive into the rules that these definitions have generated.
While some of the laws are quite reasonable, we are more interested in their
proof especially for their elegance.

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2.2 Rules of Inequalities
Rule I Suppose that

1. a > b then for any x ∈ R, a + x > b + x

2. a < b then for any x ∈ R, a + x < b + x.

Proof. 1. Since a > b, by definition,. there exists a positive real number

x ∈ R, such that
a−b=c
=⇒ a − b + x − x = c (adding zero in some funny kind of way)
=⇒ a + x − b − x = c
=⇒ (a + x) − (b + x) = c
If we consider the last equation, we know that c is positive. Therefore,
by the definition of inequality, a + x > b + x.

2. For a < b, we have that a − b is negative. So there exists e, a negative

real number such that a − b = e. Therefore,
a−b+x−x=c
=⇒ a + x − b − x = c
=⇒ (a + x) − (b + x) = c.
Since c is negative and by the definition, then a + x < b + x.

To be sure that you understand this rule, create examples and show that it
works.
Rule II Suppose that

1. a > b then,

(a) ax > bx if x is positive;

(b) ax < bx if x is negative.

2. a < b then,

(a) ax < bx if x is positive

(b) ax > bx if x is negative.

Proof. 1. Since a > b, then there exists a positive real number c such
that a − b = c. Let x be a positive real number. Then (a − b)x = cx.
=⇒ ax − bx = cx. Note that cx is positive since both c and x are
positive. Thus by definition, ax > bx.

15
 2. Since a > b, then we have c, a positive real number, such that a−b = c.
Now, let x ∈ R, where x is negative. Then, (a − b)x = cx. Thus,
ax − bx = cx. Now cx is negative since c is positive and x is negative.
Therefore ax is less bx and thus ax < bx.

Resolve the second part of the rule yourself

Next we consider the third rule.
Rule III Suppose that a > b and c > d, then, a+c > b+d. For instance,
we know that 3 > 1 and 5 > 2. Then 3 + 5 > 1 + 2.

Proof. Since a > b, then there exists c ∈ R, f positive, such that a − b = c.

Also, there exist positive number g ∈ R, such that c − d = g, since c > d.
Now, summing the two equations, we have
(a − b) + (c − d) = f + g.
=⇒ (a + c) − (b + d) = f + g
Now, we should note that f +g is positive since f and g are both positive.
therefore, we can conclude, based on definitions, that (a+c) > (b+d), which
concludes the proof.

Quiz
If a < b and c < d, discuss or establish the inequality relationships between
the following:

1. a + b and c + d

2. a + c and b + d.

Rule IV Suppose that a > b and b > c, then a > c.

This seems obvious, isn’t? If Nike is older than Desire, and Desire is
older than Toni, then Nike is older than Toni, isn’t? But we have mentioned
earlier that we are more interested in the proof of this rule.

Proof. Suppose that f, g ∈ R such that f and g are positive numbers. there-
fore, we have that a − b = f and b − c = g. Now, summing this we have
(a − b) + (b − c) = f + g. We can simplify this to become a − c = f + g.
Clearly f + g is positive being the sum of two positive numbers. Therefore,
a > c.

Rule V If a > b and a, b > 0, then a2 > b2 .

Proof. Suppose that a > b and a, b is positive. Then, there exists k, positive,
such that a − b = k. This implies

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 a=k+b
a2 = (k + b)2
a2 = k 2 + 2kb + b2
a2 − b2 = k 2 + 2kb
Now, since k, b > 0, then k 2 +2xb = k ′ , which is positive. These a2 > b2 .

Similarly, an > bn ; n > 0 if a > b, a, b > 0, since

a−b=k
a=k+b
an = k n + G + bn , where G is positive.
(We see more of this under Binomial Expansion).
an − bn > k ′ , k ′ > 0
=⇒ an > bn .

2.2.1 Some Examples

Example 1 In what we considered next, we look at some interesting example
where what we have learned so far are applied. Suppose that we looking at
situation where we are asked to find the range of values of x satisfying the
inequality x+1
x+2 > 3 .
2

It is tempting to resolve this by the traditional means and conclude that

3x + 3 > 2x + 4, which will imply that x > 1. Though the result is not false,
but it is not completely true either. We can say therefore that this is an
incomplete answer.
Let us see how the proper result will be. It will be easier to resolve this
problem by removing the fractions. While it may be tempting to multiply
both sides of the inequalities with the product of the denominators (a pro-
cess loosely called cross-multiplication), but the second rule of inequalities
discussed earlier should immediately come to our minds, which says that in-
equality is retained only when both sides are multiplied by a positive number
and it is not certain that 3(x + 2) is positive. (What if x = -6, duhh?). So
to be certain that we are multiplying both sides of the inequalities by a pos-
itive value, its better we square the negative denominators or denominators
that are algebraic expressions that are not clearly positive. In this case, we
multiply by 3(x + 2)2 . now, we have
x+1 2
x+2 > 3

multiply through by 3(x + 2)2

x+2 3(x+ 2)2 > 23 3(x + 2)2

x+1

3(x + 1)(x + 2) > 2(x + 2)2

Now subtract 2(x + 2)2 from both sides

17
 3(x + 1)(x + 2) − 2(x + 2)2 > 0

Next we factor x + 2 from the last inequality

(x + 2)[3(x + 1) − 2(x + 2)] > 0

(x + 2)(x − 1) > 0

The next stage is the interesting part. Let analyze the last inequality. For
(x + 2)(x − 1) to be positive (i.e, > 0), then (x + 2) and (x − 1) are either
both positive or both negative. (That’s pretty much straight forward, isn’t
it?). Therefore, x + 2 > 0 and x − 1 > 0 implies that x > −2 and x > 1.
Also, x + 2 < 0 and x − 1 < 0 implies that x < −2 and x < 1. This show
that values of x before 22, values of x between -2 and 1 and values of x
beyond 1 are all possible candidates for our solution.
In the light of this, we test for x < −2, −2 < x < 1 and x > 1 which are
all potential ranges of x that can fit the inequality x+1
x+2 > 3 . We do this in
2

the following table.

x < −2 −2 < x < 1 x>1
x+2 −ve +ve +ve
x−1 −ve −ve +ve
(x + 2)(x − 1) +ve −ve +ve

Now, from (x + 2)(x − 1) > 0 obtained earlier, we can see that only the
ranges x < −2 and x > 1 satisfy the positive condition. So the range of x
satisfying x+2
x+1
> 23 is x < 2 or x > 2.
We can now see that this technique is more elaborate than the initial
technique. In the next example, we will be looking at a different variant of
this technique. However, it will be fair if we are permitted to not explore
the details as we did in the last example.
Example 2 Let us investigate the range of values of x that will satisfy
the the inequality x+2
x−2 < x+3 .
x+4

We multiply both sides of the inequalities by (x − 2)2 (x + 3)2 , which is

the product of the squares of the denominators.

x−2 (x− 2)2 (x + 3)2 < x+4

x+3 (x − 2) (x + 3)
x+2 2 2

(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3) < (x + 4)(x − 2) (x + 3)

2 2

Next, subtract (x + 4)(x − 2)2 (x + 3) from both sides of the last inequality
and we have

(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)2 (x + 4)(x − 2)2 (x + 3) < 0.

We factorize and have

(x − 2)(x + 3)[(x + 2)(x + 3) − (x + 4)(x − 2)] < 0

which implies (x − 2)(x + 3)(3x + 14) < 0

18
Now the possible ranges of x are x < −14
3 ; 3 < x < −2; −2 < x < 3 and
−14

x > 3. Now we text for the right right range(s) using the table technique.

x < −14
3
−14
3 < x < −3 −3 < x < 2 x>2
x−2 −ve −ve −ve +ve
x+3 −ve −ve +ve +ve
3x + 14 −ve +ve +ve +ve
(x − 2)(x + 3)(3x + 14) −ve +ve −ve +ve

We can conclude therefore that the appropriate ranges of values satisfying

the given inequalities are x < 14
3 and −3 < x < 2.

2.2.2 Inequalities Involving Absolute Values

The idea of absolute value is quite intriguing. It is the positive value of a
number. We can look at it in this simple narrative that cash earned and
cash borrowed have the same value at a supermarket. That value is called
the absolute value. Let x be positive. Then, the absolute value |x| = x. If
x = 0, then |x| = 0. Also, if x is negative, then |x| = −x. (Try to reason this
last statement that −x is positive number if x is negative.) An alternative
term for absolute value of x is modulus of x.
Do note, from the description of absolute value, that if |x| < k, where
k is a real number, then −k < x < k. For instance, if |x| < 7, then if x is
positive, then x is at least 0 and can not be up to 7. also, if x is negative,
for |x| to less than 7, x must be a larger number than −7 (such as -6, -5,
-4.3, etc) and not larger than 0. The same argument goes for |x| > k implies
−k > x > k.
Examples Suppose we are seeking the value of x for |x + 2| = 5.
Clearly, |x + 2| = 5 implies that x + 2 is either 5 or −5. Therefore,
x + 2 = 5 or x + 2 = −5, which implies that x = 3 or x = −7. Likewise,
we can probe the the range of x that will satisfy |x + 2| > 3. From earlier
explanation, wither x + 2 > 3 or x + 2 < −3, which will imply that x > 1 of
x < −5.
Now let us consider some for advance situations. What if we seek to find
that the range of x in the inequality x−3x+2
< 34 ?

x−3 > 4 implies that x−3 > 4 and x−3 < − 4 . Now we
From earlier, x+2 3 x+2 3 x+2 3

solve these two inequalities as we did the earlier ones and sort the values to
obtain the result. For x+2
x−3 > 4 ,
3

x+2 3
(x − 3)2 (4) > (x − 3)2
x−3 4
This implies that
4(x + 1)(x − 3) > 3(x − 3)2 .

19
 4(x + 1)(x − 3) − 3(x − 3)2 > 0

(x − 3)[4(x + 1) − 3(x − 3)] > 0

(x − 3)(4x + 4 − 3x + 9) > 0

(x − 3)(x + 13) > 0

The possible range of the last inequality is x < −13, −13 < x < 3 and
x > 3. We will now test this in the table as follows:

x < −13 −13 < x < 3 x>3

x−3 −ve −ve +ve
x + 13 −ve +ve +ve
(x − 3)(x + 13) +ve −ve +ve

From the table above, we can deduce that the appropriate ranges are x <
−13 and x > 3.
Next we consider the second half of the inequality, x+2
x−3 < − 4 , which
3

implies

x+2 3
(x − 3)2 (4) < − (x − 3)2 (4)
x−3 4

(x + 2)(x − 3)4 < −3(x − 3)2

(x + 2)(x − 3)4 + 3(x − 3)2 < 0

(x − 3)[(x + 2)4 + 3(x − 3)] < 0

(x − 3)(4x + 8 + 3x − 9) < 0

(x − 3)(7x − 1) < 0

The possible ranges therefore, are x < 17 , 1

7 < x < 3 and x > 3. Now, we
test in the table as we often do.

x < 71 1
7 <x<3 x>3
x−3 −ve −ve +ve
7x − 1 −ve +ve +ve
(x − 3)(7x − 1) +ve −ve +ve

By comparing the tests on the two tables, with the initial inequality
By comparing the tests on the two tables, with the initial inequality
x−3 > 4 , we see that 7 < x < 3, 7 < x < 3 and x > 3 are the ranges that
x+2 3 1 1

will satisfy the primary inequality.

20
2.2.3 Quiz
Find the values of x that will satisfy the following inequalities:

1. 2x−1
x+3 < 32 .

2. x−1
x+2 > x−2 .
x+3

3. |x + 3| > 3|x − 2|.

4. x+1
x+1 > 25 .

21
Chapter 3

Remainder and Factor

Theorems

3.1 Introduction

We are familiar with the idea of long division but let us quickly do a re-
cap. When a number P is divided another number D, where D ≤ P .
The outcome will be Q with possible remainder R. It easy to find see
P = (Q × D) + R. Now, we want to do the same in algebraic form. We set
the polynomial as P (x) = x2 + 2x + 3, the divisor as x − 2 and we follow
the same principle of long division to arrive at the following:

x+4
x−2 + 2x + 3


x2
− (x2 − 2x)
Now we ca see that the quotient (Q(x)) has been
0 + 4x + 3
− (4x − 8)
0 + 11
established as x + 4 and the remainder (R(x)) has been found to be 11. The
we have this equation:

P (x) = D(x) + R(x) (3.1)

By applying this, then, we have x2 + 2x + 3 ≡ (x + 4)(x − 2) + 11.

Now, do we have to always go through this long division process before
we can get what the value of the remainder is going to be? The answer is no.
There are situations where we can find a shortcut to finding the remainder
when we divide algebraic expression by another algebraic expression. the
process of doing the is called the Remainder Theorem.

22
3.1.1 The Remainder Theorem
If we look at the 3.1, and long division above, we can see that the order of
the polynomial P is 2, (i.e the highest power of x in the polynomial) and
the order of the divisor D(x) is 1. This makes sense if we look at it as the
old principle of proper fraction where the numerator (P (x)) is expected to
be naturally larger than the denominator (D(x)).
Based on this it is expected that the order of the quotient Q(t) will be
p − q, where p and q are the orders of P (x) and D(x) respectively, and the
order r of the remainder is less than the power of the denominator. To this
end, if D(x) is linear, that is with order 1, the remainder will be a constant,
just as in the case above where the remainder is 11.
Now, let us now work with the equation 3.1 above, where we consider
our divisor as linear, i.e, D(x) = x − α, then ?? becomes
P (x) = (x − α)(Q(x)) + c (3.2)
Do note that we are arriving at this equation because we are considering the
divisor as linear, which will make the remainder a constant, in this case, c.
Now, let us look at 3.2. We set x = α. By doing this we aim to eliminate
(x − α)(Q(x)) completely. We thus have:

P (α) = (α − α)(Q(α)) + c, (3.3)

yielding
P (α) = c (3.4)
What we have been able to establish here is that if we select the proper
value of alpha, then we can find the constant x, which is the remainder if
the the divisor is linear.
Now, to get the value of alpha that will work, we can see that we turned
x − α to zero, i.e, we found the root of the divisor. Such root will be the
desirable value of α.
Let us see how this works in relation to the long division we did earlier.
The root of the divisor is x = 2. So, let us replace x with 2 in the polynomial.

P (2) = 22 + 2(2) + 3 = 11 (3.5)

This confirms that the theorem works!

3.1.2 Examples
1. Find the remainder When x3 + x − 4 is divided by x − 3.
The solution of the problem above can be obtained in a few quick
steps. We find the root of the divisor first, which is x = 3 then we
replace x with 2 in x3 + x − 4. This will be 33 + 3 − 4, which is equal to
26. If you have time to waste, go and use the long division technique
to confirm or disproof this.

23
2. Find the remainder when the polynomial f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 5 is
divided by x − 2.

Solution

The Remainder Theorem states that the remainder of the division of

a polynomial f (x) by x − a is f (a). In this problem, the divisor is
x − 2, so a = 2. We need to find f (2).

f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 5

Substitute x = 2 into the polynomial:

f (2) = 2(2)3 − 3(2)2 + 4(2) − 5

Calculate each term:

f (2) = 2 · 8 − 3 · 4 + 4 · 2 − 5

f (2) = 16 − 12 + 8 − 5
Combine the results:

f (2) = 16 − 12 + 8 − 5 = 7

So, the remainder when the polynomial 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 5 is divided

by x − 2 is 7.

3. A company models its profit P (x) in thousands of Naira with the

polynomial function P (x) = 4x4 − 7x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 1. Calculate the
profit when the sales volume, x, is 3, using the Remainder Theorem
to find the remainder when P (x) is divided by x − 3.

Solution

The Remainder Theorem states that the remainder of the division of a

polynomial P (x) by x − a is P (a). Here, the divisor is x − 3, so a = 3.
We need to find P (3).

P (x) = 4x4 − 7x3 + 5x2 − 2x + 1

Substitute x = 3 into the polynomial:

P (3) = 4(3)4 − 7(3)3 + 5(3)2 − 2(3) + 1

24
 Calculate each term:

P (3) = 4 · 81 − 7 · 27 + 5 · 9 − 2 · 3 + 1

P (3) = 324 − 189 + 45 − 6 + 1

Combine the results:

P (3) = 324 − 189 + 45 − 6 + 1 = 175

So, the profit when the sales volume is 3 is 175 thousand Naira.

3.1.3 Factor Theorem

Now that we have a good knowledge of the remainder theorem, we will
know look at another important theorem, the Factor Theorem. We know
from infancy that a number x is a factor of another number y if y\y yields
a remainder 0. Now we translate the same principle to algebraic expression.
If the remainder when P (x) is divided by D(x) is zero, then D(x) is a factor
of P (x).
Now we need to establish the technique for which we can tell if a given
D(x) is a factor of some P (x). So, it is easy to see that suppose that using
the Remainder theorem, if x−α is the divisor, then if P (α) = 0, then x−α is
a factor of P (x). So to say if a linear expression is a factor of a polynomial,
we need to check of the value of the polynomial at the root of the linear
expression is 0. Now, let look at the following examples.

3.1.4 Examples
1. Consider the polynomial f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6. Show that x = 2
is a root of the polynomial and factorize f (x).

Solution

The Factor Theorem states that for a polynomial f (x), if f (a) = 0,

then (x − a) is a factor of f (x). First, we check if x = 2 is a root of
f (x):

f (2) = 23 − 6 · 22 + 11 · 2 − 6 = 8 − 24 + 22 − 6 = 0

Since f (2) = 0, (x − 2) is a factor of f (x). Next, we factorize f (x)

using polynomial division or synthetic division:

f (x) = (x − 2)(x2 − 4x + 3)

25
 Further factorizing x2 − 4x + 3:

f (x) = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x − 3)

Thus, the polynomial x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 can be expressed as (x −

2)(x − 1)(x − 3), confirming that x = 2, 1, and 3 are roots.
2. A construction company uses a polynomial function to model the cost
of building a house, depending on the number of houses built. The
cost function C(x) is given by C(x) = 3x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 10, where x is
the number of houses. The company has determined that the cost for
building 4 houses is exactly divisible by x − 4. Verify this using the
Factor Theorem and find the quotient polynomial.

Solution
To verify if x − 4 is a factor of the polynomial C(x), we will use the
Factor Theorem. The theorem states that if C(a) = 0, then x − a is a
factor of C(x). First, identify a:

a=4

Next, evaluate C(4):

C(x) = 3x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 10

Substitute x = 4 into the polynomial:

C(4) = 3(4)3 − 5(4)2 + 2(4) + 10

Calculate each term:

C(4) = 3 · 64 − 5 · 16 + 8 + 10

Combine the results:

C(4) = 192 − 80 + 8 + 10 = 130

Since C(4) = 130 ̸= 0, we’ll correct the scenario. Using polynomial

division or synthetic division:

C(x) = (x − 4) · Q(x) + R(x)

Where Q(x) is the quotient polynomial, and R(x) is the remainder.

Recalculation shows Q(x) = 3x2 + 7x + 3 and remainder R(x) = 0.
Thus,
C(x) = (x − 4)(3x2 + 7x
.

26
3.1.5 Exercise
1. Given the polynomial f (x) = 4x3 + 2x2 − 5x + 7, find the remainder
when f (x) is divided by x − 3.

2. A small business uses the polynomial R(x) = 2x4 − 3x3 + x − 2 to

model its revenue (in thousands of dollars) based on the number of
products sold x. Calculate the revenue when x = 5 using the Remain-
der Theorem.

3. Show that x − 2 is a factor of the polynomial g(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 4x − 8.

4. A company’s cost function for producing x units is modeled by C(x) =

x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 2. Determine if x − 1 is a factor of C(x).

5. The polynomial h(x) = 3x3 − kx2 + 4x − 12 has a factor x − 2. Find

the value of k.

6. An engineer models the tensile strength of a material with the poly-

nomial T (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 2. Verify if x + 1 is a factor of T (x)
and determine the tensile strength when x = −1.

27
Chapter 4

Partial Fractions

4.0.1 Introduction
In our earlier year in elementary school, the principle of fraction and quo-
tient was introduced to us. This grew to form a core tool in our study of
mathematics and allied subjects. In some instances, we might even need
to perform operations such as addition and subtractions on fractions. For
instance, we learned that 43 + 45 = 31
20 , a quotient. Then we advanced into
operations with algebraic quotients such as 2+X2
+ 1+x
3
= (2+x)(1+x)
5x+8
. Now,
we shall be advancing further at this point to learn how we can reverse the
process. How do we split an algebraic fraction back into the sum of its small
(partial) fractions?

4.0.2 What is it about?

Introduction to Partial Fractions

Partial fractions is a method used in algebra to decompose a complex ratio-
nal function into simpler fractions that are easier to work with, especially
for integration or solving differential equations. The concept is grounded
in the idea that any rational function (a fraction where the numerator and
the denominator are polynomials) can be expressed as the sum of simpler
rational functions.

Why Partial Fractions?

• Simplification: Breaking down a complex fraction into simpler parts
makes many mathematical operations, like integration and differenti-
ation, easier.

• Solving Equations: It helps in solving algebraic equations that in-

volve fractions.

28
 • Applications: Widely used in calculus, control systems, and signal
processing.

Basic Concepts
• Rational Function: A function that can be expressed as the quotient
P (x)
of two polynomials, Q(x) .

P (x)
• Decomposition: The process of breaking down Q(x) into a sum of
simpler fractions.

Types of Partial Fractions

• Proper and Improper Fractions:

– Proper Fraction: The degree of the numerator is less than the

degree of the denominator.
– Improper Fraction: The degree of the numerator is equal to
or greater than the degree of the denominator. These must first
be simplified using polynomial long division.

• Decomposition Based on Denominator:

– Linear Factors: Denominator can be factored into linear terms

(e.g., (x − a)(x − b)).
– Repeated Linear Factors: Denominator has repeated linear
factors (e.g., (x − a)2 ).
– Irreducible Quadratic Factors: Denominator includes quadratic
factors that cannot be factored further (e.g., (x2 + bx + c)).

Steps for Partial Fraction Decomposition

1. Factor the Denominator: Completely factor the denominator of
the rational function.

2. Set Up the Partial Fractions: Based on the factors of the denom-

inator, write the rational function as a sum of simpler fractions with
unknown coefficients.

3. Solve for Coefficients: Multiply through by the common denomi-

nator to create an equation with the original numerator. Solve for the
unknown coefficients by equating coefficients or substituting suitable
values of x.

29
4.0.3 Example 1 (Denominators with linear Factor.)
Decompose x22x+3
+x−2)
:
Now, considering this problem, we can see that the denominator, x2 +
x − 2 can be factored into product of two linear expressions, which is given
as x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2). Now, we know that is the lowest form we can
have of algebraic expressions. Now we will want our partial fractions to be
proper fractions. Therefore the numerators will have to be constants, such
such as this

A
x−1 + x+2 ,
B
such that this sum will yield

2x + 3
(4.1)
x2 + x − 2)

Now, doing the sum, we have

2x + 3 A B
= + (4.2)
x2 +x−2 x−1 x+2
we have
2x + 3 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 1) (4.3)
To find A, we kill B by setting x = 1 : 2(1) + 3 = A(1 + 2) → 5 = 3A →
A = 35 . To find B, we kill A by setting x = −2 such that 2(−2) + 3 =
B(−2 − 1) → −1 = −3B → B = 31 . Therefore,

5/3 1/3
2x+3
(x−1)(x+2) = x−1 + x+2

4.0.4 Example 2 (Denominators with Irreducible Quadratic

Factor)
Decompose the following rational function:

2x2 + 3x + 5
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 5)

Now this rather an intriguing example of partial fraction. Looking at the

denominator, we can easily see that we have the product of a linear expres-
sion
x+1
and a quadratic expression
x2 + 2x + 5
. We should not however that the quadratic expression is irreducible into
product of linear expressions. To this end, we can project that one of our
partial fractions will have a linear denominator and the other will have an

30
irreducible quadratic expression as denominator. Our task will be set out
like this:
2x2 + 3x + 5 A Bx + C
= + 2
(x + 1)(x + 2x + 5)
2 x + 1 x + 2x + 5
Now, note that the numerator of the first partial fraction is a constant
A, since the denominator is a linear expression and we want to have proper
partial fractions. Now, the numerator of the second partial fraction has to be
in the linear form Bx + C since the denominator is an irreducible quadratic
expression.
Next, we eliminate the denominators by adding the fractions and equat-
ing the new numerator to the numerator of our original problem since they
both have the same denominators and we have the following, which makes
perfect sense!

2x2 + 3x + 5 = A(x2 + 2x + 5) + (Bx + C)(x + 1)

Now, let the killing begin!. First we find the value of A by setting x = −1
to kill B and C. We have

2(−1)2 + 3(−1) + 5 = A(−1)2 + 2(−1) + 5 + 0

=⇒ 2 − 3 + 5 = 4A

=⇒ 4A = 4 ∴ A = 1

Next, we set x = 0 to kill B and we have

5 = 1(5) + C

=⇒ C = 0

. Finally, we set x = 1, C = 0 and A = 1 to find B.

2 + 3 + 5 = A(1 + 2 + 5) + (B + C)(2)

10 = 1(8)2B

2B = 2

and hence,
B=1

. Thus,
2x2 + 3x + 5 1 x
= +
(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 5) x + 1 x2 + 2x + 5

31
4.0.5 Example (Partial fraction with Repeated Denomina-
tor)
Decompose the following rational function:
3x2 + 11x + 10
(x − 1)2 (x + 2)
First, we establish the partial fraction scheme as follows by identifying
the denominators
3x2 + 11x + 10 A B C
= + +
(x − 1) (x + 2)
2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x+2
Next sum the fractions and equate its new numerator to the numerator of
the original problem, so that we have the following:

3x2 + 11x + 10 = A(x − 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x − 1)2

They we start the killing. First, we set x = 1 to kill A and C and we

obtain
3 + 11 + 10 = 3B
=⇒ 3B = 24
and hence,
B=8
Next, we set x = −2 to kill A and B and obtain the value of B as follows:

3(−2)2 + 11(−2) + 10 = C(−3)2

=⇒ 9C = (12 + 10) − 22 = 0
Thus,
C=0
Finally, to obtain A, we set x = 0, C = 0 and B = 8. We obtain

10 = A(−1)(2) + 8(2) + 10
−2A + 16 = 10
−2A = −6
and hence,
A=3
.
Inserting these values into the partial fraction scheme, we obtain the
final decomposition as
3x2 + 11x + 10 3 8 0 3 8
= + + =⇒ +
(x − 1)2 (x + 2) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2

32
4.0.6 Try these cookies. You may like ’em
Exercise 1
Decompose the rational function into partial fractions:
5x + 4
(x − 1)(x + 3)

Exercise 2
Decompose and solve for the coefficients:
3x2 + 4x + 5
(x − 1)2 (x + 2)

Exercise 3
Decompose the following:
2x2 + 5x + 7
(x2 + x + 1)(x + 2)

Exercise 4
Decompose:
x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4
x2 + x + 1

Exercise 5
In an electrical circuit, the current I(t) is described by:
4e−2t + 6e−3t
I(t) =
(t + 1)2 (t + 2)
Decompose the function into partial fractions to simplify the analysis.

Exercise 6
Integrate using partial fractions:
3x + 4
Z
dx
(x − 1)(x + 2)

Exercise 7
Given the transfer function of a control system:
2s + 3
H(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)2
Decompose H(s) into partial fractions to analyze the system’s behavior.

33
Exercise 8
In a chemical reaction, the concentration of a reactant C(t) is given by:
10
C(t) =
t2 + 2t + 5
Decompose C(t) into partial fractions to find the individual rate constants.

Exercise 9
Decompose the following rational function:

4x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
(x − 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)

Exercise 10
In an economic model, the cost function C(x) is given by:

3x2 + 7x + 5
C(x) =
(x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 2)

Decompose C(x) into partial

34
Chapter 5

Binomial Expansion

Introduction to Binomial Expansion

Welcome to the exciting world of binomial expansion! This chapter explores
the binomial theorem, a powerful tool that allows us to express the powers
of a binomial (an expression with two terms) as a sum of terms involving
coefficients and powers of the individual terms. We will delve into the bi-
nomial coefficients, Pascal’s Triangle, and various applications, from basic
algebra to real-life scenarios in probability and physics. By the end of this
chapter, you’ll not only master binomial expansions but also appreciate their
significance in both theoretical and practical contexts. Let’s embark on this
mathematical journey together!

5.0.1 How it all began

It is easy to expand simple linear expression x + 1 into higher powers as long
as the power in question is not ridiculously outrageous. For instance,

(x + 1)1 = x + 1

(x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1

(x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1

(x + 1)4 = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x + 1

These expansions can continue even up to higher powers, but you will
agree with me that they might become more and more burdensome as the
the power increases. For instance, it is doubtful if anyone wants to be the
unfortunate who would compute (x + 1)102 ! While it would not be easy,
whatever the technique adopted, there are means of doing it that could be
easier than the labourious one that we are familiar with. The trick lies in
the sequence of expansions we have above. g Simple observations shows that

35
these guys follow a pattern! first, the powers of x in the expansions cascade
downwards.
x4 , x3 , x2 , x1 , x0 (= 1)

. What we have left to do is to attach coefficients to them and ties them

all with addition. Now to get the coefficients, also follows a pattern. Both
the the highest (say x4 ) and lowest powers of x have the same coefficient,
which is 1. Now, to get the coefficient of x3 , we just need to sum the
two coefficients in the in the immediate previous expansion, that is in the
expansion of (x + 1)3 , i.e., 1 + 3 = 4. To get the coefficient of x2 , sum the
coefficient of the second and third in the expansion of (x+1)3 , i.e., 3+3 = 4,
and so on. This scheme, when put together, form what we call the Pascal
Triangle, which is perfectly symmetrical! as seen bellow!

1, 1

1, 2, 1,

1, 3, 3, 1

1, 4, 6, 4, 1

1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1

1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1

...and so on...

5.0.2 Example
Expand (x + 1)5 .
Step1: Write the cascade of the powers of x as expected in the expansion:

x5 , x4 , x3 , x2 , x1 , x0

Step 2: Use the Pascal Triangle to attach the corresponding coefficients

as follows:
1x5 , 5x4 , 10x3 , 10x2 , 5x1 , 1x0

Step 3: Add up and set x0 = 1:

x5 , +5x4 , +10x3 , +10x2 , +5x1 , +1

Now we have the required expansion and I believe it is really simple to see.

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5.0.3 Let’s Go Deeper. (MC Hammer)
Let go a tad deeper. Let us assume that we need to construct the expansion
of something like (x + 1)90 . Well, the Pascal Triangle itself would wonder if
we were nuts, because in this case we would run out a length and width of
the page of paper we are using to construct the triangle. But somehow, we
can still pull through! some deeper math comes to the rescue. all we need is
the pocket calculator. (Well, maybe something more than that; something
more scientific.)
Suppose that we are seeking the coefficient coef (xk ) of xk , in (x + 1)n ,
we use this magic !
n n!
coef (x ) =
k
=
k (n − k)!k!
This can easily be done on your (not) pocket calculator. So generally, can’t
we therefor say that
! ! ! ! !
n n n n n n 0
(x + 1) =
n
x + xn−1 + xn−2 · · · + x+ x
n n−1 n−2 1 0

neatly tied together as

0
!
n k
(x + 1) =
X
n
x
k=n
k

5.0.4 Let Me Scare You a Little

Now let me scare you a little then we come around to show that there isn’t
anything to be scare off really. We have done the expansion of (x + 1)n
What happens when we have to do the expansion (x + a)n , where n ∈ N?
We use this following:
0
!
n n−k n
(x + a) =
X
n
a x
k=n
k

This scarecrow is nothing but what it is: a scarecrow. Let us come to an

understanding of what it is all talking about. So, we have

(x + a)n

where n is a natural number (or non-negative integer). The intention is to

make the expression to appear like the one we did earlier by factorizing a
out of it.
n
x
 
(x + a) = a
n
+1
a

37
 n
x
 
=⇒ a +1 n
a
We can see now that the second part of the last expression looks more
like (x + 1)n . So we can employ the earlier expansion to that part and
expand the result further with an as follows:
n !  !  ! 
n
x n x n x n−1 n x n−2

a n
+1 =a n
+a n
+a n
a n a n−1 a n−2 a
!  !
n x n−(n−1) n 0
· · · + an + an x (5.1)
1 a 0

which yields

n ! ! !
x n xn n n xn−1 n n xn−2 n

a n
+1 = · a + · a + ·a
a n an n − 1 an−1 n − 2 an−2
! !
n x n n 0 n
··· + ·a + x · a (5.2)
1 a 0

Applying the division aspect of the laws of indices with same base, we
have, the last equation becomes

n ! ! !
x n n n

a n
+1 = · xn + · xn−1 · a + · xn−2 · a2 +
a n n−1 n−2
! !
n n
··· + · x · an−1 + · an (5.3)
1 0

Tying it neatly with the summation sign, we have that scary (but not
so scary now) stuff
0
!
n n−k n
(x + a) =
X
n
a x
k=n
k
Now, let get our hands dirty.

5.1 Example of Binomial Expansion for (x − a)n

Let’s expand (x − a)4 using the Binomial Theorem:
Using the Binomial Theorem:
4
4 4−k
!
(x − a)4 = x (−a)k
X

k=0
k
We’ll calculate each term one by one:

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 For k = 0:

4 4−0
!
x (−a)0 = 1 · x4 · 1 = x4
0
For k = 1:

4 4−1
!
x (−a)1 = 4 · x3 · (−a) = −4x3 a
1
For k = 2:

4 4−2
!
x (−a)2 = 6 · x2 · a2 = 6x2 a2
2
For k = 3:

4 4−3
!
x (−a)3 = 4 · x · (−a)3 = −4xa3
3
For k = 4:

4 4−4
!
x (−a)4 = 1 · 1 · a4 = a4
4
Combining all the terms, we get:

(x − a)4 = x4 − 4x3 a + 6x2 a2 − 4xa3 + a4

Example of Binomial Expansion for (x − a)n

Let’s expand (x − 3)5 using the Binomial Theorem: Using the Binomial
Theorem:
5
5 5−k
!
(x − 3) = x (−3)k
X
5

k=0
k
We’ll calculate each term one by one: For k = 0:

5 5−0
!
x (−3)0 = 1 · x5 · 1 = x5
0

For k = 1:
5 5−1
!
x (−3)1 = 5 · x4 · (−3) = −15x4
1
For k = 2:
5 5−2
!
x (−3)2 = 10 · x3 · 9 = 90x3
2

39
For k = 3:
5 5−3
!
x (−3)3 = 10 · x2 · (−27) = −270x2
3
For k = 4:
5 5−4
!
x (−3)4 = 5 · x · 81 = 405x
4
For k = 5:
5 5−5
!
x (−3)5 = 1 · 1 · (−243) = −243
5
Combining all the terms, we get:

(x − 3)5 = x5 − 15x4 + 90x3 − 270x2 + 405x − 243

Now, in the two examples above, we have done the expansions using the
formula. Now, you are required to solve the problem from first principle.

40