STRUCTURE OF ATOMS CH-4

Introduction

→ John Dalton considered atom to be an indivisible entity, but his concept had to be discarded at the end of
nineteenth century, when scientists through experiments were able to find existence of charged (electrons and
protons) and neutral particles (neutrons) in the atom. These particles were called the ‘Sub-atomic Particles’.
Discovery of Electrons – Cathode Rays (By J. J. Thomson) in 1897
→ Thomson explained presence of electrons by cathode rays experiment.
Facts about Electrons
→ Charge on electron = −1.6 × 10-19 C (C = Coloumb)
(As calculated by Robert E. Millikan)
→ Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10-31 kg = 1/1800 times of proton
Discovery of Protons – Anode Rays/Canal Rays (By E. Goldstein) in 1886
→ E. Goldstein by his famous anode rays/canal rays experiment was able to detect presence of positively charged
particles called protons in the atom.
Facts about Protons
→ Charge on proton = + 1.6 × 10-19 C
→ Mass of proton = 1.673 × 10-27 kg
i.e., Mass of proton ≅ 1840 × Mass of electron
Discovery of Neutrons (By J. Chadwick) in 1932
→ J. Chadwick bombarded lighter elements (like lithium, boron etc.) with α-particles and observed emission of new
particles having zero charge but having mass equal to that of proton.
→ These particles were called ‘Neutron’ i.e., neutral particle of the atom.
→ Neutron are absent in Protium isotope of hydrogen atom.(1H1)
→ Since, mass of electrons are negligible as compared to that of proton and neutrons hence,
sum of masses of protons and neutrons in an atom will compose its atomic mass.
Mass of atom = mass of proton + mass of neutron
Atomic Models
→ From the knowledge of existence of subatomic particles like electron, proton and neutron in an atom, various
atomic models were proposed by different scientists.
• Some of the atomic models:
(i) Thomson’s Model of Atom
(ii) Rutherford’s Model of Atom
(iii) Bohr’s Model of Atom
→ The most trusted and scientifically established model of atom which is adopted these days is ‘Quantum
Mechanical Model of Atom’.

Thomson’s Atomic Model

→ This model is often called the ‘Water Melon Model’./ Christmas pudding model
Features of Thomson’s Atomic proposed model of atom:
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude so, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model
→ Although this model explained neutrality of atom but couldn’t able to explain other scientific experiments
conducted on atom , such as protons are present only in the centre of atom and electrons are distributed around it.
Hence it was discarded.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

→ In his famous ‘α-ray Scattering Experiment’, Rutherford bombarded α-ray (Helium nucleus 2He4) upon thin gold
foil. (To find how electrons are arranged in an atom.
Gold foil experiment / Alpha particle scattering experiment
1. He selected a gold foil because he wanted very very thin foil. This gold foil was about 1000 atom thick.
2. He used alpha particles which is doubly charged helium ions and have mass of 4 u, and considerable good
amount of energy.
3. He did not expect large deflection.
• Observations made by Rutherford in his experiment:
(i) Most of α-particles passed through gold foil undeflected.
(ii) Some of the α-particles deflected by foil by small angles.
(iii) One out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.

Conclusions made by Rutherford:

(i) Atom consists of predominantly empty space as most of α-particles passed through gold foil undeflected.
(ii) Atom contains centrally placed positively charged nucleus (carrying positively charged particles), because few α-
particles suffered deflected and very few i.e., one in 12000 bounced back.
(iii) Since a minute fraction of α-particles suffered deflections and very few bounced back, this lead to conclusion
that most of the space an atom is empty and the space occupied by nucleus is negligible compared to this empty
space.
→ Size of nucleus was about 10-5 times that of size of atom.
(iv) Whole of the atomic mass concentrated in the nucleus.
(v) Nucleus of an atom is positively charged.
(vi) Nucleus of an atom is very dense and hard.

Features of Rutherford proposed model of atom:

(i) There is positively placed nucleus in an atom. Nearly all the mass resides in nucleus (Proton + Neutron).
(ii) Electrons revolves round the nucleus in well defined orbits.
(iii) Size of nucleus is very small compared to the size of atom.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model (Unstability of Atom)
→ According to Rutherford, electrons revolve round the nucleus in well-defined orbits, but electrons being charged
particles will lose their energy and finally will fall into the nucleus.
→ This will make atom highly unstable.
→ This was the major drawback of Rutherford which was unexplained by him.
To overcome drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model, Neil Bohr in 1912 proposed modified model of structure of
atom.
Assumption made by Neil Bohr
i) Atoms has nucleus in the centre
ii) Electrons revolve around the nucleus
iii) Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.
iv) While revolving in discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy.
v) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from one orbit to another.
vi) These orbits are called energy shells.The orbits are represented by K,L,M,N.. or the number n =1,2,3,4..
vii) Each energy level (or shell) is associated with a fixed amount of energy, the shell nearest to the nucleus
having minimum energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus having the maximum energy level.
Distribution Of Electrons In Various Shells
→ The distribution of electrons in various shells is done in accordance to ‘Bohr-Bury Scheme’.
Bohr-Bury Scheme
(i) The filling of electrons in an atom is done in accordance to ‘2n2’, where ‘n’ is the number of shell and ‘2n2’
represents the total number of electrons that can be accommodated in that particular shell.
→ Maximum number of electrons that can be filled in particular shell.
If n = 1, i.e., K = shell, 2n2 = 2×12 = 2 electrons
If n = 2, i.e., L = shell, 2n2 = 2×22 = 8 electrons
If n = 3, i.e., M = shell, 2n22 = 2×32 = 18 electrons
If n = 4, i.e., N = shell, 2n2 = 2×42 = 32 electrons
(ii) The outermost shell can’t hold more than 8 electrons, even though they may have capacity to hold more
electrons.
Example: ‘Ca20’, the electron distribution will be :
Ca20 = 2(K), 8(L), 8(M), 2(N)
→ But Ca20 = 2, 8, 10 is wrong although ‘M’ shell can contain upto 18 electrons.
(iii) Electrons are not accommodate in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled. It means shells are filled in
step wise manner.
Some examples:
(i) K19 = 2, 8, 8, 1 (ii) Al13 = 2, 8, 3 (iii) F9 = 2, 7 (iv) Ne10 = 2, 8 (v) Na11 = 2, 8, 1
Valence shell and Valence Electrons-
→ The electrons present in the outermost shell of an element are called valence electrons
The outermost shell is called the valence shell.
The valence electrons responsible for chemical properties. If valence electrons are same then chemical properties
are same.
Valency – The number of electrons gained , lost or shared by the atom of an element, so as to complete its octate (or
duplet) is called valency of the element.
Calculation for valency
1. For element having valence electrons 1,2,3 or 4. Then Valency = valence electrons
2. For element having valence electrons 5,6 or 7 then Valency = 8 - valence electrons
3. If valence electrons is 8 (or 2 in K shell ) then Valency = zero
 Atomic Number
→ The total number of proton lying in the nucleus of any atom is called the atomic number.
→ An atomic number is the identity of an atom, changing atomic number means changing the atom.
→ Atomic number is denoted by ‘Z’.
→ Atomic number = no. of protons or
In a neutral atom, no. of protons =no. of electrons
Mass Number
→ It is the sum of total number of protons and no. of neutrons lying in the nucleus of an atom.
→ It is denoted by ‘A’.
→ Mass number = no. of protons + no. neutrons
→ Representation of an atom: AZX or ZX A (X= symbol of an element)

Example: Calculate number of protons, electrons and neutrons for 17Cl35 or 35

17Cl
Since Cl is neutral,
No. of electrons = no. of protons = 17
Mass no. of Cl = 35
No. of neutrons = 35 - 17 =18
Isotopes
→ Isotopes are atoms of same elements having same atomic number and different mass numbers.
35
Example: 1. Chlorine has two isotopes of mass numbers 35 and 37 respectively. 17Cl , 17Cl37
12 13 14
2. 6C 6C 6C
1 2 3
3. 1H - Protium 1H - Deuterium 1H - Tritium
Isotopes have same chemical properties ( as it depends on atomic no.) but different physical properties.( as it
depends on mass no.)
Uses of isotopes
(i) Uranium isotope is used as fuel in nuclear reactor.
(ii) Isotope of cobalt is useful in treatment of cancer.
(iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goiter.

Isobars
→ Isobars are the atoms of those elements, which have the same mass number, but different atomic numbers are
called isobars.
Examples :-
40 40
1. 20Ca and 18Ar have same mass number and different atomic number.
24 24
2. 11Na and 12Mg
Isotobars have different chemical properties ( as it depends on atomic no.) but same physical properties.( as it
depends on mass no.)