UNDERSTANDING THE OD PROCESS

CHAPTER 4 (Role and Style of the OD practitioner)

Haphazard vs. Planned Change

Planned Change. Change within an

organization may be random or haphazard
where the change is forced upon the
organization by the external environment.
But another type of change, planned
change, is the result of deliberate attempts
to modify the organization in order to
promote improvement

External and Internal Practitioner External practitioner is someone not previously associated with the client system. Coming from the outside, the external
practitioner sees things from a different viewpoint and from a position of objectivity.
Internal practitioner is already a member of the organization: either a top executive, an organization member who initiates
change in his or her work group, or a member of the organization development or human resources department.
OD Practitioner Styles
1. Stabilizer Style
2. Cheerleader Style
3. Analyzer Style
4. Persuader Style
5. Pathfinder Style

Stabilizer Style- goal is neither effectiveness nor participant satisfaction.

Cheerleader Style- places emphasis on the satisfaction of organization members and is chiefly concerned with employee
motivation and morale
Analyzer Style- places great emphasis on efficiency and gives little emphasis to member satisfaction.
Persuader Style- focuses on both dimensions, effectiveness and morale, yet optimizes neither
The Pathfinder Style- seeks both a high degree of effectiveness and a high degree of member satisfaction, believing that
greater effectiveness is possible when all members are involved and problem solving is done through teamwork.
Intervention Process The Readiness of the Organization for OD
The Intervention- refers to an array of planned activities participated in by both the practitioner and the client, including
shared observations of the processes occurring between members of a group or of an organization for the purpose of improving
the effectiveness of the processes.
Who Is the Client? will initially be the person with whom the practitioner first makes contact. But it may soon become apparent
that the organization is more realistically the client.
The OD Practitioner’s Role in the Intervention

OD Practitioner Skills and Activities

• Leadership Skills. Leaders keep members focused on key company values and on opportunities and need for
improvement. A leader’s job is to recognize when a company is headed in the wrong direction and to get it back on
the right track.
• Project Management Skills. This means involving all the right people and departments to keep the change program
on track.
• Communication Skills. It is vital to communicate the key values to everyone in the organization.
• Problem-Solving Skills. The real challenge is to implement a solution to an organizational problem. Forget about
today’s problems: focus constantly on the next set of problems.
• Interpersonal Skills. The number-one priority is to give everybody in the organization the tools and the confidence
to be involved in the change process. This includes facilitating, building relationships, and process skills.
• Personal Skills. The confidence to help the organization make tough decisions, introduce new techniques, try
something new, and see if it works. The OD practitioner’s role is to help employees create their own solutions, systems,
and concepts. When the practitioner uses the above-listed skills to accomplish these goals, the employees will work
hard to make them succeed, because they are the owners of the change programs.
Forming the Practitioner -Client Initial Perceptions-
Relationship Perception is the process individuals use to give meaning to their environment by interpreting and organizing sensory
impressions; however, what one perceives can be substantially different from reality.
Selective perception refers to the selectivity of the information perceived.
Another process involved in perception is termed closure.
Practitioner Style Model

Developing a Trust Relationship

There are several basic responses that the practitioner may use in the communication process aimed at developing a trust
relationship:
• Questions—“How do you see the organization?”
• Applied expertise (advising)—“One possible intervention is team building.”
• Reflection—“It sounds like you would like to see a participative form of leadership.”
• Interpretation—“From your description, interteam conflict could be the problem.”
• Self-disclosure—“I’ve felt discouraged myself when my ideas were rejected.”
• Silence—Say nothing, let the client sort out his or her thoughts.
Creating a Climate for Change
Practitioner-Client Relationship Modes
 The apathetic mode. Members keep their true ideas about self-fulfillment and organization effectiveness to themselves
The gamesmanship mode. Members keep their true feelings about self-fulfillment and organizational effectiveness to
themselves, under the assumption that sharing information may threaten personally desired outcomes.
The charismatic mode. A limited number of members openly share ideas and feelings with the rest, based on perceptions of
leadership.
The consensus mode. Members continuously share perceptions and feelings openly, both on self-fulfillment and
organizational effectiveness.

The Formalization of operating Ground The formalization or contract normally specifies such items as:
Rules 1. the point of contact
2. The role of the practitioner
3. The fees
4. The Schedule
5. The Anticipated Result
6. The operating ground Rules

Warning Signs in Practitioner-Client The Level of Commitment to Change

Relationship The Degree of Leverage or Power to Influence Change
The Client’s Manipulative Use of the Practitioner
 CHAPTER 5 (The Diagnostic Process)

The Diagnostic Problem Areas Diagnosis. Organizational diagnosis is one of the most critsical and difficult elements in the OD process. Diagnosis has this
importance because it leads to problemsolving action. A weak or inaccurate diagnosis prevents the practitioner and the client
from identifying underlying forces and multiple causalities that would enable them to specify the nature of the problem.
What is Diagnostic The Process
The Performance Gap
The Data Collection Process The Definition of Objectives
The Selection of Key Factors
Data Collection. Intervention and data The Selection of a Data-Gathering Method
gathering take place throughout an OD SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA
program. Decisions about what EMPLOYEE SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES
information to collect and how it should OTHER TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
be collected are difficult and important. Such data enable the investigator to diagram the structure and patterns of group interaction. The results are
No data-gathering method is right or usually presented in what is called a sociogram. The sociogram is a type of picture graph that documents
wrong in itself; each method has its communication patterns within a team or group. The highly chosen individuals are called stars; those with
limitations as well as its strong points. few or no choices are called isolates. Certain individuals will choose one another; this is known as mutual
The process of collecting information choice. When an individual chooses another but is not chosen in return, this designates a one way choice.
is an important step in an OD program When three or more persons within a larger group select one another (mutual choices), this is termed a
because it provides a foundation for clique. The existence of subgroups may indicate lack of group cohesion and coordination.
diagnosing problems and selecting
change strategies and techniques. What DIRECT OBSERVATION
must be determined is whether a given INTERVIEWS- Interviewing is one of the most widely used data-gathering techniques in OD programs. Interviews
method is most appropriate for the are more direct, personal, and flexible than questionnaires and are very well suited for studies of interaction and
specific objectives and climate of each behavior. Two advantages, in particular, set interviewing apart from other techniques. First, interviews are flexible and
unique situation. can be used in many different situations. For example, they can be used to determine motives, values, and attitudes.
Second, interviewing is the only technique that provides two-way communication.

The interview itself may take on several different formats. It can be directed or nondirected.
1. In a directed interview, certain kinds of data are desired, and therefore, specific questions are asked. The questions
are usually formulated in advance to ensure uniformity of responses. The questions themselves may be open ended
or closed. Open-ended questions allow the respondent to be free and unconstrained in answering, such as “How
would you describe the work atmosphere of this organization?” The responses may be very enlightening, but may
also be difficult to record and quantify. Closed questions, which can be answered by a yes, no, or some other brief
response, are easily recorded and are readily quantifiable but may not reveal critical data.
 2. In a nondirected interview, the interview’s direction is chosen by the respondent, with little guidance or direction
by the interviewer. If questions are used in a nondirected interview, open-ended questions will be more appropriate
than closed questions.

The Implementation of Data Collection The Analysis of Data

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Data Collection
THE VALIDITY OF THE DATA
THE TIME TO COLLECT DATA
THE COST OF DATA COLLECTION
THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND NORMS
THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT IN DATA COLLECTING
Diagnostic Models Differentiation-and-Integration Model
The Sociotechnical-Systems Model
The Force-Field Analysis Model
Warning Signs in The Diagnosis Process Confidentiality Overdiagnosis
The Crisis Diagnosis
The Threatening and Overwhelming Diagnosis
The Practitioner’s Favorite Diagnosis
The Diagnosis of Symptoms
SUMMARY SUMMARY
Problem Solving. In diagnosing an Diagnostic Process. Diagnosis is not a simple process, because it encompasses both the client’s needs and the system problems.
organization’s problems, the practitioner The diagnostic process involves identifying the problems and assessing the readiness for change in the client system. It
and the client try to specify the problems, requires an understanding of the client’s viewpoint. The practitioner must apply a system’s approach by specifying the
determine the underlying causes, and interrelationships of various elements of the client system. This requires organizing the available data or evidence into
identify the opportunities for change. meaningful patterns.
The practitioner sorts out factual from Diagnostic Models. Several diagnostic models have been described, including the differentiation-and-integration model, the
nonfactual information and searches for sociotechnical-systems model, and the forcefield analysis model. The practitioner uses these models to facilitate the analysis
multiple sources of the problem of client system problems. The important factors and models in the diagnostic process have been described. This stage provides
condition. The outcome is an explicit and the foundation for subsequent OD interventions.
specific diagnosis upon which to base Implementation. The practitioner needs maximum participation in the diagnostic process from members of the client system
change efforts. and needs to consider the impact of the diagnosis upon the relationship with the client. Since the practitioner may confront the
client with unpleasant facts, the more objective the data and the more the analysis includes both strengths and weaknesses,
the better the resulting OD program will be. During the diagnostic phase, the practitioner should be alert for danger signals or
red-flag conditions.
 CHAPTER 6
(Overcoming Resistance to Change)

Change and Reinvent Change- is the process of change that is made complex by the interaction of social, technical, and psychological factors.
Both people and organizations have vested interests in the status quo. The advocates of change must deal with the possible
resistance to change before implementing any OD strategy or technique.
The Life Cyle of Resistance to Change Phase 1: Change Introduced
(Five Phases): is an example of applying - Large organizations seem to have more difficulty bringing about change than smaller organizations.
the phases to better understand a long- Phase 2: Forces Identified
range change program - As the movement for change begins to grow, the forces for and against it become identifiable.
Phase 3: Direct Conflict
1. Introduction of Change - mean life or death to the change effort, because the exponents of the change often underestimate the strength of their
2. Identification of the force opponents.
3. Conflict between the forces Phase 4: Residual Resistance
4. Residual resistance - If the supporters of the change are in power after the decisive battles, they will see the remaining resistance as stubborn
5. Establishment of Change and a nuisance. There is still a possibility that the registers will mobilize enough support to shift the balance of power
Phase 5: Change Established
- the resisters to the change are as few and as alienated as the advocates were in the first phase.
Leading Change Advocates of Change- person who spearheads a change program is very often the most important force in the change
Success of Change: process. (CEO is likely the change advocate.)
Advocate of Change Degree of Change- will fall on a continuum of change ranging from minor to extreme.
Degree of Change Time Frame- The change may be implemented over several months or years, or it may be implemented immediately
Time Frame Impact on Culture- The greater the impact on the existing culture and norms, the greater the amount of resistance that is
Impact on Culture likely to emerge, and thus the more difficult it will be to implement the change program.
Evaluation of Change Evaluation of Change- Plans and levels of performance are developed to measure the degree of change and its impact on the
organization’s effectiveness. The evaluation is not a one time activity that occurs near the end of the change process. It is,
however, an ongoing part of the change. Continuous reviews of the progress are made for all the stakeholders so that corrections
are made and accountability is maintained.
A Change Model 1. Minor change, low impact on culture. When the change to be introduced is relatively minor and the impact on the
existing culture is low, resistance will be at the lowest level, and success will be most probable.
2. Minor change, high impact on culture. When the change is minor but the impact on the culture is high, some resistance
can be expected, depending on the size of the threat and the speed of the change.
3. Major change, low impact on culture. When the change is major, but the impact on existing culture is minor, some
resistance is likely, but good management can probably overcome it.
4. Major change, high impact on culture. When the change is large and the impact on the existing culture is high, the
greatest resistance can be predicted. Concomitantly, the probability of success is low.
A driving Forces Toward Acceptance of (JUST READ)
a Change program Dissatisfaction with the Present Situation- Sometimes an organization is dissatisfied or even troubled by its situation. It may
not know why it is dissatisfied, but it has a desire for relief. This could be likened to a person who is sick. When you are sick
Driving forces are anything that and you do not know what has caused your illness or how to cure yourself, you just want to be relieved of the pain
increases the inclination of an External Pressures Toward Change- An organization does not exist in a vacuum. It is part of a larger external environment
organization to implement a proposed that imposes certain forces upon it. Sometimes external pressures will cause the organization to change some of its methods of
change program. operation. These pressures range from voluntary actions to involuntary legal requirements
Momentum Toward Change- Since change programs usually do not come cheap, an organization that spends money to begin
a change will probably want to continue in order to get full value for its investment. Once a change program is under way in
one part of an organization, it may set off a chain reaction requiring or permitting changes in other parts of the organization.
Motivation by Management- The behavior of key managers can often be a motivating force, especially if others hold them in
high esteem.
Restraining Forces Blocking Uncertainty Regarding Change: “The Comfort Zone” -
Implementation of Change Programs Fear of the Unknown
Disruption of Routine
Restraining Forces. Resistance to Loss of Benefits: “What’s in It for Me?”
change is usually a reaction to the Threat to Security
methods used in implementing a change Threat to Position Power
rather than an inherent human Redistribution of Power
characteristic. People tend to resist Disturb Existing Social Networks
changes that do not make sense to them orConformity to Norms and Culture
that are forced upon them against their Driving Forces and Restraining Forces
will. Certain factors, such as loss of Act in Tandem
security or status, lead to resistance to
change. There are ways to reduce this
resistance, including good
communication and participation in the
change process.
Strategies to Increase Motivation Climate Conducive to Change
Clearly Articulated Vision- . A vision describes a desired future state for an organization
Strategies for Change. Acceptance of Effective Communications
change can be improved when certain Leadership of Managers
conditions are present that minimize the Participation of Members
threat or discomfort of a proposed change.
These conditions include careful planning Reward Systems- Profit sharing uses the performance of the business to calculate pay. Knowledge-based pay or skill-based
and thorough communication of the pay uses the knowledge or skills a worker has to determine pay. Gain sharing recognizes the value of a specific group of workers
change to the target individual, group, or based on measurable characteristics that become the basis for calculating pay. The members of the group typically share the
system. The degree of acceptance also rewards equally. Employee stock-ownership plans (ESOPs) use formulas of various kinds to grant stock or stock options to a
increases when others are allowed to broad segment of employees.
participate in making a self-designed
change program. The probability that a Negotiation, Agreement, and Politics
change will be accepted is increased if the Power Strategies
manager can create a climate in which
people feel free to change rather than
coerced.
 IMPROVING SILENCE IN INDIVIDUAL

Chapter 7

(OD intervention Strategy)

Organizational Change The purpose is to increase productivity through invigorated employees who are able to develop creativity, performance, and
innovation beyond traditional levels.
OD strategy
- The OD strategy involves the planning and direction of intervention activities.
- may be defined as a plan for relating and integrating the different organizational improvement activities engaged in
over a period to accomplish objectives. The type of strategy selected will be greatly influenced by the diagnosis of the
organization’s problems
Basic Strategies to Change: Structural Strategies
1. Structural Strategies - It provides the framework that relates elements of the organization to one another. Structural strategies attempt to
2. Technological Strategies change an organization’s design by modifying the lines of authority, span of control, and arrangement of work functions.
3. Behavioral Strategies - Structural changes include downsizing and removing or adding layers to an organization’s hierarchy.

Technological Strategies
- implement new technologies, such as new computer systems and machinery. These strategies are often required to bring
an organization up to the state-of-the-art in machinery, methods, automation, and job design.
- Organizations are increasingly implementing sophisticated computerized managementinformation systems (MIS)

Behavioral Strategies
- emphasizes the use of human resources.
- Human Assets
- Increasing the morale, motivation, and commitment of members can also improve an organization’s performance.
The Integration of Change Strategies - is the open-office concept that is used at companies
Stream Analysis - is one method used in planning the implementation and analysis of behavioral, structural, and technological changes.

Selecting an OD Intervention OD intervention encompasses the range of actions designed to improve the health or functioning of the client system.
- There are many possible intervention techniques that may be used in organization development. Although these
techniques differ, they aim at the same basic goals:
 (1) to improve the functioning of the client system,
(2) to increase the organization’s adaptive capability toward a more anticipative system, and
(3) to enhance the development and potential of the individual members of the organization.
The Major OD Intervention Technique Intervention techniques may be classified in terms of the target system. The intervention may focus on organizational levels,
ranging from the individual, team, and interterm levels to the total organizational system. The aspect of the organization that is
being changed and the problem conditions will determine the type of intervention that is selected.