Bachmann 2004

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 45 NUMBER 8 PAGES 1565–1582 2004 DOI: 10.
1093/petrology/egh019
On the Origin of Crystal-poor Rhyolites:

Extracted from Batholithic Crystal Mushes
OLIVIER BACHMANN* AND GEORGE W. BERGANTZ

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, BOX 351310, SEATTLE,
WA 98195-1310, USA
Downloaded from http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/ at Florida Institute of Technology on August 25, 2014

RECEIVED AUGUST 10, 2003; ACCEPTED JANUARY 14, 2004
ADVANCE ACCESS PUBLICATION JULY 1, 2004
The largest accumulations of rhyolitic melt in the upper crust occur in (hereafter referred to as ‘silicic’) remains a major
voluminous silicic crystal mushes, which sometimes erupt as challenge of igneous petrology. In particular, the origin
unzoned, crystal-rich ignimbrites, but are most frequently preserved of rhyolites, which are typically the most crystal-poor,
as granodioritic batholiths. After approximately 40–50% crystal- despite being the most viscous silicate liquids that the
lization, magmas of intermediate composition (andesite–dacite) typic- Earth produces, remains elusive. Combinations of two
ally contain high-SiO2 interstitial melt, similar to crystal-poor end-member mechanisms are commonly invoked to
rhyolites commonly erupted in mature arc and continental settings. explain such magmas (Fig. 1a): (1) partial melting of
This paper analyzes the feasibility of system-wide extraction of this crustal material; (2) fractional crystallization of a more
melt from the mush, a mechanism that can rationalize a number mafic parent. Although systems dominated by crustal
of observations in both the plutonic and volcanic record, such as: melting occur in some settings (e.g. peraluminous
(1) abrupt compositional gaps in ignimbrites; (2) the presence of volcanics: Clemens & Wall, 1984; Munksgaard, 1984;
chemically highly evolved bodies at the roof of subvolcanic batholiths; Pichavant et al., 1988a, 1988b; intra-oceanic rhyolites:
(3) the observed range of ages (up to 200–300 ka) recorded by Gunnarsson et al., 1998; Smith et al., 2003; igneous
zircons in silicic magmas; (4) extensive zones of low P-wave velocity provinces related to continental break-up: Green &
in the shallow crust under active silicic calderas. We argue that Fitz-Thomas, 1993; Milner et al., 1995; Riley et al.,
crystal–melt segregation occurs by a combination of several processes 2001), many geochemical studies suggest that fractional
(hindered settling, micro-settling, compaction) once convection is crystallization plays an important role in the generation
hampered as the rheological locking point of the crystal–melt mixture of silicic magmas (e.g. Michael, 1983; Bacon & Druitt,
(50 vol. % crystals) is attained. We constrain segregation rates by 1988; Mahood & Halliday, 1988; Hildreth et al., 1991;
using hindered settling velocities and compaction rates as end- DePaolo et al., 1992; Hildreth & Fierstein, 2000; Lindsay
members. Time scales estimated for the formation of >500 km3 of et al., 2001; Clemens, 2003). This is particularly true for
crystal-poor rhyolite range from 104 to 105 years, within the silicic volcanic rocks, which are known to have a more
estimated residence times of mushes in the upper crust (>105 pronounced crystal fractionation signature than their
years, largely based on U/Th and U/Pb dating). This model plutonic equivalents (Halliday et al., 1991; Fig. 1b).
provides an integrated picture of silicic magmatism, linking the For magmas to evolve by fractional crystallization,
evolution of plutonic and volcanic systems until storage in the upper differential motion must occur between crystals and
crust, where granitoids become the leftovers from rhyolitic eruptions. melt (two-phase flow, where all crystals are considered
to be one effective phase). Despite numerous attempts, no
consensus has emerged on the dominant process occur-
KEY WORDS: crustal evolution; igneous processes; rhyolite; silicic ring in the viscous, silicic systems. Three influential
magmatism; two-phase flow hypotheses, all assuming an initially near-liquidus batch
of silicate melt, are: (1) crystal settling, commonly advoc-
ated since Bowen (1928); (2) convective fractionation in a
INTRODUCTION crystallizing, double-diffusive boundary layer (Chen &
Establishing the processes and controls on the generation Turner, 1980; McBirney, 1980; Rice, 1981; McBirney
of magmas with SiO2 content in excess of 65 wt % et al., 1985; Spera et al., 1995); (3) the ‘solidification front
*Corresponding author. Present address: Section des Sciences de la

Terre de l’Universite de Geneve, 13, rue des Mara^chers, 1211 Geneva 4,
Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected], Journal of Petrology 45(8) # Oxford University Press 2004; all rights
[email protected] reserved
JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 45 NUMBER 8 AUGUST 2004
1
Volcanic rocks a
Plutonic rocks
Greater crustal involvement

0.75
NCI
0.5
0.25 Western USA

rhyolites and
Atesina-Cima Latir magmatic granitoids (20-40
d'Asta volcano- center Ma);
plutonic complex; Johnson et al., DePaolo et al.,

Barth et al., 1993 1990 1992
0
1000
b I-type Granitoids Whole-rock comp. of
monotonous
~30 % intermediates
~15 %
00
100
10
=
Sr
Rhyolites Rayleigh fractional

b/
Rb (ppm)
crystallization trend Interstitial melt in

monotonous
intermediates
0
10
=
Sr
10
b/
R
Basalts
1
00
01
0.
1
10
0.
0.
1
=
=
=
=
Sr
=
Sr
Sr
Sr
b/
Sr
b/
b/
b/
R
b/
R
1
R
R
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Sr (ppm)
Fig. 1. (a) Variation of the NCI value (Neodymium Crustal Index; DePaolo et al., 1992) for cogenetic volcanic and plutonic rocks from the
Atesina–Cima d’Asta volcano-plutonic complex (Barth et al., 1993), Latir magmatic center (Johnson et al., 1990), as well as some 20–40 Ma
rhyolites and granitoids from the western USA (DePaolo et al., 1992). (b) Rb vs Sr content for magmatic rocks from several magmatic provinces
(western North America, Andes, Great Britain, Australia; modified from Halliday et al., 1991). Dashed line represents a crystal fractionation trend,
using the concentration of Rb and Sr in the interstitial melt of the Fish Canyon Tuff (FCT; a typical monotonous intermediate) as initial value and
typical bulk partition coefficients for these elements in FCT (DSr ¼ 12, DRb ¼ 05; Bachmann, 2001). Tick marks indicate 15 and 30% of Rayleigh
fractional crystallization. The more restricted, but overlapping NCI range displayed by the volcanic sequences suggests that the erupted magmas
are a subset of a consanguineous petrological suite, with both crystal fractionation and crustal assimilation playing a role in the generation of these
magmas. However, the rhyolites record a stronger crystal fractionation signature (higher Rb/Sr ratios).
instabilities’ hypothesis of Marsh and coworkers [see et al., 2003). The genetic link between silicic volcanic
Marsh (2002) for a review]. As we discuss below, none units and shallow granitoids (e.g. Lipman, 1984; Halliday
of these processes, taken alone, appears to satisfy the et al., 1991; Fig. 1), as well as the number of spatially and
geological observations from voluminous rhyolites. temporally associated crystal-rich intermediate magmas
Another group of two-phase flow mechanisms, which and cogenetic rhyolites (e.g. Hildreth & Fierstein, 2000;
require a higher crystal fraction (50 vol. % of crystals in Lindsay et al., 2001), has led a number of workers to
the magma), involves the upward percolation of buoyant propose the following hypothesis for the generation of
interstitial melt from a mush, as a result of either the crystal-poor rhyolites (e.g. Bacon & Druitt, 1988; Sisson
exsolution of a gas phase (gas-driven filter-pressing, & Bacon, 1999; Hildreth & Fierstein, 2000): could silicic
Anderson et al., 1984; Sisson & Bacon, 1999), or compac- mushes in the upper crust, detected seismically under
tion phenomena (e.g. McKenzie, 1984; Shirley, 1986; active calderas and preserved as batholiths or crystal-
Philpotts et al., 1996; Rabinowicz et al., 2001; Jackson rich ignimbrites, be the sources for rhyolites? In this
1566
BACHMANN AND BERGANTZ ORIGIN OF CRYSTAL-POOR RHYOLITES

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the melt expulsion model for the generation of crystal-poor rhyolites. (a) A large magma body of intermediate
composition with a crystal content lower than 45% is likely to retain crystals in suspension as a result of convective stirring. No speculation is made
on the initial crystallinity of the mush. (b) At crystallinities of 45–50%, the interstitial liquid is rhyolitic, and crystals start to form a framework.
The associated yield strength impedes convection and allows melt extraction to begin, probably by a combination of several two-phase flow
mechanisms (compaction, micro-settling, hindered settling). (c) A rhyolite horizon forms above a crystalline residue, and below a crystallizing
roof layer.
study, we employ field, chemical and physical constraints origin (Bergantz & Dawes, 1994; Evans & Hanson,
to quantitatively assess whether rhyolites can be pro- 1997; Martin et al., 1997; Castro et al., 1999; Pati~ no
duced by this process of melt expulsion from homo- Douce, 1999; Barboza & Bergantz, 2000; Petford et al.,
geneous silicic mushes once crystals start forming a 2000); however, an exhaustive discussion of this conun-
connected framework ( 45–50 vol. % crystal; Fig. 2). drum is beyond the scope of this study. We begin with the
Around this rheological transition from liquid to solid, the fact that they exist and focus on the documentation of
main mechanism for crystal–melt segregation changes their magmatic youth provided by the giant, unzoned,
from crystal settling to melt extraction by compaction. crystal-rich, dacitic ignimbrites, referred to as mono-
Thus, to cover a range of possible time scales, we used tonous intermediates (Hildreth, 1981). One of the critical
hindered settling velocities and compaction rate to show observations made on these ‘erupted batholiths’ and
that differential motion between crystals and melt in other highly crystalline units of intermediate composition
static mushes close to their rheological transition can is that at the observed crystallinity (40–45% crystals),
occur rapidly enough to form the most voluminous rhyo- their interstitial liquid phase is chemically very similar
lites (segregation rates of 101–103 km3/yr). We also to crystal-poor silicic magmas (Cashman & Blundy, 2000;
suggest that gas-driven filter pressing related to exsolution Bachmann et al., 2002; Schmitt et al., 2003), making these
and/or upward percolation of a low-density phase in crystal mushes a natural source and storage site for high-
these upper-crustal mushes (Sisson & Bacon, 1999; SiO2 melts in the upper crust. Considering the volume of
Bachmann & Bergantz, 2003) may enhance crystal– these units (103–104 km3), extraction of only 10% of
melt segregation but is not the dominant mechanism of this interstitial melt would be enough to account for the
melt expulsion from mushes. largest crystal-poor rhyolites (102–103 km3). But is there a
process capable of separating melt from crystals in these
silicic mushes at a fast enough rate to form a voluminous
THE MAKING OF RHYOLITES rhyolite cap in geologically reasonable time scales?
Silicic crystal mushes: rhyolite nurseries
Kilometer-sized granodioritic batholiths are found in the Two-phase flow at high crystal fraction
roots of all mature continental arcs. They are so common A key assumption of this melt expulsion model is that
that the average composition of the upper crust is essen- enough crystallization occurs to produce rhyolitic inter-
tially granodioritic (Taylor & McClennan, 1985). Despite stitial melt and that system-wide convection is hampered
this ubiquity, much controversy still surrounds their (Fig. 2b). Importantly, both of these criteria converge at
1567
crystal fractions >04. First, as observed in numerous Table 1: Units and variables
systems (e.g. Druitt & Bacon, 1989; Bachmann et al.,
2002; Schmitt et al., 2003), magmas with intermediate Symbol Description Value/units
whole-rock composition and >35–45 vol. % crystals con-
tain interstitial rhyolitic melt. Second, convection ceases
kf Permeability m2
once a rigid crystal framework is attained, which is
f Porosity 0.4—0.5
thought to occur at around 50–55% crystals (Rigid
r Radius m
Percolation Threshold, RPT; Vigneresse et al., 1996).
K Constant in permeability relationship 50—200
The onset of yield strength in crystal–melt suspensions,
m Dynamic viscosity of melt Pa s
thereby retarding convection, may even occur at lower
crystal fraction (for plagioclase laths, the critical crystal- rs Density of solid phase kg/m3
linity fc is <03; Philpotts et al., 1998; Saar et al., 2001), rl Density of liquid phase kg/m3
even though the homogeneity in whole-rock composition Uhs Hindered settling velocity m/s
of monotonous intermediates (crystal contents up to UStokes Stokes velocity m/s

40–45%) suggests that some convective stirring may c Crystallinity 0.5—0.6
occur almost up to the RPT. dc Compaction length m
At crystal fractions around the rheological transition g Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m/s2
from liquid to solid, the physics of two-phase flow is z Bulk viscosity of matrix 1013—1015 Pa s
complex (e.g. Petford, 2003). It is unlikely that the h Shear viscosity of matrix 1013—1015 Pa s
mechanical properties of the crystal–melt mixture are w0 Relative velocity between melt and m/s
perfectly uniform, leading to locally variable behavior matrix
and segregation rates. Moreover, work in the field of h Height of mush layer m
liquid-phase sintering (LPS; Niemi & Courtney, 1983) t0 Characteristic time for compaction s
suggests that textural adjustments of individual grains equation
and melt expulsion occur after the formation of a rigid th Time to reduce fluid in porous layer s
skeleton. This theory has been applied to crystal mushes by a factor of e
and referred to as ‘micro-settling’ by Miller et al. (1988). hm Melt layer extracted in time th m
To average out local variability, and because segregation
H Height of melt column m
rates associated with micro-settling are difficult to estim-
tsettle Settling time scale s
ate, we constrain the relative motion of interstitial melt
and crystals using two end-member mechanisms: (1) par-
ticle settling in a dense suspension (hindered settling;
Davis & Acrivos, 1985); (2) melt expulsion from a com- (>70 wt % SiO2) have viscosities clustering around
pacting porous medium (McKenzie, 1984; Shirley, 1986). 1045 Pa s, with a range of 1037–1054 Pa s.
Segregation rates for both compaction and hindered
settling were calculated using equations (1)–(9) and are Permeability of silicic mushes
reported below, following an assessment of the two most
The permeabilities of naturally occurring porous
important parameters in controlling the efficiency of
media are difficult to assess. Several empirical equations
segregation, the melt viscosity and the mush permeability
have been published (e.g. Dullien, 1979), but a com-
[see also Petford (1995) for a discussion of grain size
monly used expression is the Blake–Kozeny–Carman
dependence on compaction rate].
equation (McKenzie, 1984; Barboza & Bergantz, 1998;
Rabinowicz et al., 2001),
Viscosity of high-SiO2 melts f3 r 2
Since the work of Shaw (1972), water content has been kf ¼ ð1Þ
K ð1 f2 Þ
identified as an important compositional variable in con-
trolling magma viscosity. Following the recognition that where f is the porosity, r is the grain size (radius), and K
silicic magmas are water-rich (commonly 6, but up to is a constant ( 50–200 for porosities >01 and grain size
8 wt % H2O; e.g. Sisson & Bacon, 1999), the viscosity of of 05 mm; Rabinowicz et al., 2001; Jackson et al.,
high-SiO2 rhyolites has been reassessed using recent 2003). Equation (1) has two degrees of freedom: the
experimental work (Baker, 1996, 1998; Dingwell et al., porosity and grain size of the system. For the hypothesis
1996; Hess & Dingwell, 1996; Schulze et al., 1996). In tested in this study (two-phase flow in high-porosity
particular, the study of Scaillet et al. (1998) has shown crystal mushes), we constrain porosity to a narrow
that, over a wide range of water contents (1–8 wt %) and window of 04–05. However, grain size is likely to
temperatures (650–1000 C), natural rhyolitic melts vary. It is possible to obtain a minimum value of the
1568
radius using petrographic observations of the dominant 1.0

phenocryst phases (feldspars, hornblende, biotite, quartz,
radius of the order of 1–3 mm) in lava flows and 0.8
monotonous intermediates (Best et al., 1989; Francis et al.,
1989; de Silva et al., 1994; Bachmann et al., 2002;
Maughan et al., 2002). However, these lava flows and the 0.6
pumices found in monotonous intermediates, as well
f(c)
as granodioritic plutons, commonly contain megacrysts 0.4
and glomerocrysts, up to several centimeters in dia-
meter (Bateman & Chappell, 1979; Lipman et al., 1997; 0.2
Seaman, 2000; Bachmann et al., 2002), suggesting that
the effective grain size of the mushes may be larger
(3–5 mm). Using r ¼ 3 mm, the permeability is of the 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
order of 108 m2, similar to recent estimates for high-

porosity mush in the mantle (Rabinowicz et al., 2001). Crystal fraction (c)
Fig. 3. Evolution of the empirical hindering function f (c) given by
Barnea & Mizrahi (1973), showing a sharp decrease of the settling
Hindered settling velocity Uhs ¼ UStokes f (c) as crystal fraction (c) increases.
Hindered settling provides a mechanism for clarification
of dense suspension. Settling velocities of monodisperse
particles in a static, non-dilute suspension (>1 vol. % 105
particles) at low Reynolds number can be predicted by 104.5 Pa s
105 Pa s
Uhs ¼ UStokes f ðcÞ ð2Þ
105.5 Pa s
Time (years)
104
with
ð1 cÞ2
f ðcÞ ¼ ð3Þ
ð1 þ c1=3 Þ½5c=3ð1 cÞ 103
where Uhs, the hindered settling velocity, equals UStokes,
the Stokes settling velocity,
2r 2 gDr 102
UStokes ¼ ð4Þ 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
9m Grain size (m)
where r is radius of the solid particle, g is the acceleration Fig. 4. Time scales required for crystals with a density of 2600 kg/m3
from gravity, Dr is the density contrast between particle (feldspar, quartz) and variable radii to sink 500 m in a silicic mush
and melt, and m is the dynamic viscosity of the melt, (crystal volume fraction is 05) with a melt density of 2300 kg/m3, and
melt viscosities of 1045, 105, and 1055 Pa s.
corrected by the factor f (c), c being the crystal fraction
(Barnea & Mizrahi, 1973). As seen in Fig. 3, Uhs drops
sharply as crystallinity increases, and tends to zero considered to be of the order of 1000 km2, and sinking
at crystallinities >06. Using settling rates based on distances of 05 km are sufficient to produce 500 km3 of
monodispersed particles will give an outer bound; rhyolite. As mush piles are several kilometers thick, we
polydispersed suspensions are more realistic for magmas, can assume that the porosity will not change significantly
but their settling behavior is poorly known (Davis & in the upper 05 km, and accept the time scale required
Acrivos, 1985). for a crystal to sink for 05 km as a reasonable estimate
The hindered settling velocities are calculated assum- (Fig. 4).
ing constant porosity. However, in silicic mush piles, the Grain size and viscosity will be the most important
porosity will tend to decrease downward as crystals settle. parameters for a given porosity. Taking the upper range
Thus, a question is whether this downward decreas- of melt viscosities as published by Scaillet et al. (1998;
ing porosity will greatly reduce settling rates. As a first 1045–1055 Pa s), Fig. 4 shows that, for crystallinities of
approximation, one can estimate the maximum vertical 50%, crystals with a density of 2600 kg/m3 (approx-
distance that crystals must sink from the top of the pile to imately feldspar, quartz) and radii of 2–3 mm will take
account for the volumes of the largest erupted rhyolites 103–104 years to sink 500 m in a rhyolite melt. Increasing
( 102–103 km3). On the basis of caldera surface, hori- the crystallinity to 60% increases the time scales by a
zontal extensions of large magma chambers are usually factor of 27.
1569
Compaction
Assuming that crystals form a deformable, purely viscous 104.5 Pa s
network (no account of viscoelastic behavior of the 106 105 Pa s
matrix, De 1; Vasilyev et al., 1998), time scales neces- 105.5 Pa s
Time (years)
sary for the separation of crystals and melt in compacting
magmatic systems can be calculated (McKenzie, 1984,
1985; Shirley, 1986). The compaction length, dc, defined 105
as the distance over which compaction occurs above an
impermeable boundary, is
1=2
z þ 43 h 104
dc ¼ kf ð5Þ
m
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
where z and h are the effective bulk and shear viscosities Grain size (m)

of the matrix (both 1013–1015 Pa s for mush
Fig. 5. Time scales required for a 2000 m crystal mush with an average
porosities 03; Rabinowicz et al., 2001; Jackson et al., crystal density of 2900 kg/m3 (average crystal density from the Fish
2003), f is the porosity of the mush, and kf is the Canyon magma; Whitney & Stormer, 1985), a melt density of
porosity-dependent permeability. w0, the relative velo- 2300 kg/m3, and a porosity of 05 to produce a >500 km3 crystal-
poor cap with melt viscosities of 1045, 105, and 1055 Pa s.
city between melt and matrix (positive upward), is
defined as
g
w0 ¼ kf ð1 fÞðrs r1 Þ ð6Þ Hindered settling
mf Porosity = 0.5
Porosity = 0.4
where rs and rl are the densities of the solid and liquid Compaction Porosity = 0.5
phases, m is the dynamic viscosity of the melt and g is the 106 Porosity = 0.4
acceleration due to gravity. t0, the reference time, th,
the time taken to reduce the total amount of fluid in the Residence times of silicic
layer by a factor of e, h, the initial thickness of the mush mushes
105
layer, and hm, the layer of melt extracted in time th, are
Time (years)
defined as follows:
Range of timescales necessary
th h dc to form a > 500 km3 rhyolite
¼ : ð7Þ 104
t0 dc h cap above a silicic mush
If h dc, then
t0 h h
th ¼ ¼ ð8Þ 103
dc w0 ð1 fÞ
hm ¼ hfð1 e1 Þ: ð9Þ 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Grain size (m)
Fig. 6. Time required to segregate >500 km3 of crystal-poor rhyolite

Using the same range of viscosities as for hindered from a silicic mush by compaction and hindered settling as a function
settling (1045–1055 Pa s) and the same crystal volume of the grain size of the mush (radius of solid particles) using a melt
fraction (05), time scales th [equation (8)] required to viscosity of 105 Pa s, and porosities of 04 and 05. Density contrast
between melt and crystals is 300 kg/m3 for hindered settling (using
expel more than 500 km3 of rhyolite at the top of the feldspar or quartz densities) and 600 kg/m3 for compaction (using
system for a grain size of 2–3 mm are of the order of average crystal density of the Fish Canyon magma; Whitney &
104–106 years, more than an order of magnitude greater Stormer, 1985).
than hindered settling (Fig. 5). At a crystal volume frac-
tion of 06, time scales increase by a factor of 15.
mush with crystal fraction 045%. Figure 6 reports
data for both processes and suggests a range of possible
values. Using 105 Pa s as the viscosity of the melt [close to
DISCUSSION the highest viscosities reported by Scaillet et al. (1998)],
The calculated compaction and hindered settling time time scales from 104 to 105 years are to be expected.
scales bracket the segregation rates occurring in silicic These time scales give segregation rates of 5 102
1570
to 5 10 km3/yr (104–105 years for rhyolite caps of Such extended residence times would allow enough
500 km3); this range agrees with the slightly slower crystal–melt segregation to form the most voluminous
magma output rates in silicic systems estimated by Trial rhyolites, even by slow compaction alone (except for
& Spera (1990; 102–104 km3/yr). These magma out- very small grain sizes), if magmas are preferentially stored
put estimates of Trial & Spera (1990), calculated using as crystal mushes. As the model we are proposing
erupted volumes divided by the repose time in many requires that high-porosity mushes exist for 104–105
volcanic systems, must include every step in the genera- years, the evolution of magma crystallinity with time
tion of evolved magmas, and, thus, provide minimum must be determined. Several arguments, listed below,
values. suggest that crystal mush is the long-lived magma storage
These segregation rates do not take into account the state in the crust and provide some justification as to why
effect of shear-induced expansivity of porous media and we did not perform conductive cooling models to assess
the possible melt expulsion (or ‘seepage’) related to it the importance of cooling on segregation rates.
(Petford & Koenders, 2003). We consider that the mush (1) There is little evidence for the presence of large
as a whole is immobile with respect to its wall rocks, and bodies of crystal-poor intermediate to silicic magmas

that no shear stress other than tectonic loading is acted in the crust. Apart from rhyolites, most intermediate to
upon it. Estimated melt flow rates as a result of tectonic silicic eruptive products contain >20 vol. % crystals
loading (1011–1012 m/s; Petford & Koenders, 2003) (Marsh, 1981; Ewart, 1982), even though they always
are similar to or slower than those caused by compaction tap the least viscous, and, thus, least crystalline magma
(109–1010 m/s, this study) and should not influence available in the reservoir. Moreover, high-resolution
significantly the results presented here. Had tectonic tomography beneath active calderas (Long Valley—
loading any effect on melt segregation, it would acceler- Dawson et al., 1990; Weiland et al., 1995; Valles—Steck
ate it, implying that the segregation time scales presented et al., 1998; Yellowstone—Miller & Smith, 1999; Central
in Fig. 6 are upper bounds. Andes—Schmitz et al., 1999; Zandt et al., 2003; Toba—
Masturyono et al., 2001) has not been able to demonstrate
the existence of crystal-poor magmas in the present-day
Longevity of silicic mushes crust. Instead, the attenuation of P-wave velocities from
For crystal–melt segregation to occur, the estimated 15 to 40% at depths of 5–30 km has been interpreted as
segregation time scale of 104–105 years has to be shorter a reflection of large, partially molten zones in the middle
than the residence times of high-porosity mushes in the to upper crust.
crust. The pioneering work of Halliday et al. (1989) on the (2) Near-liquidus magmas can convect, and therefore
longevity of silicic magmas suggested residence times up cool faster than static mushes, which are constrained by
to 700 kyr for Glass Mountain lavas on the basis of Rb/Sr conductive heat loss. However, it must be noted that
isochrons. These protracted lifetimes, first taken to be turbulent convection, and resulting cooling in 102–104
residence times of magmas near their liquidi, were criti- years (Huppert & Sparks, 1988; Koyagushi & Kaneko,
cized on a number of grounds, (e.g. extremely delicate 2000), appears unlikely for cold and viscous rhyolites (for
heat balance to keep the system liquid for such long which Reynolds numbers are orders of magnitude below
periods—Sparks et al., 1990; contamination from wall- the onset of turbulence).
rock, giving irrelevant Rb/Sr ages—Knesel et al., 1999). (3) Lifetimes of mushes can be prolonged by thermal
However, starting with Mahood (1990), the idea that input from below. Recent work on both crystal-rich
magmas could oscillate thermally, allowing retentive volcanic rocks and silicic plutons (e.g. Matthews et al.,
crystals to record a long residence time, has been pro- 1999; Robinson & Miller, 1999; Murphy et al., 2000;
gressively gaining acceptance. Recent advances in in situ Bachmann et al., 2002) has shown that ‘rejuvenation’
U/Th and U/Pb dating of zircons have confirmed that events (progressive reheating and partial remelting) can
minerals in rhyolites can record crystallization ages up to occur in mushes following the injection of hotter magma.
200–300 kyr prior to eruption (Reid et al., 1997; Brown & They are, therefore, expected to survive longer than esti-
Fletcher, 1999; Vazquez & Reid, 2002). This is also mated by monotonic, conductive cooling models, and can
supported by the near-equilibrium 238U/230Th ratios remain around the RPT for significant periods of time.
measured in most rhyolites, suggesting differentiation
time scales of >105 years (Hawkesworth et al., 2000;
Heumann et al., 2002; Reagan et al., 2003). Independent Supporting evidence in the rock record for
estimates of magma residence times, such as time scales melt extraction from mushes
required to build batholiths with known accumulation Volcanic systems
rates (Jellinek & DePaolo, 2003) or cool them by conduc- Spatial and chronological proximity between rhyolites
tion (Spera, 1980; Koyaguchi & Kaneko, 1999) also and intermediate crystal-rich magmas in many systems
range from 105 to 106 years. supports the idea of interstitial melt extraction from silicic
1571
mushes. Occurrences of comagmatic crystal-poor and volumes of individual units suggest the absence of a
crystal-rich magmas are common in the volcanic record. large, continuous, crystal-poor body over the entire erupt-
Young examples in active volcanic arcs include: (1) the ive period. Rather, these ‘leaks’ tapped localized horizons
Atana–Toconao system in the Altiplano–Puna Ridge (or cupolas) or rhyolitic melt that formed by periodic
Complex, Central Andes, where the rhyolitic Toconao segregation events from an underlying, voluminous and
ignimbrite has been interpreted as the evolved cap of the homogeneous mush. In many such cases, however, the
crystal-rich dacitic Atana ignimbrite (Lindsay et al., 2001; crystal-rich domain presumed below rarely or never is
Schmitt et al., 2003); (2) the interbedding of crystal-rich tapped. This observation, in concert with the fact that
dacites and rhyolites in the Toba Tuffs, Sumatra these rhyolites are commonly small and have very high
(Chesner, 1998); (3) the Whakamaru group ignimbrites, Rb/Sr ratios, may point out areas where the mush has
in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, where a reached a fairly high crystallinity ( 70–80 vol. % crys-
stack of cogenetic, low- and high-SiO2 rhyolitic ignim- tals, on the basis of Rayleigh fractional crystallization
brites show large variations in crystallinity (Brown et al., with typical partition coefficients for Rb and Sr in these
1998); (4) two canonical examples of compositional gaps systems; Fig. 1b), reducing the segregation rate and

in ignimbrites, the 1912 VTTS eruption, on the Alaska preventing the crystal-rich magma from erupting. Their
Peninsula, and the Crater Lake eruption, Oregon, in small volumes may also allow more efficient open-system
which chemical and isotopic affinities between the early degassing upon ascent (e.g. Eichelberger et al., 1986;
erupted rhyolite and the late-erupted, crystal-rich, more Jaupart, 1998), thus preventing an explosive eruption.
mafic magma suggest expulsion of the rhyolite from the
andesite–dacite mush (Bacon & Druitt, 1988; Druitt &
Bacon, 1989; Hildreth & Fierstein, 2000). Pyroclastic Plutonic systems
units characterized by early erupted, crystal-poor rhyolite Despite the difficulty of identifying specific or progressive
followed by crystal-rich, more mafic magma may actually magmatic events in large plutonic suites as a result of the
be the rule rather than the exception in mature continen- time-integrated histories that they record (e.g. multiple
tal arcs: multiple ignimbrites of the well-studied Oligo- intrusive events, post-intrusion deformation, subsolidus
cene sequences in the San Juan volcanic field, Colorado processes), plutons also provide support to the hypothesis
(Steven & Lipman, 1976; Lipman, 2000), the Great Basin of melt extraction from crystal mushes. One of the stron-
ash-flow province (Maughan et al., 2002), and the South- gest arguments is the preservation of this melt as chemi-
western Nevada Volcanic Field (SWNVF; Mills et al., cally evolved horizons at the roof of large batholiths
1997; Bindeman & Valley, 2003) display this pattern. (Nozama, 1983; Michael, 1984; Pitcher et al., 1985;
Even peraluminous magmas, which are probably crustal Dilles, 1987; Johnson et al., 1989; Barnes et al., 2001;
melts, seem to have undergone extensive crystallization Miller & Miller, 2002). Such horizons (or cupolas) have
and expelled comagmatic, low Sr–Ba–Eu, crystal-poor been interpreted as originating from the underlying,
melt that erupted concurrently with crystal-rich ash- coarser, and more mafic magmas, mainly based on the
flows (Pichavant et al., 1988a, 1988b). Lavas flows, such fact that their composition is consistent with a formation
as those erupted at the Medicine Lake center, northern by crystal fractionation from the underlying intermediate
California, can also be zoned from rhyolite to comag- magma ( Johnson et al., 1989; Barnes et al., 2001; Miller &
matic, crystal-rich andesite (Brophy et al., 1996; Grove Miller, 2002). Evidence for melt escape or cumulus tex-
et al., 1997). tures in silicic plutonic bodies, without the preservation
Another compelling line of evidence for crystal-poor of caps, has also been reported elsewhere (Shearer &
silicic melts being expelled from a large mushy zone in Robinson, 1988; Mahood & Cornejo, 1992; Weinberg
the upper crust comes from clusters of small-volume et al., 2001; Wiebe et al., 2002).
rhyolitic lava flows that tapped the same ‘magma cham- These cumulus textures and melt escape features seem
ber’, but were erupted over extended time intervals in contradiction with the nearly closed-system evolution
(100–500 kyr) and over wide areas (100–1000 km2). and ubiquitous crystal recycling recorded by many silicic
Notable examples include the Glass Mountain Rhyolite plutons [e.g. in situ fractional crystallization of Michael
(Metz & Mahood, 1991), the Coso volcanic field (Bacon (1984)]. Whole-rock compositional homogeneity of the
et al., 1981; Manley & Bacon, 2000), the Taylor Creek pluton coupled with core-to-rim depletion in Sr, Ba and
Rhyolite (Duffield & Dalrymple, 1990), the Bearhead Ca in plagioclase greater than those that can be attribu-
Rhyolite ( Justet & Spell, 2001), and the Central Plateau ted to pressure and temperature alone (e.g. Michael,
Member rhyolites (Hildreth et al., 1991; Vazquez & Reid, 1984; Blundy & Shimizu, 1991) imply a well-stirred sys-
2002). The fact that these cogenetic, rhyolitic lavas cover tem that records progressive depletion in compatible
large areas and erupted over tens or hundreds of thou- elements from the interstitial melt as crystallization
sands of years implies a long-lived, laterally extensive and proceeds. The model of melt expulsion from batholithic
well-mixed magma reservoir, but the relatively small crystal mushes predicts that only a small fraction
1572
0.7
(a) Deer Mountain rhyolite (b) Whakamaru Group ignimbrite
0.4
Long Valley Caldera, USA Taupo volcanic zone, NZ
Age (Ma) Reid et al., 1997 0.6 Brown & Fletcher, 1999
0.3
0.5
0.2 0.4
1σ error bar
1σ error bar 0.3
Eruption age = 0.32±0.02 Ma
0.1 Eruption age = 0.115±0.003 Ma 40Ar/39Ar; Houghton et al., 1995
K/Ar; Mankinen et al., 1986 0.2
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30
Analysis number

Analysis number
Fig. 7. Ages of single zircons from (a) the Deer Mountain rhyolite (Reid et al., 1997), and (b) the Whakamaru ignimbrite (Brown & Fletcher, 1999),
compared with their published K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages (Mankinen et al., 1986; Houghton et al., 1995). The large MSWDs (>8) of both datasets
imply a range of zircon ages in excess of analytical precision, suggesting extended periods of zircon crystallization (up to >200 kyr prior to
eruption).
( 10 vol. %) of interstitial liquid is necessary to form the near-liquidus magmas has often been invoked, following
largest erupted rhyolites. Limited melt loss from a mush is the influential works of Grout (1918), Bowen (1928) and
capable of reconciling cumulus textures and melt escape Wager & Brown (1967). However, the recognition that
features with these in situ crystallization trends in plutons sizeable volumes of near-liquidus magma stored in a
(see also Langmuir, 1989, fig. 3). colder environment are destined to convect at low crystal
content led to the realization that settling velocities using
Stokes’ Law [equation (4)] were too fast. Settling velo-
Extended range of crystal ages cities in convecting systems were, therefore, assessed. In
One of the most appealing aspects of melt expulsion from particular, Martin & Nokes (1988) proposed that a char-
a long-lived mush is the fact that it predicts the extended acteristic time scale for crystal settling in convecting
age range recorded by zircons in silicic magmas. Long magmas is
crystallization intervals (>200 kyr) are implied by several
studies (e.g. Reid et al., 1997; Brown & Fletcher, 1999; 9H m
Fig. 7), which show large mean standard weighted devia- tsettle ¼ ð10Þ
2gDrr 2
tions (MSWD) in the datasets, indicating a scatter in
excess of analytical precision. Melt expulsion from the where tsettle is the settling time scale, H is the chamber
mush is likely to entrain some phenocrysts, in particular height, m is the magma viscosity, g is the acceleration due
small ones such as zircon, as settling velocities of zircon to gravity, Dr is the density contrast between crystals and
crystals with radii of 10–50 mm in a rhyolitic melt (m ¼ magma, and r is the radius of crystals. For m ¼ 105 Pa s,
105 Pa s) are of the order of 1010–1012 m/s, slightly Dr ¼ 500 kg/m3 and r ¼ 103 m, tsettle ¼ 6600 years,
slower than the melt expulsion velocities in a compacting indicating that some settling should occur over time
mush calculated here ( 109–1010 m/s). Therefore, scales >104 years. However, the experiments of Martin
the crystal-poor cap inherits crystals that have started & Nokes (1988) were performed at particle concentra-
growing in the mush, prior to extraction. This model tions of <001 wt %, which are unrealistically low for
also predicts that smaller crystals should record ages magmas. Koyaguchi et al. (1990) have looked at settling
close to the eruption age, whereas the larger ones should in slightly more dense suspensions (03 wt % particle;
have a longer crystallization interval. Such grain size 01 vol. %), which is still low compared with magmas,
dependent zircon ages were observed by Brown & as volcanic rocks have 1–50 vol. % crystals, with an
Fletcher (1999) in the Whakamaru group ignimbrites. average of 25%; Ewart, 1982), but noticed a signifi-
cant change in the behavior of the system. Although
settling removes a fraction of the particles, cycles of
Alternative mechanisms of two-phase flow overturn occur, remixing most of the layers periodically
in magmas and increasing clarification time. Settling rates in
Several models of two-phase flow leading to differentia- convecting fluids at geologically realistic crystal frac-
tion of magmas have been proposed. Crystal settling from tions (>2–5 vol. % particles) are poorly known, but
1573
it appears likely that equation (10) still provides an difficult to explain the presence of old, and complexly
overestimation. zoned phenocrysts in silicic magmas, which requires that
Another argument in support of low settling rates in early crystallized material does not become isolated in a
convecting magmas involves the Stokes number of the boundary layer, but remains in the dominant volume or
crystals. The Stokes number (ST) relates the response is periodically recycled.
time scale of the crystal to the response time scale of the (2) Crystalline boundary layers (or solidification fronts)
fluid (e.g. Burgisser & Bergantz, 2002) and allows an rarely appear to be preserved in the rock record. Con-
assessment of the behavior of a particle in a fluid. At centric zoning, recognized in a large number of plutons
ST 1, particle motion is not dictated by the motion of (Bateman & Chappell, 1979; Halliday et al., 1984;
the surrounding liquid, and will follow its own trajectory Stephens, 1992, 2001), has been used as evidence for
(settling in this case). In contrast, at ST 1, a particle will sidewall crystallization (e.g. Sawka et al., 1990; Verplanck
closely follow the fluid. As the ST is vanishingly small for et al., 1999). However, at least two observations disagree
nearly any conditions in silicic magmatic systems, as a with the interpretation that concentric zoning results
result of the small size of the crystals and the high viscos- from inward crystallization of a large magma body.

ity of the melt ( 1011 for 3 mm crystals with convective First, it requires the unlikely assumption that the whole
velocities of 1 m/yr), crystal settling is predicted to be very pluton was crystal-poor at some time during its evolution.
slow as long as any convective currents subsist. Although small pockets of ‘liquid’, with crystal fractions
Observations from large silicic systems agree with the <04 certainly existed throughout its hyper-solidus his-
inference that near-liquidus crystal settling is not import- tory, the concentric zoning could not represent the crys-
ant in the differentiation of silicic magmas. First, the talline margins of a giant (often >1000 km3) pool of
striking whole-rock homogeneity of the monotonous crystal-poor intermediate to silicic magma. Second, the
intermediates (and of the granodioritic batholiths), presence of mafic enclaves near the margins of concen-
together with the extremely complex zoning patterns of trically zoned plutons (e.g. Sawka et al., 1990; Didier &
the crystals they contain, requires magma stirring by Barbarin, 1991; Molyneux & Hutton, 2000) is not
convective movements, even at crystal contents up to consistent with a mechanically isolated crystallizing
45% and melt viscosities of >105 Pa s (Bachmann & boundary layer. Alternatively, concentric zoning could
Dungan, 2002; Bachmann et al., 2002; Maughan et al., be explained by telescoping of compositionally variable
2002). Second, evidence for in situ crystallization trends in intrusions ( John, 1988; Hecht & Vigneresse, 1999;
large granitoid bodies (e.g. Michael, 1984) and relict Coulson et al., 2002; Tsuboi & Suzuki, 2003).
phenocryst cores (particularly obvious in plagioclase) in (3) Large silicic magmas bodies have sill-like aspect
plutons and volcanic rocks (Blundy & Shimizu, 1991; ratios, and producing a voluminous cap of differentiated
Robinson & Miller, 1999; Bachmann et al., 2002; Miller melt by this mechanism appears difficult, as inclined walls
& Miller, 2002) requires a well-stirred suspension and constitute only a small fraction of the chamber surface
recycling of crystals by scouring and re-entrainment of (e.g. de Silva & Wolff, 1995). Melt escaping from the
cumulus crystals. floor is not a viable alternative, as it would not be able
An alternative hypothesis of differential motion to cross the dominant magma volume without being re-
between liquid and crystals in near-liquidus magmas is assimilated ( Jellinek et al., 1999).
residual melt extraction from a crystallizing, double- (4) Although the sidewall crystallization model assumes
diffusive boundary layer (Chen & Turner, 1980; that the presence of a cap over a denser, convecting
McBirney, 1980; Rice, 1981; Huppert & Sparks, 1984; dominant volume is a stable configuration (Fig. 8a),
Spera et al., 1984, 1995; McBirney et al., 1985). The numerical and analog experiments have suggested other-
‘sidewall crystallization’ hypothesis was particularly influ- wise (Oldenburg et al., 1989; Davaille, 1999a, 1999b;
ential because it provided an explanation for the zoning Davaille et al., 2002; Gonnermann et al., 2002), as a result
pattern observed in silicic ignimbrites. In the case of of the entrainment and mixing occurring at the interface
bimodal magmatic fields (e.g. Iceland), and basaltic sills between the two magmas. Scaling theory (Davaille et al.,
(e.g. Peneplain Sill, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica), 2002; Gonnermann et al., 2002) yields a volumetric
a process involving instabilities within a solidification entrainment rate, which depends primarily on the density
front nucleating on the sidewalls and growing inward contrast (B value; Fig. 8b) and Rayleigh number.
(e.g. Marsh, 2002), has been proposed. Some melt extrac- Figure 8c and d shows, for a conservative surface of
tion from a crystallizing sidewall boundary layer may 100 km2, that the entrainment rate can be higher than
occur in magmatic systems, but we suggest that it is not the rate at which evolved magma is generated (e.g. Trial
important in producing the large volumes of rhyolites in & Spera, 1990), suggesting that the less dense cap can be
continental settings for several reasons, as follows. re-assimilated as fast as it is formed.
(1) Sidewall crystallization requires that crystals are The model we are proposing for the generation of
removed from the magma as it evolves. Hence, it is continental rhyolites (Fig. 2) is similar to the model
1574

Fig. 8. Upward melt migration of light, residual liquid from a crystallizing, double-diffusive boundary layer is a popular, but problematic,
hypothesis for shallow magmatic differentiation [schematic diagram in (a), modified from McBirney (1993)]. This model implies a stably stratified
magma chamber, with a stagnant cap overlying the convecting, denser parent magma. In such a system, re-entrainment of the cap by the
convecting interior (or dominant volume; dv) is known to occur as a result of viscous coupling at the interface (e.g. Davaille, 1999a; Davaille et al.,
2002; Gonnermann et al., 2002). Quantification of the entrainment rate Q for an interface of 100 km2 as a function of B is shown for various
viscosities of the dominant volume (c), and for different viscosity ratios (d). For typical B values of magmatic systems [<50, (b)], the entrainment
rate is as fast as or faster than an estimate of the rate at which evolved magmas are generated (Trial & Spera, 1990), suggesting that convecting
‘stably stratified chambers’ are ephemeral.
advocated by Philpotts and co-workers for large mafic only account for dripping crystal–melt instabilities,
bodies (Philpotts et al., 1996; Meurer & Boudreau, 1996; producing the trace element and crystallinity gradients
Boudreau & Philpotts, 2002), although we suggest that recorded in high-SiO2 rhyolites, but also shed nearly
compaction is not the only two-phase flow mechanism solidified lumps as it becomes locally unstable, providing
occurring in silicic mushes. As the rheological transition an explanation to the presence of cogenetic xenoliths in
from melt to solid is a complex process, which varies as some ash-flow tuffs (e.g. Bacon, 1992; Lowenstern et al.,
a function of system properties, strain rate, and shapes of 1997).
particles (Lejeune & Richet, 1995; Vigneresse et al., 1996; Another mechanism potentially able to induce differ-
Barboza & Bergantz, 1998; Petford, 2003), it is likely that ential motion between crystals and melts in porous media
a large crystal mush encompasses regions slightly above is gas-driven filter pressing, as first proposed by Anderson
the RPT, and regions just below. Therefore, we propose et al. (1984) and expanded by Sisson & Bacon (1999). As
that segregation occurs as a combination of multiple many silicic mushes have water-rich interstitial melts
processes (hindered settling, micro-settling, compaction), (4–6 wt % H2O on average, but up to 8 wt %), and are
once convective currents become negligible. As discussed commonly stored in the upper crust (5–15 km), a signific-
by Philpotts et al. (1996), the crystal-poor layer forming ant fraction of them will reach volatile saturation and
above the mushy region is probably overlain by a crystal- exsolve a low-density, low-viscosity fluid phase (e.g.
line boundary layer at the roof. This hanging crystalline Wallace et al., 1995; Wallace, 2001). Sisson & Bacon
ceiling, denser than the underlying magma, could not (1999) suggested that overpressure following exsolution
1575
of this gas phase could drive some interstitial melt out of by dripping of solid–liquid mixtures as crystallization
the porous matrix. This process might participate in proceeds at the roof (Bergantz & Ni, 1999). Because of
segregating melt from crystalline residue in the water- the high viscosity of the magma and the conduction-
rich and shallow systems, but some of our recent work controlled heat loss, convective currents are likely to
(Bachmann & Bergantz, 2003) suggests that it may be remain slow, leading to a density stratification, such as
rather inefficient in expelling large quantities of rhyolite roofward decrease in crystals and increase in volatile
melt, and it could certainly not explain the generation of content (e.g. Jellinek et al., 1999). The trace element
rhyolite in relatively dry settings, such as those in the gradient recorded in the interstitial melt and melt inclu-
Yellowstone system. We therefore propose that it facil- sions (early erupted material has a stronger crystal frac-
itates segregation in certain situations, but is not the tionation signature; Hildreth, 1979; Knesel & Davidson,
dominant mechanism. 1997; Anderson et al., 2000) may be explained by slow
‘crystal settling’ induced by dripping solid–liquid
mixtures from the roof (Bergantz & Ni, 1999), depleting
Compositional gradients in magma the upper and early extracted rhyolite of its compatible

chambers elements.
Compositional gradients between early erupted and late-
erupted material is a ubiquitous observation in ignimb-
rites. Simplifying the classification of Hildreth (1981) CONCLUSIONS
on zoning patterns in pyroclastic deposits, two general At crystallinities 40%, voluminous crystal mushes, pre-
classes can be distinguished: (1) monotonic gradient, served as batholiths in all continental arcs, and sometimes
mainly apparent in trace element concentration (e.g. erupted as unzoned, crystal-rich ignimbrites, are known
Bishop Tuff: Hildreth, 1979); (2) abrupt compositional to store vast amounts of high-SiO2 melt, similar in com-
gap, with major element variations up to several weight position to the crystal-poor rhyolites erupted in contin-
percent (e.g. VTTS: Hildreth & Fierstein, 2000), often ental settings. Extraction of this interstitial liquid to form
associated with the observed lack of units with intermedi- rhyolitic caps has rarely been considered (however, see
ate composition in volcanic sequences (the ‘Daly Gap’). Johnson et al., 1989; Barnes et al., 2001; Miller & Miller,
As this second zoning pattern commonly appears to be 2002), because of the common assumption that the high
related to an abrupt change in crystallinity of the deposits viscosities and low permeabilities of silicic systems would
(as noted above), our model of melt expulsion from a prevent sufficiently high segregation rates to produce the
crystal mush provides a reasonable explanation for the largest rhyolites. Recognizing that silicic bodies can go
preservation of such a gap, as already suggested by through a sustained, high-porosity (04–05), but static
Thompson (1972) and Brophy et al. (1996). However, stage, has motivated a re-evaluation of efficient crystal–
this model does not provide an explanation for the devel- liquid separation in these mushes. Using hindered settling
opment of a monotonic gradient. velocities and compaction rates at porosities of 04–05 to
Although a detailed assessment of the potential constrain a possible range of segregation rates, the pro-
mechanisms leading to the development of monotonic duction of the largest known crystal-poor rhyolites can
chemical gradients in rhyolites is beyond the scope of occur in 104–105 years, well within the range of long-
this study, we believe that our melt expulsion model is evities inferred for mushes in the crust. These segrega-
not incompatible with the formation of this type of tion rates can even be accelerated by gas-driven filter
gradient. We propose that they are separate processes, pressing in volatile-rich systems (Sisson & Bacon, 1999;
with chemical zoning developing after melt expulsion, Bachmann & Bergantz, 2003).
and suggest that low Reynolds number convection in This model provides an integrated view of silicic mag-
the growing cap, coupled with small amounts of wall- matism, in agreement with observations documenting the
rock assimilation (<1 wt %), may provide a plausible common magmatic evolution of shallow plutons and
model reconciling most characteristics of high-SiO2 rhyo- volcanic systems (Lipman, 1984; Halliday et al., 1991).
lites, such as the Bishop Tuff (e.g. Hildreth, 1979; Wilson Not only are plutons and volcanic rocks spatially and
& Hildreth, 1997; Anderson et al., 2000; Bindeman & chronologically associated in magmatic centers preserv-
Valley, 2002; Heumann et al., 2002), and Bandelier Tuff ing thick crustal sections (e.g. Latir center in northern
(e.g. Wolff et al., 1999, 2002). As crystal–melt segregation New Mexico: Johnson et al., 1990; Atesina–Cima d’Asta
occurs, weak convection in the crystal-poor cap is pre- complex, Italy: Barth et al., 1993) but petrological indica-
dicted to begin once thicknesses of a few tens of meters tors, such as the Neodymium Crustal Index (NCI,
are reached. Unstable thermal boundary layers are esti- DePaolo et al., 1992), even suggest that volcanic rocks
mated to be of the order of a few meters thick, even for are a subset of consanguineous magmatic sequences
very small thermal gradients (Martin et al., 1987; Couch (Fig. 1a), in accord with the low extrusive/intrusive ratios
et al., 2001). Convective instabilities can also be created (e.g. Crisp, 1984). However, because of the generally
1576
stronger crystal fractionation signature displayed by Barboza, S. A. & Bergantz, G. W. (2000). Metamorphism and anatexis
silicic volcanic units (Fig. 1b), the models proposed for in the mafic complex contact aureole, Ivrea Zone, Northern Italy.
Journal of Petrology 41, 1307–1327.
the generation of granitoids have been inclined towards
Barnea, E. & Mizrahi, J. (1973). A generalized approach to the fluid
crustal melting, whereas crystal fractionation was favored dynamics of particulate systems. Part I. General correlation for
for volcanic rocks. Our model of melt expulsion from fluidization and sedimentation in solid multiparticulate systems.
crystal mushes reconciles these views by coupling their Chemical Engineering Journal 5, 171–189.
evolution until shallow storage, where melt extraction Barnes, C. G., Burton, B. R., Burling, T. C., Wright, J. E. &
from crystal mush occurs, imparting a more pronounced Karlsson, H. R. (2001). Petrology and geochemistry of the Late
crystal fractionation signature in the erupted portions of Eocene Harrison Pass Pluton, Ruby Mountains core complex,
northeastern Nevada. Journal of Petrology 42, 901–929.
the systems.
Barth, S., Oberli, F., Meier, M., Blattner, P., Bargossi, G. M. & Di
Battistini, G. (1993). The evolution of a calc-alkaline basic to silicic
magma system; geochemical and Rb–Sr, Sm–Nd, and 18O/16O
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS isotopic evidence from the late Hercynian Atesina–Cima d’Asta
We thank Wes Hildreth, Nick Petford and Mark Jellinek volcano-plutonic complex, northern Italy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica

for constructive reviews, and are grateful to Denny Geist Acta 57, 4285–4300.
for the editorial effort he invested in this paper. O.B. was Bateman, P. C. & Chappell, B. W. (1979). Crystallization, fractiona-
funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation tion, and solidification of the Tuolumne Intrusive Series, Yosemite
National Park, California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 90,
(Bourse chercheur avance) and G.W.B. by NSF grant
465–482.
EAR-0106441. Bergantz, G. W. & Dawes, R. (1994). Aspects of magma generation
and ascent in continental lithosphere. In: Ryan, M. P. (ed.) Magmatic
Systems. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 291–317.
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JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 45 NUMBER 8 PAGES 1565–1582 2004 DOI: 10.

On the Origin of Crystal-poor Rhyolites:

OLIVIER BACHMANN* AND GEORGE W. BERGANTZ

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*Corresponding author. Present address: Section des Sciences de la

Greater crustal involvement

0.25 Western USA

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Rhyolites Rayleigh fractional

crystallization trend Interstitial melt in

0.1 1 10 100 1000

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radius using petrographic observations of the dominant 1.0

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hm ¼ hfð1 e1 Þ: ð9Þ 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005

Fig. 6. Time required to segregate >500 km3 of crystal-poor rhyolite

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