MZUZU UNIVERSITY

Centre For Open Distance and E-Learning

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC

PURPOSES
COMM 1102

BURNET MUSOPOLE
CONTENTS PAGES

Introduction…………………………………………………..
Course Aims…………………………………………………
Course Objectives……………………………………………
Working through the Course…………………………………
Course Materials……………………………………………..
Study Units……………………………………………………
Textbooks and References……………………………………
Self-Assessment Exercises or Tutor Mark Assignment (TMAs) ……..
Final Examinations and Grading……………………………..
Course Marking Scheme……………….……………………..
Presentation Schedule………………………………..……….
Course Overview………………………………………………
How to get the Most from this Course………………………..
Tutor and Tutorials……………………...…………………….
Summary ……………………………………………………..

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to COMM 1102: English for Academic Purposes. COMM 1102: English
foe Academic Purposes is an 11credit one-semester undergraduate course. It comprises
Eight study units.

The term English for academic purposes (EAP) covers language research and instruction
that focuses on the communicative needs and practices of individuals studying or
working in academic contexts. It therefore includes a range of activities from listening
and reading (receptive skills) to writing and speaking (productive skills). While often
characterised as a practical affair, it goes beyond preparing learners for study in English,
to understanding the kinds of literacy found in the academy.

This course guide gives you an overview of the course. It also provides you with
information on the organization and requirements of the course.

COURSE AIM
To equip students with appropriate language and communication skills necessary
for academic demands.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims above, we have some overall objectives. Each unit also has
objectives. These will guide you in your study. They are usually stated at the beginning
of each unit; and when you are through with studying the units, go back and read the
objectives. This would help you accomplish the task you have set out to achieve. On
completion of the course, you should be able to:
a. Read different texts effectively.
b. Produce effective summaries from lectures and reading tasks.
c. Effectively manage time and other academic resources.
d. Write different types of academic papers (essays).
e. Demonstrate improved accuracy, fluency, and confidence in using advanced
grammar structures.

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related
materials. You will also need to undertake practical exercises for which you need a pen, a
notebook, and other materials that will be listed in this guide. The exercises are to aid you
in understanding the concepts being presented. At the end of each unit, you will be
required to submit written assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course,
you will write a final examination.

COURSE MATERIALS
The major materials you will need for this course are:
1. Course guide
2. Study units
3. Relevant textbooks, including the ones listed under each unit
4. Assignment file

STUDY UNITS
There are 8 study units in this course, as follows:

Unit 1 Listening Skills

Lesson 1 Listening Enabling Skills
Lesson 2 Listening and Comprehending
Lesson 3 Listening – Comprehension and Note-taking
Unit 2 Reading Skills

Unit 3 Study Skills

Unit 4 Essay Writing

Unit 5 Steps in Essay Writing

Unit 6 Incorporating Research (Referencing)

Unit 7 Grammar Aspects

Unit 8 Mechanics of Language

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

Certain books are recommended in the course. You may wish to purchase them for
further reading.

ASSIGNMENT FILE
An assignment file and a marking scheme will be made available to you. In this file, you
will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks
you obtain from these assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this
course. Further information on assignments will be found in the assignment file itself
and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAs)

You will need to submit a specified number of Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs).
Every unit in this course has a tutor-marked assignment. You will be assessed on … of
them, but the best four (that is, the highest four of the … marked) will be counted. The
total marks for the best four assignments will be 40 per cent of your total work.

Assignment questions for the unit in this course are contained in the Assignment File.
When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with the Tutor-Marked
Assignment (TMA) form to your tutor. Make sure each assignment reaches your tutor on
or before the deadline for submission. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your
work on time, contact your tutor to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extension will
not be granted after due date, unless under exceptional circumstances.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination of COMM 1102 will be of three hour duration. All areas of the
course will be examined. Find time to read the unit all over before your examination. The
final examination will attract 60 per cent of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-
marked assignments you have previously come across. All areas of the course will be
assessed. You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before
you sit for the examination. You will also find it useful to review your tutor-marked
assignments and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The following table lays out how the actual course marks allocation is broken down:
Assessment Marks (Best four assignments 40%
out of … marked)
Final Examination 60%
Total Semester Marks 100%

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The dates for submission of all assignments will be communicated to you. You will also
be told the date for completing the study units and dates for examinations.

UNIT ONE

LISTENING ENABLING SKILLS

UNIT ONE: Listening Skills

Lesson 1 Listening Enabling Skills
Lesson 2 Listening and Comprehending
Lesson 3 Listening – Comprehension and Note-taking

LESSON 1: Listening Enabling Skills

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Who is a Listener?
3.2 Why Must We Listen?
3.3 Listening Enabling Skills
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Unit Objectives

At the end of this Introductory Unit you should be able to do the following:

 use the listening enabling skills

 listen and comprehend lectures and talks
 take down notes, while listening to a talk or lecture
 retrieve general and specific information through listening comprehension
 state how to listen to and comprehend data, figures, diagrams and charts
 listen for main idea
 listen and be able to interpret and evaluate speaker's view points

3.0 Introduction

You are welcome to this lesson entitled Listening Enabling Skills. In this unit, you will
be exposed to who a learner is, why the learner must listen and what he or she should
listen to. The listening enabling skills that you need to function effectively in the
programmes you enrolled in will then be unfolded to you.

3.1 Who is a Listener?

I have a simple answer for this question. You are that listener. You are a listener because
listening is a compulsory day to day activity of the programme. Although, most of the
time you will be reading; there will be occasions when you have to listen to a tape
recorder, radio, television or video in this programme. You are likely going to attend
lectures and meetings in the study centre. You need the skill of listening accurately and to
comprehend what is conveyed to you as information. That is why you need to go through
this unit, carefully.

As a listener, I cannot determine where you are now, studying this unit; it maybe in your
home, your work place, an isolated place or even inside a vehicle taking you to a
destination. Wherever you may be, there is something important about listening. We
listen daily, moment by moment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Who is a listener?
ii. What do you listen to?

If you have done the above self-assessment exercise very well, you probably must have
written down answers such as that indicated below.

A listener is anybody who is capable of listening to anything said, and possibly,

participates in what he listened to and what is demanded to be done. In fact, as a reader of
this unit you are a listener, although it is possible for you to be deaf and be doing this
course. Even If you are deaf, you still listen to sign language. What do you listen to? You
can listen to a tape recorder, a video, or a lecture. Did you get all the answers correctly?
If you did, then fine. It means that you are following me in this study.

3.2 Why Must We Listen?

You as a listener must listen because listening is a day to day activity. You listen to your
friends talking, may be in your language or English. You listen to directions when you
are lost or new to a place. You listen to lectures, which are delivered by specialists in a
field. You listen at home, at work, in the office, to a telephone conversation and so on.

Listening activities can therefore be divided into two major parts, namely- listening in
general, social setting and listening for specific purposes.

The kind of listening we are interested in here is listening for specific purposes. That is,
listening to gather information, for directions, listening to academic lectures, to process
involved in doing something, or listening to critically evaluate what a speaker is saying.
Your concern in this study is also listening in English. Indeed, English is the medium of
instruction.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Which of the following is NOT the purpose of listening to gather information? Indicate
with a tick ( ).

i. Day to day activity

ii. Telephone conversation
iii. Eating a delicious food
iv. Working in the office
v. Critical evaluation of what people are saying
vi. Absorbing academic lectures.

The last part of this lesson is the most important. This part deals with listening enabling
skills.

3.3 Listening Enabling Skills

No matter where you are, you need the following requirements for active listening:

functioning ears
concentration
ability to think along with the speaker
ability to anticipate what the speaker is about to say
ability to note important signposts that keep the listening activity going.

Anybody with a functioning ear can listen. Indeed, this is the attribute common to many
people. Even the deaf listen by means of signals from sign language. Of course, if you
have listening defects, listening ability will be difficult.

The next listening enabling skill you need is CONCENTRATION. Effective listening is
difficult in the midst of interruption, when there is lack of interest in the topic, noise and
when a speaker speaks above your head by using difficult words.

The point for you to note here is that concentration is an important component of
effective listening.

The third listening enabling skill is ability. Think along with the speaker and anticipate
what the speaker is about to say. You cannot think along with the speaker if your mind
goes astray. You cannot anticipate the next thing, if your attention is not there. There are
some signals in listening that can facilitate anticipation. Some of these are put in the box
below.

The speaker says… You anticipate…

First of all… Secondly …
In the past… Now…
Areas of strength… Areas of weakness …
The most important… The less …

Indeed, ability to anticipate can assist you in good listening.

The fourth listening enabling skill is relationship. That is, your ability to relate or
connect what was said before with what the speaker is saying now. Relationship comes
into listening when expressions such as “as I said before”, “on the one hand”,
“consequently”, “in other words”, etc., are said by the speaker.

Lastly, ability to pay attention to significant sign posts such as “firstly”, “secondly”,
“lastly”, “now”, “next”, “where”, “when”, “who”, and so on, is an important listening
enabling skill. These signs tell you the important points that the speaker is making.

4.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we studied who a listener is, why we must listen and the listening enabling
skills of listener. As indicated in the unit, you are the listener. You listen day by day and
moment by moment. The listening enabling skills you need are- functioning ears,
concentration and ability to think along with the speaker and relate or connect ideas
together. Anticipation and important signposts facilitate effective listening.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Answer the following questions.
i. Who is a listener?
ii. Why do we have to listen?
iii. List possible listening enabling skills that you know.
iv. Listen to three important talks on your radio or TV. Briefly outline the major points of
the talks.

LESSON 2 LISTENING AND COMPREHENDING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Relationship between Listening and Comprehending
3.2 Listening-Comprehension
3.3 Factors Affecting Comprehension
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson, we considered who a listener is, why we have to listen and
listening enabling skills. Have you seen yourself as a listener? I think you are now
practising some of the enabling skills. In this lesson, you are going to study the
relationship between listening and comprehending. You probably are familiar with the
term listening-comprehension. Indeed, listening is closely related to comprehension.
Listening is useless if there is no comprehension.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 show clearly the relationship between listening and comprehension
 perform tasks on how to comprehend
 state factors affecting comprehension.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Relationship between Listening and Comprehending

Do you know the relationship between listening and comprehension? You listen to
comprehend and you comprehend, while listening. This section exposes you to the
relationship between listening and comprehension.

As you listen, you must always be ready to comprehend. Comprehension is at different

levels during the art of listening. Some speeches are to be comprehended, superficially,
because the points are not too important. Some need proper attention because what is to
be discussed is very important. Flexibility in the art of listening and comprehension is
therefore very important.

In fact, comprehension is more than getting all the words or expressions in a listening
passage. You need more than words to comprehend. You need the general knowledge of
what you comprehend. The more familiar you are with the topic, the better the
comprehension. This brings us to the second part of our study: How can you comprehend
what you listened to?

3.2 Listening-Comprehension
So far in this lesson, we stress the fact that listening is closely related to comprehension.
We are going to discuss how to comprehend. In order to comprehend you should:
  listen attentively
 follow the speaker
 posses a wide range of vocabulary related to the subject being discussed
 recognise general speech pattern and major speech divisions such as
introduction, main body of speech, transitional clues, change of ideas, shift of
emphasis, summary, concluding remarks, etc.
 put your experience of the world to bear on the topic
 show interest in the topic.

The chart below indicates how to carry out all the comprehension steps listed above.

Fig.3.1: Steps to Listening-Comprehension

3.3 Factors Affecting Comprehension
This section is directly the opposite of how to comprehend. The following can affect the
rate of comprehension.
 Not being familiar with the topic
 Lack of concentration
 Lack of interest
 Limited language and vocabulary of the subject matter
 Inability to think deeply.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Comprehension is central to all listening activities. As you listen to lectures, seminars and
tutorials in your study centre, make sure you avoid barriers that can hinder
comprehension. Remember, listening without comprehension is useless. You must
always strive for comprehension whenever you listen.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this lesson, you have been exposed to the following:
 the relationship between listening and comprehension, and
 how to comprehend during listening.
We have also given you some of the factors that hinder comprehension; you should put
all these points into practice as you study.

6.0 TASK
LESSON 3 LISTENING-COMPREHENSION AND NOTE TAKING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making
3.2 How to Take Notes from Lectures
3.3 Dos and Don’ts of Note Taking
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In Lesson 2, we practiced, extensively, how to listen for comprehension. Can you still
remember what we said about listening-comprehension? Listening and comprehension
are related. You listen to comprehend. Comprehension is at different levels- superficial
and deep comprehension. Flexibility in listening activities is important. The concentration
you give to any listening activity depends on the importance of what is listened to.
In this Lesson, you will study listening comprehension for note-taking. All throughout
life, you will face situations where you have to listen to lectures, may be delivered by a
distinguished special guest or lectures presented in audio recordings, video, television or
on-line. Occasionally, in this your course, lectures may be delivered at the satellite
centers by way of video-conferencing. The attempt in this Lesson is to prepare you for
listening, comprehending and taking down notes during lectures.

If you visit your satellite centre, you may have a video recording of some of the lectures
used as practice exercises in this Lesson. Watch it.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define note taking
 distinguish between note taking and note-making
 state, in clear terms, how to take notes
 apply note taking techniques to taking notes from lectures
 state the dos and don'ts of note taking activity.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making

Some people cannot distinguish between note-taking and note-making. The two terms, to
such people, can be used inter-changeably. In this unit, we distinguish between note-
taking and note-making. We take note-taking to mean taking notes from lectures or
speeches. We, however, see note-making as an activity done during study time. You
make notes from your textbooks, journal articles or study texts.

The ability to take good notes while listening to an important talk or lecture is a skill that
you will find useful in your studies and generally in life. You should always take notes
while listening to a speech, talk or a lecture, no matter the medium of delivery. That is, if
you listen to a lecture on a video or CD-ROM, you should be able to take notes. You
should also take notes in discussion groups, seminars and tutorials.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Going by the distinction made between note-taking and note-making in this unit, tick ( )
situations when you will take notes and put (x) in situations where you will make notes.
Do this for the situations listed below.
1. When reading a book in the library
2. When consulting an encyclopedia
3. When reading a recent journal
4. When in a distinguished annual lecture
5. When listening to a documentary
6. When you are in the reference section of a library
7. When listening to a budget broadcast
8. When consulting yellow pages
9. When in a crucial meeting
10. When consulting an open university directory

I don’t think you will find this exercise difficult. The answers are straightforward. Any
situation that suggests reading, in all the situations listed above, requires note-making.
Thus, when reading a book in the library, consulting an encyclopedia, recent journal,
when in the reference section of the library, when consulting yellow pages and an open
university directory, you should make notes (put x in the boxes). They are situations
when notes are made. All other situations which entail listening should have a tick ( ).
They are situations when notes are taken.

The next section of this Lesson is on how to take notes from lectures. Let's study it.

3.2 How to Take Notes from Lectures

This section gives you training on how you can take notes from lectures, seminars, and
tutorials from speeches. The rules are simple and straightforward. You should not forget
them.
1. Listen carefully to the lecture- paying attention is very important in note-taking.
Some students start to write as soon as the speaker starts speaking, without taking
pain to listen attentively to what the speaker is saying.
2. Understanding- understand what the speaker is saying before attempting to take
notes; take notes when you understand the point.
3. Put down the summary of the main points of the lecture. Some students start
writing even before the points are made. Thus, they end up writing irrelevancies.
Most of the things students study, as notes today are irrelevancies because proper
notes are not taken. Write points. Do not write full sentences in note-taking.
4. Use abbreviations where necessary and possible. This saves time. Common
note-taking abbreviations are listed below.

i.e = that is V = verb

b/4 = before Prep = preposition/preparation
 i/c = in charge Pro = pronoun/pronounce,
etc = and so on syn = synonyms
viz = namely idm = idiom
sb = somebody sgm = symbol, symbiotic
sth = something fig = figure
abr = abbreviations BrE = British English
b/c = because/became MW = Malawi
Afr = African/Africa Conj = conjunction
det = determined/determine

These are just a few. You can, on your own, find out many more. Do you know
what? You can even create your own abbreviations. The only thing is that you
should not fill up your notes with too many abbreviations that will make the notes
incomprehensible. Abbreviations save time during note taking. You need them
more when the speaker is fast.

5. Use symbols where necessary or important- there are many symbols that
you can use. Science and technology students use more symbols than the
humanities students. Be familiar with the symbols in your field. Some of the
symbols you can use in note-taking are presented in the next box.

Fig. 3.2: Symbols for Note-Taking

Again, there are many symbols that can be used during note-taking. Only a few is given
here. Of course, you can also form your own symbols. Note-taking activities during
lectures are fast when symbols are used.

Leave plenty of space between different headings and sub-headings when taking notes.
The spaces are to be used for writing additional information or facts that you may
discover after the lectures or during your own private study. Also leave wide margins for
later comments and related references. Emphasise key words, phrases, sentences and
ideas by use of capitalisation, underlining, colouring, asterisks, etc.

Neatness - the neater your notes are, the more attractive and the more you would like to
read them. Good handwriting, systematic organisation, consistent use of headings and
sub-headings, all add to what can make your notes attractive, pleasant to read and easy to
learn.

The first thing in note-taking from lecture is to be able to identify heading and sub-
headings. Indeed, the centre (or main) heading and sub-headings of the lecture are
outlined below.

Fig. 3.3: Schema for Identifying Topical Headings/sub-Headings

This is a very simple heading-sub-heading format for good note-taking. Of course, it is

possible in a more technical and complex note-taking activity to have sub-sub heading
under a sub-heading as shown in the next box.

Fig. 3.4: Schema for Identifying Sub-Headings

Note that the major points under each sub-heading are not written in complete sentences
but in summary form.

3.2 Dos and Don'ts of Note-Taking

 Irrelevances are removed from the notes. One of the most important "dos" of
note-taking is- always remove irrelevances. Do not write everything the lecturer
says.
 Abbreviations are used. Abbreviations such as- etc. (and so on) e.g. (for
example) and symbols such as "/" (for either -or) are used, although sparingly in
the lecture.

Use abbreviations during note-taking.

 Heading and sub-headings of the notes are consistent. The heading is

centralised, underlined/in bold letters because not all the letters are capitalised. If
all letters are capitalised, do not underline.

 The notes are not written in full sentences. You should write points and not full
sentences in note taking.

 You should write points in notes. Do not write long sentences. The shorter your
points, the more concise your notes; but beware! Do not be too brief in your notes
such that your meaning becomes unclear to you yourself. Put down enough that
will enable you to remember the major points.

Do not write notes on loose sheets which are improperly kept. Write notes in exercise
books or on sheets that are well filed.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Note-taking activity is very important to all students. It is needed when listening to
lectures, seminars tutorial, and important speeches. Note-taking brings to memory what
has been learnt or heard. You must always take notes while listening to an important talk.

5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has made it clear to you that:
 note-taking means taking notes from lectures, talks or speeches
 note-making is reserved for making notes from your textbooks, journal articles or
study texts
  before you take notes, you should listen attentively and understand what the
speaker is saying
 when taking notes, you should put down the major points, use abbreviations and
symbols where necessary, leave enough space between different headings,
emphasise the key words, etc.

6.0 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Passage 3.1: Typhoid: A Deadly Disease

Today's lecture is on a very important, issue captioned ‘Health is Wealth’. It dwells on a
deadly disease called typhoid. Nobody prays for this disease. As you listen to the lecture
(have someone read it to you) use the form in exercise 3.1, Lesson 3, to take down
notes. You are allowed to listen to the lecture only once.

Causes

Typhoid fever is caused by typhoid bacteria. The disease is contracted through food or
water contaminated with faeces or urine. Patients and carriers of typhoid (the latter may
not suffer from the disease), pass the organism in urine or stool. If such stool or urine get
in contact with food or drinking water then, whoever takes such food or water can get
typhoid.

Flies which settle on typhoid-bearing faeces or urine and then settle on food and water
contaminate it, endangering the health of anyone who eats the food. One could get
typhoid by eating unwashed mangoes that had fallen on the ground where someone had
passed stool around with a high bacteria count of typhoid.

Roadside food sellers are big offenders in transmitting typhoid. A lot of them do not
practise much hygiene. They may use the toilet without washing their hands properly
afterwards, and may contaminate the food or water they sell to their customers. This
applies to any commercial food selling place.

In rural areas, and even some urban centers where water is insufficient in quantity and
where the water is not safe, the people are exposed a lot more to typhoid infection.
Adequate and safe water is, therefore, one of the bedrocks of preventing typhoid. In such
situations where water is a scarce commodity, people hardly observe simple hygiene
rules like washing hands or fruits before eating, and washing hands after visiting the
toilet or latrine. This group of people increases chances of contracting infection.
In some
Unit 2 Reading

Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reading as an Essential Study Skill
3.2 Why do we Read?
3.3 Reading Strategies
3.4 Advantages of Learning through Reading
3.5 Essential Components of Reading
3.6 Overcoming Bad Reading Habits
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
In the preceding unit, you studied about listening. In this unit, the focus will be on reading.
Reading is classified as a receptive skill. This is because you take in or receive information
through reading. Listening is also in this category. Both listening and reading skills are receptive
skills also known as passive skills; when you listen or read, you are at the receiving end.

A look at the nature of reading will reveal that numerous questions come to mind when we talk
about reading: what we read, how do we read and the purpose or reason we read. This unit on
reading will take us through all those pertinent questions that come to mind and help us resolve
them all.
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 List the importance of reading as a study skill
 Identify various purposes for reading
 Distinguish between study, reading and recreational reading
 Mention and explore some of the advantages of reading
 Identify and adopt a reading strategy
 List the components of reading
 Identify bad reading habits and how to overcome them
 Demonstrate good reading habit towards passing your examinations.

3.0 Main Content

3.1Reading as an Essential Study Skill

The word ‘reading’ has been a part of our vocabulary as long as we can remember but we never
really look into the technicality of the word and its actions. So, what exactly is reading? Some
will say reading is when we read texts, but this explains nothing actually. A better explanation
can be put this way; reading is the ability to understand words contained in a document and
make use of the knowledge for personal growth and development (Dadzie, 2008). It is a process,
a skill we acquire that enables an understanding of written words. Through reading, we deduce
meaning or grasp information from written materials stored as texts in books and other materials.
Reading is an essential skill that involves ones perception and thought process. This is because in
reading, you are expected to recognise and comprehend words. You use background knowledge
to make meaning of the connected words that make up the text. For your reading to be effective,
you must comprehend what you have read. So what is reading comprehension? This is your
ability to read any material and be able to process and understand its meaning and contents.

In reading, you use your eyes but the blind or visually impaired will use the hands on the Braille.
The Braille is a system of printing in which the letters of the alphabet and numbers are printed as
raised dots that can be read with the fingers by people who are blind or partially sighted. As a
student you must read both recommended and additional texts. The aim is to improve your
academics and also to broaden your vocabulary. When you do this, your speaking, listening and
writing skills will equally improve. Reading therefore is a highly valuable skill and activity you
must undertake for your success.

You can read silently, or you read aloud such that other people can hear you but whatever style
you choose will be dependent on the type or your purpose of reading.
3.2 Why do we Read?
We read for different reasons and purposes. It could be for pleasure, information or general
understanding.

3.2.1 Reading for Pleasure

Reading for pleasure, which is also referred to as independent, leisure or recreational reading is
reading done at your own time and own free will with the intention of getting personal
satisfaction.

A leisure reader’s purpose is simply geared towards entertainment. You read to savour the
language, ideas, images, conflicts and its resolutions. You read for the fun you derive in it. In
leisure reading you independently choose what you read. It could be novels, newspapers,
magazines, comics etc. You do this for personal and social purposes and reading can take place
anywhere any time.

3.2.2 Reading for Information

Reading for information will involve a more articulated and attentive reading. You are expected
to be attentive enough to understand the information expressed in the text, or to locate the
information you are looking for. You should be able to identify the main idea of the text and
other details. You can read for information in materials like non-fiction texts, newspapers, text
books, research papers, essays, reports for information and also in memos, signs, notices,
bulletins, policies, etc.

Reading for information will help you:

 Identify features of the text (Topic/titles, sub-headings, graphics)
 Recognise the Structure of the Text (definition, cause/effect, comparison/contrast,
chronology)
 Summarize and Paraphrase the text
 Identify and Organize important points
 Understand the author’s purpose.

3.2.3 Study Reading

Study reading is a form of reading for information. It entails a more serious and intense reading.
The purpose of study reading is for you to gather more detailed information from texts and to be
able to remember the main ideas, facts and opinion expressed as well as being able to make
meaningful connections/associations among them.

3.2.4 Reading for General Understanding

This will involve reading to get a general overview of the text. You can apply it to any text as it
is not limited to any particular form. When you read for general understanding, you read to
familiarize yourself to the basic information contained in the text and to get a general impression
of what the material is all about. At the end of your reading, you are free to form your own
impression. Below are different types of reading or different approaches to reading that you may
adopt based on your purpose for reading. They are:
• Previewing
• Skimming
• Scanning
• Detailed Reading

3.2.4.1 Previewing
In previewing a text, you get a general idea of what the text is about without really reading the
whole text. This approach will help you decide whether the book will be useful for your intended
purpose. You can preview by reading the title, author details, introduction or abstract if there is
one. Next you read the main headings, sub headings, chapter summaries (where available), and
any highlighted text, illustrations, graphs, tables or diagrams and their captions.

3.2.4.2 Skimming
Skimming is a selective reading method where you read only the main ideas within a passage to
get an overall impression of the content of a reading selection. When you only need the main
points and not the details to enable you review vast amounts of material quickly, you adopt the
skimming method. The purpose is to extract only the essence or the finer points of the text. This
is quite different from previewing because in skimming you read parts of the paragraph that
make up the text.

3.2.4.3 Scanning
Scanning involves quick reading with quick eye movements; focusing only on locating specific
information by sweeping your eyes over part of a text to find specific pieces of information. You
use it when you want to quickly retrieve specific information relevant to a purpose from a large
amount of written material such as a name, formula, phrase, etc.

Note:
• Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It can be contrasted
with scanning, which is reading in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or
names.
• Skimming involves a thorough overview of a text and implies a reading competence.
Scanning is more of a limited activity, only retrieving information that is relevant to a
purpose.
• Skimming is quite a fast process. It may only take a few minutes to complete a chapter of
a book.

3.2.4.4 Detailed Reading

This is a more focused and concentrated reading. You read a text slowly and carefully, paying
close attention to all the details because you want to understand everything since the purpose is
to understand the concepts and arguments that is contained in the text. Detailed reading will
allow you understand what you are reading thoroughly and also monitor your comprehension.

3.3 Reading Strategies

For your reading to be efficient and effective, you must apply certain strategies. These strategies
will help you understand what you read before, during and after reading.

Before reading:
• You should employ prior knowledge in assessing the topic you are about to read.
• You then make predictions about its probable meaning.
• Next, you preview, skim and scan to get a sense of the overall meaning.
During reading:
• You should evaluate your understanding and comprehension of the text. You can do this
by questioning, thinking, and reflecting on the ideas and information found in the text.
After reading:
• You should reflect on the ideas and information you have thus gathered
• You can then relate what you have read to your own experiences and prior knowledge
• Next, you clarify your understanding of what you read
• And then extend this understanding in very creative and critical ways.

You should bear in mind that these strategies are meant to suit different reading purposes. Your
purpose for reading is what will determine the strategy to adopt. You can look at this like a
driver. A good driver will not drive the same way or maintain the same speed on every road. The
same applies to reading. Depending on your purpose, you can choose a reading strategy that will
be complementary. For the purpose of this course, we will explain the SQ3R Method of Study
Reading.

3.3.1 The SQ3R Method of Study Reading

The SQ3R is an acronym for the five stages of this reading process: Survey, Question, Read,
Recite and Review. It is a reading and study system that enhances information retention and
absorption. It will help you create a mental framework that you can use to focus and to prioritize
your reading.

3.3.1.1 Survey
Before you start your reading, survey the material first to have an overview of its contents. By so
doing, you can gain insight to a text before you even begin reading. Approach the reading of the
document by scanning its contents, gathering necessary information to focus on topics and help
you set study goals.

• Look at the title, subtitles and introduction to get a general idea of what the text is all
about and how it is broken up into parts. Observe the relationship between topics.
• Go through the heading and subheadings as this will help you create a mental structure
of the topic.
 • Read through the chapter outline; this is the blueprint to the chapter.
• Check the reading aids and footnotes (if any), look out for emphasized text (italics, bold
font, etc.) This is used to catch the reader’s attention or to provide clarification.
• The end of the chapter aids - questions, summaries etc. will give you an idea of what is
important and help you select the main ideas as you read.
• Read the first paragraph and the last; It will give you the purpose of the chapter and a
summary of key information.
• Don’t forget to look at the pictures and charts and their captions. Take note of questions
at the end of the chapter is any.

3.3.1.2 Question
Your reading will be more memorable if you question the material as you read. To achieve this,
you should formulate questions that will guide your reading. This way, your mind is actively
looking for answers rather than passively reading along.

Write out the questions so that as you read you can periodically look at the questions and check
to see if you can answer them or recall the information. You will also use them during revision to
help you remember what you have read.

To formulate questions that will guide your reading:

• Think about specific questions that you would like to find answers for.
• Read any focus questions at the end of the text.
• Turn headings and sub-headings into questions.
• Create questions from Learning Objectives, Chapter Summary or Key Points.
• Create questions for each graph, chart or illustration presented.
• Note questions on the subjects contained in the document.
• Write your questions down so you can fill in the answers as you read.
• Make sure you answer the questions in your own words, and not copy answers directly
from the text.
These questions are meant to be your study goals and they will become information you will
actively search later on while going through each section in detail

3.3.1.3 Read
Read each section thoroughly. Concentration and attention to detail are essential to active
reading and comprehension. You may need to read more slowly for difficult parts and faster for
easier ones. Try to visualize as you read along that is, make pictures in your head to go with what
you have read. Do not forget to read the section headings or items on the margins; they are all
essentials parts of your reading not mere decorations.
• Look for the author’s plan through the headings, abstracts, etc.
• You must locate the main idea of each paragraph as you read
• Identify the topic; this is usually the idea that is repeated.
• Identify the sentence that summarizes the details; this is the main idea
• Look for the supporting details like key words, or key points.
 • Look out for the answers to the questions you had written down.
• Compare the diagrams (graphs, charts, pictures, illustrations) with the content of the
written text. This gives you better understanding.
• Make sure you understand what you are actually reading. Increase or reduce your reading
speed, depending on the difficulty level of each section of the text. Stop and re-read
unclear sections.
• You can look up difficult words in the dictionary and then re-read.
• Remember to make notes while you read.

3.3.1.4 Recall (or Recite)

At the Recall (or Recite) stage, you are expected to go through all that you have read so far, and
then try to answer the questions that you had written down earlier. You can write down a
summary of what you have read and understood so far. The process of jotting down the main
ideas and other details you have garnered from the reading will help you understand and
absorb what you have read. You may also need to teach or tell someone (or yourself) about what
you have read; this will help you crystallize your understanding of the topic and uncover the
weak areas of your understanding.
• Make notes of what you remember or a summary of the main idea in your own words
• At this stage, you should try to associate what you have read with life experiences for a
better recall
• Try and answer the questions you had earlier developed
• Tell someone about it (or pretend and explain to an imaginary listener) Reciting
strengthens your understanding. You will most certainly remember more for longer as it
is rare not to learn when you teach someone else.
Reciting will also reveal grey areas so you can go back and re-read them.

3.3.1.5 Review
This is the final step of the SQ3R process. You should review what you have read. After your
study, check the notes you had made against the original text to confirm accuracy.

Review your notes periodically; do this in short sessions to avoid an overload of information or a
situation where you mix up information. This will help you during exams because the more you
revise during the semester work, the less need for cramming during examinations.
• Read through your notes to reacquaint yourself with the main points.
• Review your summaries and all other notes taken You can also expand the notes you had
made
• Read through the questions you wrote down and try to answer them from memory (try to
do this often).
• It is always helpful to revisit what you had read for a quick refresher
• You can equally discuss the topics with colleagues and other experts
If you are able to abide to these processes, you will be sure of a rich comprehension of your
study material. Note that the more you review and recite your material, the better your recall.
3.4 Advantages of Learning through Reading
3.4.1 Vocabulary Expansion
It is a fact that readers have a richer vocabulary. The more you read, the more words you are
exposed to. These words inevitably make their way into your everyday vocabulary. So, the more
you read, the richer your diction becomes.

3.4.2 Improved Language Skills

Exposure to well-written works will have a noted effect on your language skills (listening,
speaking, reading, writing). With the expansion of your vocabulary, you will observe that you
will gradually experience an improvement in your writing and speaking capabilities. You
subconsciously absorb details on how to structure sentences and how to use words and other
language features effectively. As you read and observe the writing styles of other authors, this
will invariably influence your own style.

3.4.3 Expansion of Knowledge Base

Books enable the rapid transfer of knowledge from one person to another. With the vast amount
of reading materials available on very different and diverse topics, there is an endless sea of
knowledge and information available for your consumption.

3.4.4 Exploration of New Ideas

Reading encourages you to think. Through reading, you can get new ideas and inspiration about
something you previously knew. By implication, new perspectives on a concept can be explored
so that you may try something new or different, inspired by the things you have read.

3.4.5 Stimulation of Imagination and Creativity

Reading sends the mind into a flurry of creativity. A diverse reading culture will expose you to
new ideas and help develop the creative side of the brain as it imbibes innovation into your
thinking process. As you read, your brain translates the descriptions of people, places and things
into pictures. You are also able to feel their emotions. Your mind thus creates these images of
things, people or places you never even knew. Thus, reading strengthens the imaginative and
creative abilities of your mind.

3.4.6 Memory Improvement

The process of reading implies that your memory is activated. You try to remember different
things you have just read; characters, backgrounds, themes, history, plots, attitudes etc. Usually
while you are reading, you get to think about the things you have just read and in the process,
commit them to memory. Also, reading offers you ample opportunity to stop and take a
moment to reflect on the content of what you have just read.

3.4.7 Improved Focus and Concentration

While reading, you are drawn to concentrate on the thoughts expressed or contained in the book
or material you are reading. Usually because reading takes time, you unconsciously learn how to
pay attention and focus on a particular task.
The longer you read the more concentration you build. With this in mind, you can say that
reading is an investment in one's ability to concentrate and by implication, a basis for successful
learning. As you already know, effective learning requires focus and concentration.

3.4.8 Strong Analytical and Thinking Skills

Reading greatly improves your critical thinking and analytical skills. You are able to develop an
ability to analyse details. When you read, you notice even subtle nuances expressed by the author
and you consciously or unconsciously analyse these ideas in your mind and in the process
develop yours. When given the opportunity to discuss what you have read, you will be able to
state your opinions clearly, as you have taken the time to really consider all the aspects involved
and can intelligently determine or take a stance.

3.5 The Essential Components of Reading

3.5.1 Phonics
Phonics is all about you understanding the relationship between letters and their sounds. It is
your ability to make the connection between the sounds that each letter represents in written
language and the sounds in spoken language. Your understanding of the combination of these
sound-symbol connections will aid your ability to create and read words.

3.5.2 Phonemics
Phonemics refers to your ability to recognize and use individual sounds (called phonemes) to
create words. These phonemes are the smallest units that make up the spoken language. You
combine them to create syllables and words. This means that you develop phonemic awareness
by learning about sounds (phonemes), syllables and words. For example, the word ‘bent’ is
made up of four individual units of sound; b/e/n/t, ‘mop’ is made up of three while ‘odd’ has
two.

Phonemic awareness and Phonics could be seen as being related because both involve a
connection between sounds and letters/words. But the difference lies in that while Phonics is
used only in written language because it involves letters, Phonemes are centered on the sounds of
language rather than on written words.

3.5.3 Vocabulary Development

We must first recognize words to be able to read them. If the words in your book are all
unfamiliar, it will certainly be a fruitless venture trying to read. Vocabulary development
involves your ability to identify and understand the words you read. It is closely connected
to comprehension. You will observe that the more words you know, the better you become at
reading and understanding your course materials. So, make it a duty to always improve on
your vocabulary acquisition.

3.5.4 Fluency
Fluency comes with the development of your phonemic awareness, phonics skills and
vocabulary. At this level, your ability to read with speed, accuracy and an understanding of the
expressions becomes evident. When you read, you are able to quickly grasp and create an overall
picture in your mind of what the text is saying. This ability to read as well as you speak and at
the same time, make sense of what you are reading without having to stop and decode each word
is the locus of Fluency

3.5.5 Comprehension
This is an indication that you have a full and rich understanding of the text you have read.
Comprehension is the main reason why we read; we read to understand. To do this effectively,
you should immerse yourself in what you are reading, be able to visualize the characters and
happenings of the book in your head and yet, relate it to your immediate environment if possible.
Good readers are able to expand their information base, increase their vocabulary and link what
they have read with other sources of information thereby, deepening their level of understanding
of new concepts and topics.

3.6 Bad Reading Habits and How to Overcome Them

3.6.1 Regression
The practice of skipping back or re-reading the same information over and over is known as
regression. This is often not necessary because it is a huge waste of reading time. When you
adopt good reading strategies, you will understand your text well enough not to go back but if
you require more information or further reading, please try reading another text on the same
topic. This will more likely improve your knowledge of the topic and bring up additional
information!

3.6.2 Vocalization and Sub-Vocalization

This is when you pronounce the words while reading. In vocalization, you pronounce the words
out-loud such that someone else may hear while subvocalization means that you pronounce the
words in your head. This method also slows down your reading. You should try to visualize what
you read. That way, you will be able to overcome vocalization or sub-vocalization as it applies to
you.

3.6.3 Reading One Word at a Time

Some of you while reading focus your eyes on one word at each interval before moving to the
next word. This makes reading slow. You should practice reading in chunks or groups of words
as opposed to individual words. This technique will encourage faster reading and at the same
time, train your eyes and mind to work in agreement.

3.6.4 Distractions and Loss of Attention

We often face so many distractions from within and around us. These distractions may come
externally as noise, family/friend interferences, TV, social media etc. It could also be internal,
whereby our thoughts and worries affect our reading. Make the effort of choosing a conducive
environment for reading so that some of the physical distractions will be removed, then work
on maintaining your concentration for the purpose of reading to eliminate internal interferences.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Practice reading Unit 1 of this Module using the SQ3R study method and write down your
observations. Have you found the reading strategy helpful or not? Explain.

4.0 Conclusion
You have studied about Reading as an essential study skill; you have seen the types, purposes
and benefits of reading. You must have observed the various reading skills available to you as a
student and you should be able to structure that which will suit you as a distance learner.

5.0 Summary
To recap what you have learned in this unit, click on the video below or copy the link and paste
on a web browser. The video is a summary of what you have read in this unit. You could also
click on the audio version and listen. You can also download them and play offline.

6.0 References/Further Reading

Student Academic Services. (2011). Note taking systems. California Polytechnic State
University. Retrieved from http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/notetakingsystems.html
Wong, L. (2014). Essential Study Skills, 8th Ed., Cengage Learning, Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.ng/books
Unit 3 Study Skills

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Find the Learning Style that Suits You Best
3.2 What type of Learner are You?
3.3 Methods, Approaches and Techniques for Effective Study
3.4 Using Memory and Mnemonic Devices
3.5 Finding the Right Study Strategies
3.6 Preparing for Tests and Examinations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
You must have observed that the volume of work and reading you have to do
at the University level is enormous but you should not let the sheer volume of
what you have to do deter you from achieving your lifelong ambition. All you
need is to determine a study format that works for you. You would have come
across a good number of this study strategies in the course of your study but
remember that there is no one-size-fits-all study style, all you need to do is
review the strategies available here and pick what best suits you. This unit on
study skills is designed to help you find an effective study pattern that will
help you excel. With dedication and a desire to succeed fueled by hard work,
you will definitely excel.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you would have:
• Identified various types of learning strategies
• Distinguished between different learning strategies
• Identified types of learners
• Demonstrated different studying strategies.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Find the Learning Style that Suits You Best
To succeed academically, you need to be productive, and figuring out what kind of
learning style suits you best and consequently enhance productivity on your part.
Whether it’s for everyday learning via homework, or revising for your exams, finding the
learning style that helps you achieve maximum productivity will be crucial to getting the
best possible essay grades and exam results. In this unit, we’re going to look at the
different methods and techniques you can try as you search for the best learning style for
you, and we’ll also look at environmental factors that can influence your learning style.

Though finding the right learning style for you will ultimately come down to trial and
error, this unit should give you some different things to think about and try to help you
come up with a style that allows you to work at your most efficient.

3.2 What Type of Learner are You?

We are not all equipped to learn the same way. You may have a preferred or different
way of studying or picking up information from your friends. You should get to know the
style you are most comfortable with and study in the way that best suits you.

3.2.1 Visual Learner

You might be a visual learner if you study and remember better with pictures, graphics,
diagrams etc. Visual learners have a learning preference to what they see.

Study Tips
 You should include images when you make notes, so you can associate your study
with something visual.
 You can also turn bullet points into a mind map; this way, you will be able to
visualize how everything interconnects.
  You can use flashcards, or highlight your work with colour pens to make key
points stand out.
 You could try to remember some ideas as images.

3.2.2 Auditory/Aural learner

Auditory learners prefer to learn by listening; they remember what they hear, better than
what they see. It is much easier for them to pick up information through listening and
speaking. You might be an auditory learner if you enjoy discussions and talking through
your ideas and find verbal instructions easier to remember than written ones.

Study Tips
 You can record your notes and key points and then play them back often.
 You can read aloud when you study and use repetition to keep information fresh in
your mind.
 Try explaining what you have just read to a friend.
 You can also get someone to read out prepared questions to test your knowledge.

3.2.3 Verbal learner (Reading and Writing)

You may be a verbal learner if using words in writing and speech comes to you with ease.
For you, information retention is more successful when studying with textbooks, note
taking, and verbalizing lessons. If your notes are always pages long and you can spend
hours reading a new book, reading and writing might be your learning style. The good
news is that writing your assignments and exam papers might not be difficult for you, but
organizing and prioritizing your ideas could be more challenging. Reading around your
subject online, or at the library, can be a great way to study and pick up extra
information.

Study Tips
 Rewrite your notes again and again.
 Test yourself by rewriting a page of notes from memory.
 Write out your thoughts on paper and organise them into lists.
 Make notes in your own words on your textbook, or post-it notes.
 Find questions about your subject online and write down answers in the style of a
quiz.
 Read through what you have written several times.

3.2.4 Tactile/Kinaesthetic Learner

Tactile/kinaesthetic learners prefer physical activity; they learn by doing. Kinaesthetic
learners pick up information by doing things. If you enjoy crafts or making things with
your hands, playing sports etc., you just might be a kinaesthetic learner. This could mean
putting an object together, or trying out something they have seen in a textbook. If you’re
a kinaesthetic learner, you’re likely to have more energy and fast reactions, but you may
find it difficult to concentrate.

Study Tips
 Try using techniques like role-playing or building models to revise key points.
 Keep your hands busy when you’re studying; you can write notes or play with a
stress ball etc.
 When possible, act out a situation or physically show someone how to do a
practical task.
 Get practical experience when possible. When you put what you have learnt into
practice, it helps you remember.
 Take regular study breaks, so you do not get bored or feel stuck at a desk for too
long.

3.3 Methods, Approaches and Techniques for Effective Study

Let’s start by looking at some of the different study methods you could choose from.
Different people find different methods effective at helping them learn, so the best thing
to do if you’re not sure which suits you best is to try each of these and see how you find
them.

3.3.1 Note Taking

Taking notes is a classic learning method. Note-taking can include copying out passages
of books, summarising concepts on notecards, devoting a single page to each topic, or
writing endless reams of notes and organizing them in a file. The problem with note
taking is that it’s all too easy simply to copy out what someone else says without really
taking it in or understanding it. If you try out this method and then can’t answer mock
exam questions on this topic, this suggests that you might not have found quite the right
method of learning.

3.3.2 Learning things by Heart

You’ll have little option but to learn some things by heart for recalling in exams, but it’s
an approach that can help you understand something as well. Learning poetry by heart,
for instance, might seem quite an old-fashioned approach, but it’ll help you feel more
confident about the poem, its rhymes and rhythms, and how it’s structured. Learning
things by heart means you’ll also be able to rattle off facts and quotes in exams, which
will impress examiners.
Do you have a visual memory? If so, visual methods of learning might suit you best. This
could include techniques such as creating a mind map for each of the topics you learn
about, with the topic name in the middle and arrows pointing off it to facts you need to
learn. This can be an effective memory aid too, because when you’re in an exam, you can
use your visual memory to recall the position of the fact on the page and thereby
remember what it was.

3.3.3 Learning with Others

It can help to study with friends. Some people find that they work best with other people
(this is known as social learning). Whether it’s simply the presence of other people that
motivates you, or you engage in academic discussion and help each other learn in a more
direct way, it’s a good way to counter the feelings of isolation you may experience if you
work alone too much. Academic discussion is a powerful way of learning, as it forces
you to question and defend your opinions; that’s why it’s a big part of the way we teach
our courses.

3.3.4 Explaining to others

On a related note to social learning, you might find that you learn things more easily if
you have to explain a concept to someone else. This is because in order to explain
something clearly to someone else, you have to have a thorough grasp of it yourself. For
example, giving a presentation to fellow students will require you first to have an
excellent understanding of the topic and then to put together materials from which the
others can learn. You’ll also have to give a verbal explanation and answer questions,
which will force you to be even more confident in your understanding.

3.3.5 Audio/Video
Some people find that watching or listening to things helps them absorb information
more easily. There’s a wealth of information available in video form online, so if you
find that you’re struggling with learning a topic in a book, googling a video that explains
it may be just what you need. If you’re studying literature, you might find that listening to
an audiobook of the work in question helps you understand or remember it better.

3.3.6 Learning by Doing

Performing a piece of music, you’ve been studying from a theoretical perspective helps
you understand it better. One of the most effective learning styles is to learn by doing. By
this, we mean that rather than (or as well as) reading things in books, try to experience
things ‘in real life’. For example, you could conduct a scientific experiment or see how a
chemical reaction works practically. You could audition for a part in a play you’re
studying or perform a piece of music you’re analysing. You could visit the site of an
important historical event, such as the Battle of the Somme. Experiencing things
practically gives your brain something concrete to remember, so not only will you absorb
the information more easily in the first place, but it’ll also be easier to recall things when
exam time comes around.

3.3.7 Learning by Deducing

You may have the kind of mind that enjoys solving problems. Rather than being told the
answer, you may find that you learn best by working through the problem for yourself.
This style of learning will be best suited to mathematical and scientific types.

3.3.7 Tests and Mock Exams

Some people enjoy tests and mock exams because they provide strong motivation to
succeed. If you’re the sort of person who thrives on these sorts of challenges, you could
try asking your teacher, parents or study buddies to set a mini mock exam to test what
you’ve learned on a topic. A more fun variant of this is the quiz, which you could arrange
with your friends.

3.3.8 Length of Study Periods and Deadlines

Time yourself to find a good working rhythm. Some people like to knuckle down and
study something for hours until they really get to grips with it. Others have shorter
attention spans and need to study intensively in short bursts. Find out which is best for
you by experimenting with different lengths of study session. Perhaps start by allocating
yourself half an hour and setting a stopwatch; you may find that it’s not enough for you
to get into the topic, and you find you want to carry on for longer. Carry on until you
naturally feel ready to stop and see how long you’ve been studying for. Try doing this a
few more times both with the same subject and with other subjects. Look at your average
study time within each subject and this is likely to be your optimum study time. It’s
important to do this subject by subject, because you may find yourself better able to study
for longer periods of time with some subjects than others. Subjects you don’t like, for
example, may require shorter study periods to keep you motivated.

Some find that they work better under the pressure of a looming deadline, as it forces
them to focus totally on the task at hand (the consequences of not doing so are far worse
than the effort this takes!). If this sounds like you, you might be able to motivate yourself
by setting yourself your own deadlines if those imposed by your teachers are too distant
to make you spring into action. One way of doing this is to write out a list of what you’re
going to get done today and not stop until you’ve completed every item on the list.
Alternatively, rather than writing down the ‘official’ deadline in your diary, choose your
own, much closer, deadline and write that down instead.
3.3.9 Environment
The environment in which you choose to study can have a big impact on your
productivity, and as such, it’s worth experimenting with various environmental factors
when you’re coming up with an overall learning style to help you work to your maximum
potential.

3.3.10 Silence versus music

Do you concentrate better in total silence, or does silence agitate you? Try working in a
library and see if you can deal with the quiet. Some people prefer to study with music on
to motivate themselves. If you prefer music, it’s worth experimenting with different
styles of music to see which helps you study best.

Even if you don’t normally listen to classical music, its lack of lyrics could help you
focus more than songs you can sing along to. Some people even prefer to listen to heavy
metal while they’re studying – each to their own!

3.3.11 Working space

Consider where you can study comfortably and effectively. When you have a laptop, you
can work from anywhere, so you can try out different working spaces and see which
allows you to be most productive. Here are some of the places you could try .…

 At home – try different parts of the house, such as the dining table or your room.
Do you work better by the window, or does that just distract you?
 In the garden – this can be a nice way to enjoy the outdoors while still getting
work done, and the change of scene may be motivating to some; others may find
it’s too hard to concentrate because they want to relax.
 In the library – libraries are meant for studying in, so either your school or
university library or your town or city library could provide a suitable distraction-
free learning environment.
 At a relative’s house – if your house is full of noisy siblings, you might find it
easier to study at the house of a nearby relative, such as a grandparent.
 In a coffee shop – most coffee shops have free Wi-Fi these days, so you could try
taking your laptop down to your local one and enjoy a coffee while you study.
Providing the noise doesn’t distract you, this is another way of motivating yourself
with a change of scene.
 In an empty classroom – if you find you work best in the school environment, why
not see if you can work in an empty classroom (if there is one)?
3.3.12 Alone or with Friends
We’ve already touched on the fact that some people may prefer to study in the company
of others, but it’s an environmental factor too. Some people find they work better alone,
and get distracted with chatting if they’re with friends, while others really need the
motivation of being with friends to get anything done and find it isolating to study alone.

3.4 Using Memory and Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic devices are memory techniques you can use to help improve your ability to
retain and remember something. It helps your brain to better encode and recall important
information. By associating what you have to remember with an image, a word or a
sentence. Examples of mnemonic devices include:

3.4.1 Acronyms
These are pronounceable words formed from the first letters or first few letters
of each word found in a name or phrase.

 UNICEF - The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

 SMART - Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Timely (Used in Goal
setting)
 AWOL – Absent Without Leave
 AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
 SWOT – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats.

3.4.2 Rhymes
Rhymes make remembering easy because they have similar sounds at the end of each
line. The example below is a popular mnemonic for remembering the number of days in a
month:
30 days hath September,
April, June and November,
All the rest have 31,
Except February alone.
Which only has but 28 days clear
And 29 in each leap year

3.4.3 Chunking and Organization

This is a way of breaking down larger pieces of information into smaller, organized units
or “chunks”. This makes the resulting chunks easier to commit to memory than a longer
string of information an example is the sequence for writing telephone numbers e.g. 0908 765
4321 will be easier to remember than 09087654321.
3.4.4 Imagery
Visual imagery is an effective way to help you memorize and recall information when you need
it. You can create a mental image of what you want to recall, or have it sketched into your study
notes. It does not matter if your drawing or sketches are not good as long as you know what your
sketch means you will do just fine. The important thing is that it helps you learn and remember.
For example, you can associate a visual image of Prof. Arthur Peter Muthalika with his facial
looks to help you remember his contributions in Malawi.

3.5 Finding the Right Study Strategies

3.5.1 Pick a Place and Time

Everyone has their own idea about the best place and time to study. Whether it's your bedroom at
night or the library after school, find a study space and a regular study time that works for you
and stick with it. No matter how tight your schedule, you should have a place and time set out for
private study. This will help you meet up with your reading and assignments and remove the
stress that comes with unplanned study pattern.

 Set up your study space – Your study space should be quiet, comfortable and distraction-
free. It should make you feel happy and inspired. Decorate it with your favourite pictures
or objects. If you want to listen to music or burn incense, pick a space that lets you do
that.
 Find your best time – Some people work better in the morning. Others work better at
night. Work out which time suits you and plan to study then. Don't study much later than
your usual bedtime – pushing yourself late at night can make you too tired to study
properly.

3.5.2 Study Daily

If you study a little bit every day you'll be continually reviewing things in your mind. This helps
you understand things. It also helps you avoid the stress of last-minute cramming.

Early in the year an hour or two per night might be enough to stay on top of things. Later in the
year you might need to study more each day. If you're finding it hard to find time to study, cut
back on some of your other activities. Prioritizing study might mean spending less time online,
or it might mean cutting back on shifts at work or giving weekend sport a miss for a while.

3.5.3 Plan your Time

It helps to have some plans in motion, so you can make the most of your study time.
 Set alarms – Set alarms to remind you about your study plans. A regular reminder keeps
you honest and your plans on track.
  Use a wall planner – Stick a calendar or wall planner up so you can see it whenever
you're studying. Mark it up with important dates, like exams and assignment due dates.
Use it to block out your regular study timetable too.
 Make to-do lists – Lists break tasks down into manageable chunks. At the start of the
week, make a list of the things that you need to have done by the end of the week. Make a
to-do list at the start of each study session too, so that you're clear about what you need to
be doing with your time.
 Set time limits – Before you start your study session, have a look at your to-do list and
give yourself a set time to spend on each task. If you don't get something done in the set
time, consider whether it's the best use of your time to keep going with it, or to start
working on something else.

3.5.4 Discover your Learning Style

Most of us have a preferred way of learning. Get to know the learning style you're most
comfortable with and study in the ways you learn best. Note that these styles are just a way to
think about different studying techniques – they're not hard and fast rules that say you should
only study in one way. Try each of these out and see which ways you prefer.
 Auditory learners prefer to learn by listening. Try reading your notes aloud and
discussing them with other people. You might like to record key points and play them
back.
 Visual learners prefer to learn by seeing. Try using colours in your notes and draw
diagrams to help represent key points. You could try to remember some ideas as images.
 Tactile/kinesthetic learners prefer to learn by doing, rather than listening to a lecture or
watching demonstrations. Try using techniques like role-playing or building models to
revise key points.

3.5.5 Review and Revise

At least once a week you should go back over the things you've studied in class. Thinking things
over can help you to understand the concepts and help you remember when you need them the
most.
 Quiz – Get a friend or family member to quiz you on key concepts. Offer to help your
friends with their work too. Quizzes are great ways to get confident about what you know
and find out what you still need to learn
 Make your own study materials – Think up some practice exam questions or create your
own flash cards to help you study. This way you learn it all twice: once when you make
the study materials and once when you use them to revise.

3.5.6 Take Breaks

It's important to take breaks while you're studying, especially if you're feeling tired or frustrated.
Working too long on a task can actually decrease your performance. When you take a break,
make sure you get away from your desk or study space. A bit of physical – even just a walk
around the block – can sometimes help you to look at a problem in a different way and could
even help you to solve it.
3.5.7 Ask for Help
If you're stuck on something, or something just doesn't seem to make sense, you can always ask
for help. Talk to your teachers or lecturers about the things you don't understand. Talk to your
friends and fellow students too.

3.5.8 Stay Motivated

When you're studying it helps to keep in mind your reasons for doing all this hard work, like a
course or career you're working towards. It can help to have something in your study space to
remind you of your goals. You could also decorate your study space with inspirational quotes or
photos of people you admire and family members you want to make proud of you.

You should note that whatever strategy you come up with, when you find something that works
for you, put it into practice and go for it!

3.5.9 Prioritize your time

No matter how much you might wish differently, there are only so many hours in a day you can
devote to studying. It is important that you prioritize your time at the beginning of every study
session. Make a study plan, starting with the more difficult tasks and material and then move on
to the easier ones.

3.5.10 Participate in Class Discussions

These discussions have a way of imprinting knowledge you have in your minds. Contribute to
these discussions by asking questions or sharing your understanding of what you have learnt.

3.5.11 Find a Study Group

If it is possible, get a study group. That may not always be possible because you study from a
distance but if you do find a group, it will surely help.

3.5.12 Manage your Life and Family Well

Your family and friends can be a great support system, but they can also be a drag on your time
and energy. Do not allow undue interference from them. Do not let life get in the way of your
dreams. Your work, family and friends are important, but you should prioritize to be able to
achieve your goal.

3.6 Preparing for Tests and Examinations

3.6.1 Give yourself enough time to study
Do not leave studying for the course until the last minute. This is not the best way to approach an
examination. To help sort out your time management, set up a timetable for your study. Write
down how many exams you have and the days on which you have to sit for them, and then
organize your study accordingly. You may want to give some exams more study time than
others, but in all find a comfortable balance.
3.6.2 Organize your Study Space
Make sure you have enough space to spread your textbooks and notes out. Is the light in the
room bright enough? How comfortable is your chair? These are things you need to take care of.
Try and get rid of all distractions, and make sure you feel as comfortable and able to focus as
possible.

3.6.3 Use Flow Charts and Diagrams

Visual aids can be helpful when revising. At the start of a topic, challenge yourself to write down
everything you already know about a topic – and then highlight where the gaps lie. Closer to the
exam, condense your revision notes into one-page diagrams. Getting your ideas down in this
brief format can then help you to quickly recall everything you need to know during the exam.

3.6.4 Practice with Old Exams

One of the most effective ways to prepare for exams is to practice taking past
versions. This helps you get used to the format of the questions, and - if you time yourself – it
can also be good practice for making sure you spend the right amount of time on each section.

3.6.5 Explain your Answers to Others

When you explain what you have read to others, it gives you a clearer picture of your
understanding of the topic and also to highlight any areas where you need more work.

3.6.6 Organize Study Groups with Friends

Get together with friends for a study session. You may have questions that they have the answers
to and vice versa. As long as you make sure you stay focused on the topic for an agreed amount
of time, this can be one of the most effective ways to challenge yourself.

3.6.7 Take Regular Breaks

While you may think it's best to study for as many hours as possible, this can actually be
counterproductive. You should always take short breaks to stretch out and this helps retention of
knowledge.

3.6.8 Don’t Forget to Eat!

You may feel like you deserve a treat, or that you don't have time to cook, but what you eat can
really have an impact on energy levels and focus, so keep your body and brain well-fuelled by
choosing nutritious foods that have been proven to aid concentration and memory, such as fish,
nuts, seeds, yogurt and blueberries. The same applies on exam day - eat a good meal before the
test, based on foods that will provide a slow release of energy throughout.

Sugar may seem appealing, but your energy levels will crash an hour later.

3.6.9 Drink Plenty of Water

Remember that being well hydrated is essential for your brain to work at its best. Make sure you
keep drinking plenty of water throughout your revision, and also on the exam day.
3.6.10 Plan your Exam Day
Make sure you get everything ready well in advance of the exam - don't leave it to the day before
to suddenly realize you don't know the way, or what you're supposed to bring. Check all the rules
and requirements and plan your route and journey time so that you will be punctual.

4.0 Conclusion
People learn differently and such we can classify leaners as follows: visual learners, aural
learners, verbal learners and kinaesthetic learners among others. You can also learn by note-
taking, learning by memorizing, learning with others, learning by doing, learning by deducing or
using tests/mock examinations. There are various spaces and various environments learners can
use, that is some spaces can be conducive for learning for some people and may not be conducive
for others.

5.0 Summary
To recap what you have learned in this unit, click on the video below or copy the link and
paste on a web browser. The video is a summary of what you have read in this unit. You
could also click on the audio version and listen. You can also download them and play
offline.

6.0 References/Further Reading

Student Academic Services. (2011). Note taking systems. California Polytechnic State
University. Retrieved from
http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/notetakingsystems.html
Wong, L. (2014). Essential Study Skills, 8th Ed., Cengage Learning, Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.ng/books
UNIT 4 WRITING ESSAYS

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Parts of an Academic Essay
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
An essay (one of the most common types of assignment at university) is a piece of academic
Writing generally between 500 and 5000 words long. The word ‘essay’ originally meant a first
attempt or practice, which perhaps suggests some kind of provisional exploration. Essays are an
intellectual exploration of a topic, involving looking at different arguments and evidence and
developing the writer’s perspective.

An essay is more ‘discursive’ than, say, a report – i.e. the points are developed in more depth and
the language may be a little less concise. Typically, it will consist of a number of paragraphs that
are not separated by subheadings or broken up by bullet points (unlike in a report). However,
some lecturers may allow or encourage subdivisions and headings, as this can help both the
writer and the reader with the structure of the content. In that case, an essay may begin to look
more like the preferred format of some journal articles.

In this unit, you are going to study how to write an academic essay. Academic essay, which is a
specific writing genre with a set of rules and conventions, is one of the most commonly used
forms of academic writing. In fact, a high proportion of grading is allocated to essay assignments
as part of a university course. In most study areas, for assignments or in exams, you are expected
to write an academic essay, the length of which may be as short as 500 words or as long as 2000-
3000 words.

Usually, the purpose of essay assignments is to give you an opportunity to demonstrate:

 your knowledge and understanding of a topic
 your ability to research the topic set in the assignment
 your ability to organize your ideas/arguments with evidence
 your ability to explore the topic in a more in-depth and analytical way

Therefore, it is important for you to understand what an essay involves and how an effective
essay is written.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section you should be able to:
 Understand the stages of planning an essay.
 Follow a basic essay structure.
 Consider the key elements within the introduction, main body and conclusion of the
essay.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Parts of an Academic Essay

The structure of an academic essay consists of mainly three parts:
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion

A sample framework for an academic essay can be as follows:

3.1.1 The Essay’s Introduction
An introduction is a paragraph briefly stating the general idea of the topic and capturing
the interest of the reader. In the introduction, you should get to the point as soon as
possible without beginning too broadly or being too far off.

The introduction mainly includes the following:

1. background information on the topic/the context
2. explanation of key concepts and/or definition of a key term (if necessary)
3. scope of discussion
4. reference to the essay question/explanation of the academic problem (if there is any)
5. a thesis statement
6. attention getting (optional)

Reminder:
 Note that what constitutes a good introduction may vary widely based on the kind
of paper, and the academic discipline in which you are writing it.
 Depending on the essay question you are given, in your introduction paragraph,
you may need to briefly explain what the essay covers and how the essay is
organized (its outline) after writing your thesis statement. (see p.7 for an example)

The following strategies can be used to capture your readers’ attention depending
on the aim, field of study, and the type of the essay:
 Presenting a startling statistics/facts/statements
 Quoting an expert
  Mentioning a common misperception that your thesis will argue against
 Asking an interesting question

In an introduction paragraph, DO NOT

 X provide dictionary definitions, especially of concepts your audience already
knows.
 X repeat the assignment specifications using the professor’s wording.
 X give details and in-depth explanations that really belong in your body
paragraphs.

Thesis Statement:
The thesis statement is the most important sentence in your introduction because it states
what the essay is about, and it identifies the scope of the essay along with your position
as the writer.

In other words, it is a focused statement that signals your intention and the main
point(s)/argument(s) of your essay. Your thesis statement:
 answers the writing prompt and provides a reason and explanation for your answer
 typically appears at the end of your introduction, even though that is not a rule.
(You may, for example, follow your thesis with a brief road map to your essay
especially while writing a longer paper.)
 can be one single sentence or more (depending on the essay question and length
and complexity of your paper)
 includes the controlling idea(s) of the essay
 may indicate the method of organization of the essay
 should be clear and to the point

When writing your thesis, avoid the following:

 unclear language
 formulaic and generic words

! A thesis statement cannot be a quote or a question.

Read the thesis statement below and study how it is improved.

 Poor version: Leadership is an important quality in nurse educators.

Here, we can see easily that no scholar is likely to argue that leadership is an
unimportant quality in nurse educators. The student needs to come up with a more
arguable claim, and probably a narrower one; remember that a short paper needs a
more focused topic than a dissertation.

Improved version: Roderick's (2009) theory of participatory leadership is

particularly appropriate to nurse educators working within the emergency medicine
field, where students benefit most from collegial and kinesthetic learning.

Here, the student has identified a particular type of leadership ("participatory

leadership"), narrowing the topic, and has made an arguable claim (this type of
leadership is "appropriate" to a specific type of nurse educator). Conceivably, a
scholar in the nursing field might disagree with this approach. The student's paper
can now proceed, providing specific pieces of evidence to support the arguable
central claim.

Taken from
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/writingprocess/thesisstatements

Reminder: If the essay is written in response to a specific assignment question, be sure

that the thesis provides a direct answer to that question.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

Task 1

Read the prompts below and the thesis statements written in response to each.
Decide which thesis statements need improvement and which ones are acceptable.
Discuss your reasons with your classmates.

A. Essay Prompt: Compare and contrast the reasons why the North and the South fought
the Civil War.

Thesis Statements:
1) The North and South fought the Civil War for many reasons, some of which were the
same and some different.
2) While both sides fought the Civil War over the issue of slavery, the North fought for
moral reasons while the South fought to preserve its own institutions.
3) While both Northerners and Southerners believed they fought against tyranny and
oppression, Northerners focused on the oppression of slaves while Southerners defended
their own right to self-government.

Adapted from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/thesis-statements/

B. Essay Prompt: What could be the contributions of pursuing community service

projects to university students?

Thesis Satements:
1) Community services are excellent ways to contribute to students.
2) Pursuing community service projects before entering college makes a valuable
contribution to university students as it helps to increase their maturity and global
awareness.

Adapted from
http://www.cfep.uci.edu/ub/cpwa/pdf/Thesis%20Statement%20Handout.pdf

C. Essay Prompt: Do educational institutions create class differences, leading to

inequality or do they eliminate class differences by providing equal opportunities?

Thesis statements:
1) In this paper I will write about opportunities provided by educational institutions.
2) In this paper I will explore how education is not always ‘the great leveler’ of inherited
class differences, but opens opportunities for some while closing opportunities for others.
3) In this essay, I will explore how educational institutions can either create or take away
opportunities from their students. I will argue that in the absence of a class-based
understanding of education inequality, we as a society will continue to see success in
individualized terms.

Adapted from:
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/mellon/courses/assignment_soci3ac_2005_part3_instruction
s.pdf

Task 2

Match the following thesis statements with the most suitable writing prompt.
 1. Thesis Statement: This paper will prove that social media is used to display a
different version of the self for a specific audience just like the way Goffman
suggests humans present themselves to others.

a. How is Goffman’s “presentation of self” related to social media users’

presentation of themselves on social media? Prove Goffman’s point by referring to
research.
b. Is Goffman’s theory on self-presentation on social media a valid account for the
Millenial generation’s online activities? Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
the theory.
c. What are the subconscious reasons why people over-expose themselves on social
media? Explain by referring to Goffman’s theory and the concept of narcissism.

2. Thesis Statement: Different theories of social media suggest different reasons as to

why people use social media this much. While based on Goffman’s theory, it can be to
present the self in a controlled and different way; based on Bourdieu’s theory, however, it
may be to accrue social capital from others in the network.
a. Comment on the theories of Goffman and Bourdieu and explain why people
willingly abandon their privacy in exchange for online self-advertising.
b. Explain why social media use has become so popular in the last decade contrasting
Goffman’s “presentation of self” and Bourdieu’s “social capital”.
c. Discuss the negative effects of social media on business and privacy. What does
people’s insistent use of social media despite its adverse effects show about human
nature? Explain by referring to the theories of Goffman and Bourdieu.

3. Thesis Statement: Social media can be used for a variety of purposes in education.
Thus, I believe that it is a valuable source for both educators and students.
a. For which purposes can social media be used in education? To what extent do you
agree/disagree with the idea that it is a valuable source that can benefit educators
and students?
b. What are the effects of using social media on student motivation and success? Are
social media tools used effectively in your country?
c. What are the problems related with educational use of social media tools? Discuss
possible solutions to overcome these shortcomings.

4. Thesis Statement: Orben and Dunbar (2017) state that both when reading online posts
and in offline communication, self-disclosure perception and homophily mediate
relationship outcomes. I agree that reading posts on social media and interacting in real
life trigger similar or identical relationship formation pathways.
 a. “Social media enabled online relationships substituting for, competing with, and
otherwise diminishing offline relationships” (Wang &Wellman as cited in Butler
& Matook, 2015). Discuss how this might happen by referring to Butler&
Matook’s article. Comment on the issue justifying your reasons.
b. Discuss how reading posts on social media and interacting in real life are similar
according to Orben & Dunbar (2017). What is your account for the issue?
c. Contrast the views of Butler & Matook (2015) and Orben & Dunbar (2017) on the
use of social media and relationships.
Thesis Statement Checklist or X
My thesis provides a relevant answer to the
question asked in the writing prompt (which
I will elaborate on in the rest of my essay).
My thesis is a focused statement written as a
complete sentence in the introduction of my
essay.
My thesis includes a controlling idea.
My thesis has a point of view/puts forward
an argument
Task 4: Analyze the sample student introduction paragraphs and identify the
weaknesses in each. Discuss how they can be improved with your classmates.

Prompt: For which purposes can social media be used in education? To what extent do
you agree/disagree with the idea that it is a valuable source that can benefit educators
and students?
Introduction 1: Social media is beneficial to reach people quickly and easily. When
people share something in social media, thousands of people can see it immediately.
Social media can also be useful in education. For example, when an expert publishes a
paper, students and educators around the world can reach it in a short time.
Introduction 2: Today, social media has a big role in our lives. People use it for many
purposes mainly for entertainment, communication, and news. Since social media plays
an important role in our lives, experts have been trying to use it in education. I believe
social media can bring several benefits to both educators and students, which enables
them to share the information and play an interactive role while learning. Social media
can be used for a variety of purposes in education. Thus, it would be a valuable source for
both educators and students.

Task 5: Now write an introduction in response to the same prompt yourself.

Prompt: For which purposes can social media be used in education? To what extent do
you agree/disagree with the idea that it is a valuable source that can benefit educators
and students?

Your introduction:

3.1.2 Body
The body of the essay will consist of a series of paragraphs, which constitute the main
part of your essay. These paragraphs, which lie between the introduction and conclusion,
develop and support the thesis statement of your essay in detail. In each body paragraph,
you should:
  develop your thesis further
 introduce one main idea in a topic sentence and expand it through the use of
supports and evidence
 expand on the theme through the use of supporting details such as definition,
description, explanation, exemplification, evidence –facts/statistic/authority’s
opinion, comparison, opinion and analogy (See Module 1 for elaboration on
ideas).
 analyse the evidence to show how it contributes to the specific point you are
making in the paragraph and to the essay as a whole
 avoid making statements that you cannot prove
 develop your ideas in a unified and coherent fashion (See Module 1 for
organization of ideas)

Reminder: Usually, the first sentence of each body paragraph is the topic sentence. Not
every paragraph begins this way, but in most academic papers authors advance their
arguments or explanations strongly in the first sentence or two of each paragraph. This
technique makes it easier for the reader to follow the ideas in the paragraph.

Read the sample body paragraph of an essay on ‘how rising food prices are
impacting people’s diets’ below. Notice the use of cohesive devices to maintain a
smooth flow.

Adapted from https://www.cdu.edu.au/sites/default/files/acike/docs/academic-essay-

writing-resource.pdf

Task 6: Analyze the following sample body paragraph and identify its parts as in
the example above.
Prompt: Machines now play an important role in most people’s lives. Computers, cars,
and household machines (such as washing machines) have become very common. What
are the advantages and disadvantages of having so many machines in people’s lives? Use
specific examples in your answer.

Task 7: Analyze the sample body paragraph and identify the weaknesses. Discuss
how they can be improved with your classmates.

Prompt: In many countries it is becoming more common for people to have several part-
time jobs instead of one full-time job. What are the disadvantages of working part-time
jobs? Give examples to support your ideas.

Body paragraph: The biggest disadvantage of part-time jobs is that it takes time and
energy to have so many jobs. People get tired and stressed because of their work. They do
not have time with their families. All they want to do is finishing the job and sleep. If a
father takes several part-time jobs, it may influence his children. Because of this lack of
love they may become workaholics in the future.
3.1.3 Conclusion
The conclusion is the part where you bring together your essay’s main points and reassert
or emphasize the strength of the thesis or argument. It summarizes the main points of
your paper in a different way in order not to bore the readers by repetition of the same
sentences. For an effective conclusion, do the following:

 refer back to your thesis statement and answers the essay question depending on
what has been shown as a result of your investigation or exploration of the topic.
 reflect upon the significance of what you have written and tries to convey some
closing thoughts about the larger implications of your argument.
 finish with an idea for the reader to think about (e.g. a prediction or
recommendation).

In a conclusion paragraph, DO NOT

X write any new information, points, or support.
X ask a question that leaves the reader uncertain. (The purpose of academic
writing is not to confuse the reader, but to enlighten the reader)

Reminder: Be aware that different genres or tasks in different fields have their own
special expectations about beginnings and endings. Some academic genres may not even
require an introduction or conclusion. A book review, for example, may begin with a
summary of the book and conclude with an overall assessment of it. Check your
assignment carefully for any directions about what to include in your introduction or
conclusion.

Below is a sample conclusion paragraph of an essay on ‘bullying’ to demonstrate

how a conclusion could be written.
Adapted from http://owll.massey.ac.nz/academic-writing/academic-writing-e-book.php

Below is a sample conclusion paragraph of an essay on ‘educational system and

literacy’ to demonstrate how a conclusion could be written.

Task 8: Analyse the following sample conclusion paragraph of an essay on ‘society

and literacy’ and identify its parts as in the examples above.

Taken from http://accounts.smccd.edu/skyenglish/

Task 9: Analyze the following conclusion paragraph and identify the weaknesses.
Discuss how they can be improved with your classmates.

Prompt: Machines now play an important role in most people’s lives. Computers, cars,
and household machines (such as washing machines) have become very common. What
are the advantages and disadvantages of having so many machines in people’s lives? Use
specific examples in your answer.

Outline:
Thesis statement: Although machinery was devised to benefit mankind, it has also
brought along many flaws.

Body 1: Negative effects on families

Body 2: Negative effects on the environment
Conclusion: With all the advantages machinery has brought to us all, I personally believe
that possessing too many cars or phones or even consuming too much of their energy and
battery, is beginning to get out of hand and needs to be controlled.

Task 10: Now write a conclusion in response to the same prompt you wrote an
introduction for in Task 6.

Prompt: For which purposes can social media be used in education? To what extent do
you agree/ disagree with the idea that it is a valuable source that can benefit educators
and students?

Outline:
Thesis statement: Social media can be used for a variety of purposes in education. Thus,
I believe that it is a valuable source for both educators and students.

Body 1: aims for using social media in education

sharing information
communication

Body 2: being a valuable source for both educators and students

being fast and practical
student motivation

Your conclusion:

TITLE
An effective title for an academic essay
 should be concise
 should communicate the main idea of the essay
 can be a question/phrase/clause (but not a full sentence)
UNIT 5 STEPS IN ESSAY WRITING

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Steps in Process Writing
3.2 Mind-mapping the Essay Question
3.3 Research
3.4 Documented Outline
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit will introduce you to the process of essay writing as you will be expected to
write your essay following the process approach.

A process approach to writing, which is a way of breaking down the task of writing into
its smaller parts, refers to a range of activities. This step by step approach helps to ease
the challenging task of writing by providing students with continuous feedback and
assistance.

2.0 INTENDED LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section you should be able to:
 Understand the stages of planning an essay.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Steps in Process Writing
3.2 Mind-map the Essay Prompt/Question

You can brainstorm and prepare a mind-map, which is your first attempt to organize the
ideas in your paper. You may do this before doing any research.

Below is a model mind map

Adapted from Williams. A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing
skills. London: HarperCollins Publishers.

Alternatively, you may develop your own mind-map (basic outline) or you may want to
use visual plans such as the ones demonstrated below:

Taken fromhttps://www.hmhco.com/~/media/sites/home/education/disciplines/language-
arts/homeschool/write-source-homeschool/samplers/g9_sampler.pdf?la=en
3.3 Research
Carrying out research is an integral part of academic life as the sources from research will
provide sound evidence, and in this way, add credibility to your writing. Therefore, to
have an effective and convincing essay, rather than just relying on your own opinion, you
should demonstrate that you have also conducted research so that you can provide
support for your arguments to make them stronger. For this reason, careful consideration
of available sources and choosing the right evidence to support your arguments are
significant.

For most students, however, research means surfing the Internet for the topic they are
looking for. Such an approach is not effective for academic writing as you may not find
relevant academic sources and the information you find may not be reliable.

Before you begin your research, you should ask yourself the following questions:
 What kind of information are you looking for?
Facts, opinions, news reports, research studies, analyses, or personal reflections?
 Where would be a likely place to look?
Libraries, the Internet, academic periodicals, newspapers, or government records?
In fact, where to look depends on what you are looking for. If, for example, you are
searching for information on some current event, a reliable newspaper like the Daily
Times will be a useful source. Are you searching for statistics on some aspect of the
Malawian population? Then, start with documents such as Malawi census reports. Do
you want some scholarly interpretations of literature? If so, academic periodicals and
books are likely to have what you are looking for.

While doing your research, you can refer to traditional publications and online
resources. The Internet may be the most practical place to begin your research, but it
is not always the best.

To find effective online sources, pay attention to the following:

Websites: Websites vary widely in quality of information and validity of sources

and not all of them would give you reliable information. So, it can be useful to
limit your search to a specific domain such as .edu for college or university sites,
 .gov for government sites or .org for organization sites. These domains may give
you better results than .com sites.

Online libraries and databases: Online libraries (of your university or other
universities) and databases such as JSTOR, EBSCOHost, Google Scholar, are the
best ways to find academic sources as they are credible and academic.

Blogs and personal websites: Blogs and personal sites vary widely in quality of
information and validity of sources. Usually blogs are not acceptable in an
academic environment as they are regarded as too personal and subjective.
However, many prestigious journalists and scholars may have blogs, which may
be more credible than the others.

Social media, message boards, discussion lists, multimedia, Wikis, and chat
rooms: These types of sources exist for all kinds of disciplines, both in and
outside of the university. Some may be useful, depending on the topic you are
studying, but just like personal websites, the information is not always credible.

Below are the steps for doing research efficiently:

1. Brainstorm on your subject
2. Search
3. Evaluate the information you have found and choose the right evidence

1. Brainstorm on your subject

This step will help you clarify your understanding of the essay question/topic and
will provide you support for your focus. Before brainstorming you might want to
do some preliminary research on the topic so that you can generate ideas.

2. Search

This step involves processing a great deal of information and finding the material
related to your topic. To search effectively:

a. Divide the research topic into phrases (different subtopics or elements): e.g.
"effects of X", "impacts on X". Place “…” around the phrase so that you can find
articles containing that particular phrase.
 b. Use different search keywords: Change your key words so that you can have far
more results.
Tips:
Try using synonyms or a more general term.
 Use “and” to combine key words and narrow your results.
 Use “or” to include synonyms for key words and widen your results.

Task 1: Read the essay questions below and

- underline the words/phrases you would use in a key word search
- write/use other key words/phrases to expand your search

A. “How does online social networking affect the way teenagers establish
relationships?”

Other key words and phrases: ____________________________________

B. Compare/contrast the fear of terrorism and the concern with safety issues in
present day society with George Orwell’s novel, 1984.

Other key words and phrases: ____________________________________

3. Evaluate the information/sources you have found

To find valid and reliable information, it is important to evaluate the sources carefully
because this will determine the quality of your paper. As you evaluate the sources, pay
attention to the following:

 Who wrote the source? Is the author a subject matter expert?

 How credible is the author? If the document is anonymous, what do you know
about the organization?
 Determine the intended audience. Are you the intended audience? Consider the
tone, style, level of information, and assumptions the author makes about the
reader. Are they appropriate for your needs?
 Try to determine if the content of the source is a fact, an opinion, or a propaganda.
If you think the source is offering facts, are the sources for those facts clearly
indicated?
  If the source is opinion, does the author offer sound reasons for adopting that
stance? (Consider again those questions about the author. Is this person
reputable?)
 Are there vague or sweeping generalizations that are not backed up with
evidence?
 Is the language objective or emotional?
 When was the source published? How timely is the source? Is the source twenty
years out of date? Some information becomes dated when new research is
available, but other older sources of information can be quite sound fifty or a
hundred years later.
 Where was the source published? Is the source published in a well-established
peer reviewed journal? If the source is not published in a peer reviewed journal,
how good is its publication location? Resources such as Wikipedia may be a
useful first source for information but do not constitute high quality publications.
 Check for a list of references or other citations that look as if they will lead you to
related material that would be good sources.

Task 2: Imagine that you are searching the Internet for texts for your essay on “altruism
as an innate human trait”. Below are your search results. Which of the items should be
treated with caution? And why?

1. Is altruism a genetic trait? http://www.scientificamerican.co

http://www.scientificamerican.com
m
2. Nature/Altruism ‘in-built’ in http://news.bbc.co.
humans uk
3.Evolution of http://en.wikipedia.o
morality rg
4. The natural selection of altruistic traits http://courses.washington.
edu
5. Altruism essays http://www.megaessays.c
om

Adapted from Williams. A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing
skills. London: HarperCollins Publishers.

Reminder:
 Research is an on-going part of the writing process, so you may need to continue
doing research throughout the writing process, as you write or revise your paper.
 As you are doing your research, compile a working bibliography (running list of
the materials you read) so that you can have a basis for your list of references. Do
 not forget to keep a record of each source with full bibliographic information for
each.

3.4 Documented Outline

After going through your sources, you can create a detailed outline by adding details to
your mind-map. A detailed outline plans each body paragraph of your essay for you, from
main points to supporting points along with the citations (the ideas you borrow from
various sources) by indicating which points they support.

A detailed outline is helpful because it helps you

 determine if your ideas connect to each other and what order of ideas works best
 see whether you have sufficient evidence to support each of your points,
 identify where gaps in your thinking may exist,
 stay organized and focused throughout the writing process and ensure proper
coherence [flow of ideas] in your final paper,
 to make sure that you always have something to help re-calibrate your writing,
 build your argument toward an evidence-based conclusion,
 focus on the task at hand and avoid unnecessary tangents, logical fallacies, and
underdeveloped ideas.

The format of an outline is flexible. Often when you start investigating, especially if you
are unfamiliar with the topic, you should anticipate the likelihood of your analysis going
in different directions. If your paper changes focus, or you need to add new sections, then
feel free to reorganize the outline.

You can use the template below.

 UNIT 6: INCORPORATING RESEARCH (REFERENCING)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What Plagiarism is
3.2 Citation
3.3 Borrowing Ideas
3.4 Effective Integration of Citations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Intended Learning Objectives

At the end of this Introductory Unit you should be able to do the following:
• Demonstrate understanding of Plagiarism
• Effectively cite sources of borrowed ideas in their essays
• Integrate citations in their essays
•
3.0 Introduction
After you do research and find sources for your essay, the next step is to use the
information in your paper. But at this stage, you need to carefully and responsibly
integrate your sources into your writing in order not to fall into the plagiarism trap
(failing to document any idea that is not yours). When you use the words or ideas of
others, you need to make it clear that they are not your own ideas. If you do not do
this and use others’ words or ideas as if they were your own, it will be plagiarism.

3.1 What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is regarded as a form of stealing in which the writer uses someone’s ideas
and language improperly by
- copying the words exactly without giving a reference
- copying the words exactly in a paraphrase or summary even if the source is cited
- using the ideas without giving a source
Reasons to avoid plagiarism
Plagiarism, which is academic dishonesty, should be avoided as it is unethical and
unacceptable in academic context. Because it is a serious offense, educational
institutions have strict policies concerning plagiarism; students might even receive a
failing grade or be expelled.

How to avoid plagiarism

 Always cite (in the text and in a reference list) when you use:
 another person's idea, language, or theory
 any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings, or other elements used or that you
adapted from another source
 any pieces of information that are not common knowledge
 quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words
 paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words

Task 1: Compare the work submitted by this student with the original text.
Identify the problems causing plagiarism.

Original Student Essay

Reality TV claims to feature 'ordinary' Reality TV claims to feature 'ordinary'
people doing 'ordinary' things. As a people doing 'ordinary' things. The
genre, the 'people' show minimises the emphasis on everyday life minimises the
distance between the audience and the distance between the audience and the
'actors' through its emphasis on everyday actors making the viewer feel like they
life so that the viewer is invited to too could become one of them by
recognise the participant as belonging to becoming a contestant, or being in the
her or his own habitus. A viewer sitting studio audience (Tincknell & Raghuram,
at home is not only invited to identify 2004).
with the actors; she or he can become
one of them by volunteering to tell her
story, become a contestant, or by taking
part in the show as one of the studio
audience.

Reference: Tincknell, E. & Raghuram,

P. (2004). Big Brother: reconfiguring the
active audience? In Holmes, S. &
Jermyn, D. Eds. Understanding reality
 television. London: Routledge, pp. 252-
269.
Adapted from: http://sites.cardiff.ac.uk/ilrb/resource/avoiding-plagiarism-exercise/

3.2 Citation

Once you find the relevant and appropriate sources for your topic, the next step is to
use these sources in your writing, which helps build credibility throughout your paper.
This can be done by a system of citation, which is the way you tell your readers that
certain parts in your writing came from another source. Indeed, it is a reference to the
source of information used in your research to help you avoid plagiarism. Why do you
need to cite?

Because citations
 document your research
 help you to avoid accusations of plagiarism
 give credit to the original author
 strengthen your arguments as they show your arguments are based on research
and, in this way, brings authority to your argument
 improve your academic writing by providing an intellectual basis for your
writing
 create greater impact on your readers

When do you need to cite?

when you
 use words of others’ (direct quote)
 use ideas of others’ (paraphrase/summary/synthesis)
 make specific reference to the work of another

Reminder: You do not need to cite common knowledge, which is the information that any
reader would know without looking it up such as the following:

“The Earth revolves around the Sun.”

“Excessive consumption of alcohol can impair your judgment.”

! When in doubt, always provide a citation.

Use citations meaningfully

Do not use a citation for the sake of using it. Choose and place it wisely in your essay so
that the citation you use performs a function and serves for a purpose such as the
following:
a) To define something
b) To give background information
c) To provide evidence to support a claim
d) To give an example to support a claim
e) To present a theoretical framework
f) To support your own voice with expert opinion
g) To present different points of view

Task 2: Read the extracts below about ‘the problem of cybercrime’ and match each
extract with one of the functions given above.
1. Rates of cybercrime have risen sharply. Data from the Internet Crime
Complaint Centre show that there were just over 300,000 complaints registered
in 2011, a six-fold increase over the 2001 figure (IC3, 2012).
2. Within the law-enforcement community, there is a considerable disagreement
about how precisely to define “cybercrime”. Gordon and Ford (2006, p.14)
define it as any crime that is “facilitated using computer, network, or hardware
device”.

3. The investigation of cybercrime has a long way to go. Indeed, according to

Hunton (2011, p. 61), it is “still in its infancy”.

4. In order to understand how a phishing attack works, consider the example of

Kobe, who advertised a vehicle for sale on an online auction site…. (Gordon &
Ford, 2006).

Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills.
London, U.K.: HarperCollins Publishers.

Task 3: Read the paragraph below, which comes from an essay on cybercrime. In
the spaces after each sentence:
- Write NS if no source material is needed
- Indicate the function for any source material that is needed

The public perception of cybercrime is not the same as that of conventional crime,
which people are much more likely to report to the police. 1)___________. Consider,
for instance, online banking fraud. 2)____________. Although nowadays many banks
encourage their customers to use online banking, the risk of online banking fraud has
 increased steadily. 3)______________. However, when bank customers realized that
they have become victims of online banking fraud, they generally report the crime
directly to the bank rather than to the police. 4)_____________. If the amounts of
money are small, the bank may not choose to involve the police. 5)____________.
Indeed, banks are reluctant to make incidents of online fraud known to outsiders
because this could adversely affect confidence in the bank, and therefore profitability.
6____________.

Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills.
London, U.K.: HarperCollins Publishers.

How can you cite?

There are different ways/styles of referring to other writers’ work such as APA, MLA,
Chicago Manual, and Harvard. Universities and disciplines may differ in the style they
prefer so you need to make sure which style you are required to use before writing your
papers because the format of the citation may change depending on the style you use.
In this course, you are expected to follow the conventions of APA (American
Psychological Association) style for giving in-text and end-text references.
In-text reference a brief notation of the source material
within the text of your paper

In text reference example:

According to Peters (1983) evidence from
first language acquisition indicates that
lexical phrases are learnt first as
unanalysed lexical chunks.
End text reference full notation of the source material at the
end of your paper

End text reference example:

Peters, A. (1983). The units of language
acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
 Example

In-text Reference

Basic elements of the citation that you need to include in your essay are:

 The author’s last name

 Year of publication
 Page/paragraph number (if it is a direct uote)

Ways of giving in-text reference in the text:

Direct Quote Paraphrase/Summary

 Smith (2010) states that  Smith (2010) states that

“_______” (p. 290). ___________.

 Smith (2010, p. 290) states that  It is stated that __________________

“_______ ”. (Smith, 2010).

 “________________” (Smith,
2010, p. 290).
 In-text citations in parenthetical form:
 citation should appear in the text with proper punctuation marks: the last name
of the author followed by a comma and the publication year enclosed in
parentheses. Full stop only comes after closing the parenthesis. Page or
paragraph number is included in the parenthesis if it is a direct quotation.

Direct quote:
“When testing the usability of a website, it is necessary to gather demographic
information about the users” (Lazar, 2006, p.52).

Paraphrase/Summary: Users’ demographic information must be collected to check if a

website is usable or not (Lazar, 2006).

In-text citations incorporated into the sentence

 the author's name can also be incorporated into a sentence in the assignment, in
which case it is moved outside the parenthesis:

Direct quote: Lazar (2006) notes that “a fundamental part of usability testing is
understanding the demographics of the users” (p.52).

Paraphrase/Summary:

According to Lazar (2006), in order to test usability, it is essential to

comprehend user demographics.
! All sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the
paper.
End-text Reference
This is a list of all the sources you have cited. It contains more detailed information about
the source: the title, publishing details, etc.
 The references come at the end of your paper, and they appear on a new page
with the ‘References’ title.
 Entries are written in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author.
 Each element of the citation is separated with a full stop.
 Second and subsequent lines of a citation should be indented 5 spaces.
References
Baker, C. (2004). Western Australia: Short stay guide. Sydney, Australia: Little Hills Press.
Fremlin, B. (1986). A wild heritage of Western Australia. Perth, Australia: St Georges Books.
Hayward, M. (2004). Mainland quokkas. Nature Australia, 27(12), 26-33. Retrieved
from http://search.ebscohost.com
O’Brien, K., & Swaffer, A. (2005). West Coast Australia. Bath, Australia: Footprint.
Rottnest Island Authority. (n.d.). Quokkas. Retrieved from
http://v1235.vividcluster2.crox.net.au/about/flora-and-fauna/quokkas

Below are examples of APA end-text references for different types of sources.

APA format for a book – one author

Reminder: In APA style, reference list is not a list of “works consulted” or
“bibliography” which includes all sources used in your essay. Every source that is listed
in your references also needs to be cited in the body of your paper.
To check your citations, you can use the following web-based citation managers that
allow you to import references from text files, web sites, or online databases:
 Ref-works
 Mendeley
 Zotero
 Citation Machine
3.3 Borrowing Ideas
There are 4 different methods to integrate borrowed ideas into your essay:
 Quoting directly
 Paraphrasing
 Summarizing
 Synthesizing
Each borrowing method involves a different process, and each must be cited according to
the standards/conventions of the citation style you use. Deciding which borrowing
method to use requires close reading. You must be able to understand the material before
you are able to properly use it in a paper. Once you fully grasp the meaning behind the
material, you will be able to choose which method fits best.
Reminder: Although there are no set rules about how many indirect and direct
quotations you should use in your essay, usually, the use of indirect quotation (summaries
and paraphrases) indicates a higher level of understanding and command of language.
Try to paraphrase and summarise where possible, and only use direct quotations when
you really need to use the exact wording of the source material.
3.3.1 DIRECT QUOTE
A direct quotation is using the author’s exact words directly from the text to use in your
essay. Direct quotes help you support and prove your points by spicing up your essay at
the same time.
Try to use direct quotations sparingly in order not to lose the ownership of your essay.
However, it is a good idea to prefer a direct quotation:
 when the original text is very well-stated and the meaning or impact would be
lessened if paraphrased.
 when a point has been made so clearly and concisely that it cannot be expressed
more clearly and concisely.
 when another writer’s words are memorable and will make your essay more
interesting.
 when a certain phrase or sentence in the source is particularly vivid or striking, or
especially typical or representative of some phenomenon you are discussing.
The table below summarizes the rules for direct quoting:
Reminder: Make sure you introduce the quote so the audience knows it is coming,
indicate who said the quote, and connect the quote to the rest of your paper.
Analyse the table below to see a plagiarized and an accurate version of a direct
quote.

3.3.2 Paraphrase
In addition to direct quoting, paraphrasing is another borrowing method you can use to
support your ideas. As it is not possible to directly quote all the ideas you may want to
borrow, it is essential to be skillful in paraphrasing.
There might be several reasons why writers may prefer to paraphrase. The most common
ones are as follows:
 It is easier to integrate the ideas of another writer or authority via paraphrasing
into your writing/essay
  It helps to make your writing more coherent as you can change the wording and
the style of the original, which can help you maintain a smooth flow
 It is useful when borrowing information which is important but not worthy of
quoting as the language of the original is not unique

3.3.3 Summary
Another method of borrowing in addition to direct quoting and paraphrasing is
summarizing. You may prefer to summarize ideas in a source text because:
 It is useful when borrowing information which is too long
 It is easier to integrate the ideas of another writer or authority into your own
writing/essay via summarizing.
 It helps to make your writing more coherent as you can change the wording and
the style of the original, which can help you maintain a smooth flow

3.3.4 Sythensis
Synthesizing, which is an important skill in both essay writing and other types of
academic writing, is combining different aspects of your ideas and research findings and
the ideas of others in order to produce new ideas. The following are the three common
reasons for synthesizing that you may possibly need during your study at university:
1. incorporating and relating your citations into your own paragraphs
2. using more than one source combined as one citation to support an idea/s in
your paragraphs
3. reading / listening/ watching course materials and inferring relationships
among sources to come with your own opinion/ something new/ your
reactions/ reflections to be used in your written work or class discussions.
In this sense, a synthesis is a written discussion that draws upon one or more sources. It
requires you to infer relationships among different sources (lectures, interviews, articles,
observations, etc.) and combine them into a new meaningful whole. It is a process where
you develop an idea or opinion based on merging what you have found with your prior
knowledge. Your reading and research adds to and develops that already existing idea or
information and you need to think about what you have read and consider where it fits
into your argument. While you produce something new and original, you still need to
acknowledge the ideas of others by giving proper citations.
To synthesize, you need the skills of paraphrasing and summarizing. However, unlike a
paraphrase or a summary, which only uses one author’s idea at a time, a synthesis
combines two or more ideas to produce a new, more complex product. When you
synthesize, you paraphrase and summarize to produce new ideas or arguments. For a
good synthesis, you should be able to separate facts from opinions, draw inferences or
logical conclusions from these facts, think about the information and evaluate where it
fits in with the argument (essay, report, review, etc.) you are developing.
Reminder: Which piece of information to use from the sources, how to relate them to
one another and where in your essay to incorporate them all depend on your purpose or
the assignment.
Steps for synthesis:
1. read and make sure you understand what the sources say
2. make notes of key points
3. summarize/paraphrase the sources in your own words
4. make judgments and draw conclusions based on critical reading
5. determine the relationship among different sources and/or a source and your own
writing (identify the common ideas/similarities, differences, generalizations, how
one source supports or exemplifies another, etc.)
6. combine the ideas to form a new whole using proper transitions
7. integrate the ideas to your own work
8. give in-text references whenever necessary
! Always keep the question and thesis statement in mind to make sure that the synthesis is
relevant and not redundant.
Reminder: When synthesizing information from several different sources to support
ideas/arguments in your work, the parenthetical reference for the sources should include
the surname of the author(s) and publication year of each source, separated by a
semicolon as in the example below:
……..……………………………………………………. (Clarkson, 2012; Brown, 2016).

Task 4: Read the excerpts below and write a synthesis in the space provided.
Excerpt 1: It is a fact that many individuals use the Net to share their opinions with a
potentially huge audience via their own Web pages. Some of these individuals are fully
qualified to write with authority on their particular field of expertise. Others,
unfortunately, are not qualified and their views are really little more than personal
opinions and beliefs rather than fully supported, credible arguments. Clearly, a set of
criteria is needed to help students distinguish between reliable information and that
which must be viewed more critically. One criterion is that of authorship, a second the
status of the website, while a third is the credibility of a document itself. There are
various checks that a student can perform to determine these, and it is crucial that they
do so.

Chan, W.K. (2001). Using information found on the Web. IT Journal, 6(2).

Excerpt 2: To check whether an author is an expert involves searching the Internet for
references to that author's work, and analysing whether those references are just from
people with similar opinions, or from other experts.

While it is relatively easy to determine whether a website is a high-status educational

or government domain, it is much more difficult to discover the reliability of a
commercial site.

The credibility of the document may also be difficult to determine, as it may have all
the components of a reputable page, such as links to supporting evidence, but the
content may still not be credible.

Finally there are many genuine academic debates with many valuable points of view.
There is no clear distinction between beliefs and different interpretations of evidence in
many areas.

Smith, A. J. (2003). Synthesis. Retrieved November 16, 2018 from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, The
English Language Centre Web site: http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/eap/synthesis.htm

Your synthesis:
3.4 Effective Integration of Citations
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is integrating ideas of others from
different sources into your essay without plagiarising. When doing this, you need to
incorporate the source material smoothly, without distorting the flow of your paper. If
you fail to effectively incorporate the ideas of others into your writing, all your efforts in
doing research and finding the relevant academic sources could be futile.
Follow the steps below to effectively integrate sources into your essay:
1. Maintain your own voice
Every piece of writing has a voice which refers to the way the writer reveals
himself/herself. In your writing, you should always maintain your own voice, without
letting others’ ideas take over. That is, the majority of your paper should be your original
ideas in your own words and your own voice should be the predominant one in your
writing. To do this, when you incorporate sources into your writing, avoid overuse of
citations without any attempt to explain their relevance to your point.
To maintain your own voice in your writing:
 do not cite too many sources; otherwise, your own voice will disappear.
 do not rely too much on direct quotations; make your own paraphrases and
summaries of research using proper citations.
 use quotations at strategically selected moments. Filling your paper with
quotations will not necessarily strengthen your argument.
 use sources to emphasize and support a point you have made, but let your own
ideas, rather than research, drive your paper.
Task 5: Compare the two paragraphs below from an essay on cybercrime. Answer
the questions below:
a) What is the purpose of each citation?
b) In which paragraph does the writer appear to be more in control?
c) How does the writer express his opinion in the second paragraph without using ‘I’?
Paragraph 1
Wall (2003) divided cybercrime into 3 categories. Firstly, there is traditional
cybercrime, which is common traditional crimes that are committed using the Internet
such as fraud, stalking, and so on. Secondly, there is hybrid cybercrime, defined as
online criminal acts which enable perpetrators to commit traditional crimes. Hacking
and ID theft are examples of this. Thirdly, there is true cybercrime where criminals
make new opportunities for new types of crime, for example phishing, intellectual
property piracy and so on.

Paragraph 2
The incidence of cybercrime has increased significantly. Online crime complaints in
the US increased substantially between 2007 and 2009 (IC3, 2010). In the US, the
reported loss related to online fraud amounted to more than 550 million dollars in
2009, twice the figure of the previous year (IC3, 2010). In the UK, a similar situation
prevailed. Online banking fraud alone accounted for 59.7 million pound in losses, a 14
% rise on the 2008 figure (UKCA, 2010). These figures reinforce Smith et al.’s (2004,
p. 35) contention that the Internet has become a “playground for criminals”.
Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills. London, U.K.:
HarperCollins Publishers.

2. Make smooth moves

When incorporating ideas or language into your writing, you should make smooth moves by
carefully connecting the source material to what you say so that the citations you use will not
distort the flow of your writing and will not confuse the reader. In this way, the readers can
clearly see the connection between an integrated quotation and what it is trying to prove.
Otherwise, your reference will be left hanging and its relation to your argument will be left
unclear.
To be able to make smooth moves, never drop quotes. That is, do not just use quotes in your
writing without introducing and/ or explaining because a dropped quote distorts the flow of your
writing, as it makes it difficult for the reader to understand the relationship between your words
and the borrowed parts.
! Always try to introduce and explain your quotations so that they can provide your reader with
the context they need to understand the quote.
You can integrate others’ ideas smoothly into your essay by following the ICE method!

1. I – Introduce AND/OR Integrate

2. C - Cite
3. E - Explain

1. Introduce (Lead-in)

Use introductory phrases and signposts that tell how the citation connects to your idea/ argument.
To do this, you can
 provide context for each citation (otherwise your reader will wonder who that person
is/might get confused)
 attribute each citation to its source (tell your reader who is speaking)
introduce the source and the speaker
 try not to get stuck saying “he says/she says” throughout the whole essay. Use a variety
of verbs such as state, declare, believe, contend, recall, write, note, critique, propose, etc.
depending on the content.
Below are some examples for how you can introduce a citation:

 In her critique of soap operas, Tania Modleski argues that some view television as a…
 In her study of childrearing patterns and social class, Lareau (2003) argued that class
differences were far more significant than …
 Research in cognitive science has found that … (Willingham, 2011).
 Drawing on findings in cognitive science, Willingham (2011) explains “…”

Analyse the tables below to compare the dropped and integrated versions of the same
quotes:
A.
Dropped Quote Integrated Quote

A number of journalists have been critical of A number of journalists have been critical of
genetic engineering. “The problem is, no one genetic engineering. Lisa Turner (2017), in an
really knows the long-term effects of such article for the magazine Better Nutrition,
complex genetic manipulation— and the targets the unpredictable nature of this new
potential dangers to humans and the technology: “The problem is, no one really
environment are substantial” (Turner, 2017, p. knows the long-term effects of such complex
21). genetic manipulation—and the potential
dangers to humans and the environment are
substantial” (p. 21).
The quote stands on its own, and it’s not clear In this sentence, the quote is anchored. We
who Turner is or why this person is quoted. know who said it and why she is an authority,
The relevance of the quote is not anchored so and it now flows in the logic of the sentence.
floats away in the reader’s mind.
Taken from http://accounts.smccd.edu/skyenglish/rhetoric.pdf#page=262

B.
Dropped Quote Integrated Quote
Schools and parents should not set limits on Schools and parents should not set limits on
how much teenagers are allowed to work at how much teenagers are allowed to work at
jobs. “We conclude that intensive work does jobs. Lee and Staff’s (2007) carefully
not affect the likelihood of high school designed study proves this as they found that
dropout among youths who have a high “intensive work does not affect the likelihood
propensity to spend long hours on the job” of high school dropout among youths who
(Lee & Staff, 2007, p. 171). Teens should be have a high propensity to spend long hours on
trusted to learn how to manage their time. the job” (p. 171). Thus, teens should be
trusted to learn how to manage their time.
The reader is thinking, who is this sudden, Here the quote is introduced so that we know
ghostly “we”? Why should this source be who said it and why she is an authority, and it
believed? If you find that passages with now flows in the logic of the sentence.
quotes in your draft are awkward to read out
loud, that’s a sign that you need to
contextualize the quote more effectively.
Taken from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sanjacinto-englishcomp2kscope/chapter/6-e-using-sources-
effectively-guptill/
Reporting Verbs for Referring to Sources
If you select your verbs carefully, you can introduce your quotes effectively and this will help
you to voice your opinions/arguments better in your assignment work. To do this, make sure that
you report the text/author’s ideas accurately by
 choosing precise verbs for attribution
 using the correct tense for reporting verbs
 using grammatically correct verbs to match your intended meaning
 going beyond “says” approach
Task 5: Indicate how each of the reporting verbs below changes the writer’s opinion in the
following sentence:
Smith et al. (2004) suggest/demonstrate/imply/claim that the Internet has become a
“playground for criminals”.
Taken from Williams, A. (2013). Research: Improve your reading and referencing skills. London, U.K.:
HarperCollins Publishers.

Task 6: Read the sentences below in which different reporting verbs have been used and
answer the questions that follow.
a. Johnson (2007) suggests that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky
because they take advantage of more opportunities.
b. Johnson (2007) discusses whether people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky
because they take advantage of more opportunities.
c. Johnson (2007) argues that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky because
they take advantage of more opportunities.
d. Johnson (2007) states that people who see themselves as lucky are in fact lucky because
they take advantage of more opportunities.

1. In which case is Johnson’s belief strong?

2. Which two verbs simply describe or report a fact?
3. Which two reporting verbs indicate a value judgment?* (* Value judgments are not
statements of fact. They are subjective opinions, assessments, or beliefs about how good or
bad something is.)
4. In which case is Johnson’s belief weaker and more hesitant?
Different reporting verbs require the use of different grammatical patterns.
Study the tables and the examples below for the accurate use of some reporting verbs:
Reporting verb + THAT + MAIN IDEA
accept complain find Realise
acknowledge conclude know recommend
admit confirm imply remark
advise consider indicate restate
 announce decide infer reveal
agree declare maintain show
allege deny note state
argue determine observe suggest
assert discover object think
assume doubt point out understand
believe emphasise predict verify
claim estimate propose warn
comment explain prove

Examples:
 Peterson et al. (2013, para. 36) acknowledge that Internet privacy is a growing issue in
the modern world of communication.
 Da Souza argues that previous researchers have misinterpreted the data.
 Researchers have demonstrated that the procedure is harmful.
 Positivists find that social disorders are exacerbated by class factors.
 Singh infers that both conditions are essential.

Some reporting verbs cannot be followed immediately by ‘that’ but follow the pattern
below:
REPORTING VERBS + SOMETHING/SOMEONE + CONNECTING WORD + (e.g.
as, because, by, in terms of, for, that)
Advocate define express question
analyze demonstrate highlight refer
appraise defend identify refute
assess describe illustrate reject
assure discuss interpret study
blame encourage investigate support
challenge evaluate object (to) validate
classify examine present verify
criticize puts forward view

Examples:
 Jackson (2012, pp. 23-38) refutes the claim made by Smith that . . .
 Studies by Campbell (2005, 2008) highlight the disadvantages in terms of . . .
 Research by Smith et al. (2006, para. 36) validates the argument that . . .
 These findings illustrate the importance of Internet privacy as . . . (Brown, 2007;
Jackson, 2011)
 Brown and Peters (2013, pp. 3-5) describe Johnson’s findings as ‘disturbing’. . .
  Cleary (2009, para. 6) advocates for the rights of Internet users because . . .
 Joseph et al. (2010, p. 6) question all previous research on the subject in terms of . . .
 TechTimes (2013, p. 73) discusses the reasons behind the increase in Internet
bullying by . . .
 Jones (2012) describes the findings as resting on irrefutable evidence.
Adapted from : https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/paragraphs/reporting-verbs-for-introducing-
authors/

Reminder: The following verbs are used to indicate that the writer makes strong arguments and
claims for the main idea:
argues, asserts, challenges, claims, contends, denies, emphasizes, maintains, negates, refutes,
rejects, supports the view that, strongly counters the view/ argument that, theorizes

Task 7: Circle the reporting verb that is correctly used in the citations below.
1. Boyce (2004) (analyzes / notes) that animals kept in captivity suffer from many aliments.
2. It is clear that Lam and Wong (2009) (confuse / imagine / dispute) animals used as food
(the / that / with) animals which are primarily used as pets.
3. Smith et al. (2010) have (discovered / investigated) that free range cattle live better lives
than those kept inside.
4. Some academics (estimate / point out) that meat is unhealthy, but Wong’s (2009) paper
(refutes / investigates / notes) this claim.
5. This paper (investigates / mentions) the effects of organic food on minor illnesses and
(decides / concludes) that further research be conducted as a matter of urgency.
Taken from
http://elss.elc.cityu.edu.hk/ELSS/Resource/Using%20Intext%20reference%20verbs%20(ICOSA%20version)/

Task 8: Read the citations below and correct the mistakes in the use of reporting verbs.
1. In Wong’s (2010) view, she maintains that playing computer games leads to sight
deterioration.
2. In their handbook, according to the BMA (2000) state that…
3. Smith (2016) agrees with Sharpling (2012) reporting verbs have subtle differences in
meaning.
4. According to Purvis (2005) explores the relevance of brands…
5. As Liu (2009) has shown that teenagers in Hong Kong are becoming addicted to ….
6. According to Gillard (2012), he indicated that her negative opinion of Abbott’s proposal.
2. Cite
The citations you use should contribute to the credibility of your arguments and they should not
distort the flow of your paper. To ensure this, use citations when you really need to support your
arguments and do not cite unnecessarily just for the sake of reaching the word count! Make sure
that you use a citation of proper length. An overabundance of long quotes usually means that
your own argument is undeveloped.
 3. Explain
Introducing the quote and just writing it is not enough. You need to comment on or evaluate the
ideas you use. If you do not do this, you will not be critical or analytical enough. Always provide
your own reasoning and analysis explaining the relevance and significance of the quote and its
connection to your discussion. This step is very important as it ties your quotation to the rest of
your paper.
Introducing the quote and just writing it is not enough. You need to comment on or evaluate
the ideas you use. If you do not do this, you will not be critical or analytical enough. Always
provide your own reasoning and analysis explaining the relevance and significance of the
quote and its connection to your discussion. This step is very important as it ties your
quotation to the rest of your paper.
To do this, ask yourself the following questions:
 How might this author’s idea relate to my thesis?
 How does this data add to what I am trying to prove in this paragraph?
 Why am I using this quotation in my paper?
 What am I trying to show here?
Analyse the table below to see how the quote is explained:

As there are different situations, which require different styles of leadership, there are also
different roles of leaders that they need to have depending on the situation or the people.
Wasserberg claims that “the primary role of any leader is the unification of people around key
values” (as cited in Bush, 2000, p. 6). This is crucial because without understanding the values of
an organization, neither the leader nor the followers can achieve success. The values they have
and the vision they follow should be a shared, organizational one.

Reminder: Discussing the significance of your evidence develops and expands your paper!
Below is an example of the ICE method at work in a paragraph:
Analyze the table below to see how the citations are integrated:

Taken from: https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/pdf/using-evidence.pdf

Task 8: Read the essay and the excerpts below and decide where in the essay the ideas in the excerpts can be
inserted. Then, integrate the ideas from the excerpts into the appropriate blanks by
quoting/paraphrasing/summarizing (Remember to use the ICE method while integrating the citations).
Prompt: Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate tertiary coursework, and
evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for learning. (Word limit: 500 words)

Essay:
Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of time to research a topic and
produce their answer with references to their sources of information. While there are some disadvantages with
using assignment essays as an assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes underpinning this practice.
This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for student learning and considers some of
the problems with this method of assessment.

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly, assignment
tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. To master learning materials and extend understandings,
students need to write about the meanings they gain from their research. (1)
______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________. Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004;
Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are
researching, reading and writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline
(Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by
researching and writing assignment essays.

Using assignment essays for assessment also supports student learning better than the traditional examination
system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some
students over ‘sudden-death’ end of semester examinations. (2)
_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________. Additionally,
Jones et al. (2004) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so
provide them with helpful feedback before they are subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide
students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment essays for a
substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off examination testing.

As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and students. It has been found
that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time and money to mark and student time to prepare (Sankey
& Liger, 2005). A consequence of these problems is that feedback to students is frequently delayed, and this is
much less useful to students than rapid feedback.
(3)_______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________. It is partly because of these disadvantages that other assessments such as multiple-choice tests
and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary learning environment.
To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in tertiary education as an
assessment tool. This is mainly because they are very effective in developing knowledge and writing skills for
subject areas. Also, assignment essays can be less stressful than examinations as they allow students to show their
understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand, the time-consuming nature of
writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that also need to be considered. The weight of evidence,
however, supports the writing of assignment essays for student assessment because this approach has such
positive and proven effects for improved student learning.

References
Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education. London:
Bookworld.
Jinx, J. M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9(2), 114-
125.
Jones, J., Smith, P. L., Brown, K., Zong, J., Thompson, K., & Fung, P. A. (2004). Helpline: Essays
and the university student. Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.
Sankey, J. M., & Liger, T. U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney: Wonderland
University.
Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at
University (pp. 55-70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.
Excerpt 1:
A disadvantage of the traditional essay system is that often the carefully constructed instructor
feedback on the essay is not processed or even read by the students. Many students apparently
read the instructor’s feedback in only the most cursory fashion, or not at all. The latter is
necessarily the case in the many instances where students fail to pick up their marked essays.
Another growing disadvantage of the essay system is the ease of plagiarism ushered in by the
Internet and related digital information storage and transfer technologies. Although there are a
variety of anti-plagiarism services and techniques available, none are fool-proof, and the
variety of digital essay sources available provides a daunting problem for the classic essay
system.

Other disadvantages for the traditional essay system include the substantial amount of paper
used every year to provide the medium for the transmission of essays, as well as the
inconvenience of delivering, receiving, filing, transporting, storing, and returning paper-based
essays.

(Source: Smith, M. (2012). Can online peer review assignments replace essays in third year university courses?
And if so, what are the challenges? The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 10 (1), 147-158. Retrieved from
www.ejel.org )

Excerpt 2:
If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in their study courses at
the same time and in the same place (e.g., in examinations), we are not giving all of our
students equal opportunities. Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while
others suffer ‘exam nerves’ and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities.

(Source: Wonderland University. (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. doi:10.1098/063-112 p.4)

Excerpt 3:
It appears from the findings of this study that the assignment essay is the more appropriate
form of assessing students’ learning of this course since it provides students with the
opportunity to develop higher levels of thinking and learning skills during the process of essay
writing and to demonstrate these skills in terms of the quality of the end product. It allows
students to demonstrate flexibility and exercise control over their learning. Of particular
importance are the findings that students were aware that higher order intellectual skills were
involved in essay writing (in contrast to preparing for MCQ examinations), and that there was
an association between this perception and their employment of deeper learning approaches.

(Source: Scouller, K. (1998). The influence of assessment method on students’ learning approaches: Multiple
choice question examination versus assignment essay. Higher Education, 35, 453-472. Retrieved from
 http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=4b62aeb8-3a8d-4e6c-875b-
473dc01e0c07%40sessionmgr4009)

3.4 Revising and Editing

Completing your paper does not mean that you have finished. Once you finish writing your
essay, the next step is to revise your paper in order to strengthen it. In fact, you do not need to
wait until you have a complete first draft to start revising. You can revise individual paragraphs
as you complete writing them as well.
To revise your paper
 refer to the essay guidelines/requirements or grading criteria
 check your essay across with your outline, focusing on your answer to the
question/prompt
 read each body paragraph for support, going over specific details
When you complete revising your essay, it is time to edit. Editing will make your writing clearer
and more precise and concise.
To edit your paper
 Read your paper out loud slowly (or ask someone to read it to you).
 Use the spell check and grammar check functions in your word processor.
Editing strategies for specific problems:
 read the sentences to make sure you have connections between them/ read the paragraphs
to make sure they flow. If the ideas do not flow, add appropriate transitions, pronouns,
repeated words, synonyms, or other sentences (if necessary).
 read each sentence. After each one, ask, “Is it necessary to the paragraph? Does it add
something new? Could it be eliminated completely or partly? Could it be combined?”ad
each sentence and ask, “What is the purpose of this sentence?” Does it introduce a new
idea? Does it support or explain the previous idea? OR does it just repeat it?R
 Sentence word by word. Is every word necessary? Could some be eliminated or re-
written in a shorter, clearer way? Could passive verbs be rewritten as active ones?
 read the first 5 words of each sentence to find sentences starting in the same way (such
as with a transition word). Change some so your sentences have variety.
 look at the length of every sentence. There should be a variety of short and long
sentences. Make sentences shorter by dividing them or longer by combining. Can they be
rewritten more clearly and concisely?
 find words which are repeated excessively. Use a thesaurus to find other words to use.
 do not try to make your writing overly complex by cramming in long or ‘scholarly’
phrases. Keep it simple and clear.
 make sure your writing is formal – avoid personal pronouns (I, we, you), unless
assignment instructions advise otherwise.
Reminder: Do not forget to proofread your essay before you submit it!
LAYOUT
In this course, before submit your essay, you are expected to use the following guidelines for the
layout of your paper:
 use A4 size paper
 provide title, date, your section, and full name on top the first page
 ensure that your “references page” is formatted correctly
Spacing
 leave double space between lines
 leave space after each punctuation mark
 check that spaces between words and lines are consistent
Font
 12 in size, Times New Roman
Paragraphing
 leave indentation before each new paragraph
 leave a line between each paragraph
 make paragraphs justified

SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY

Task 9:
A) Analyse the essay prompt to identify what it requires and discuss how the ideas may be
organized in an essay format.
Writing Prompt: Write an essay of minimum 700 words in response to the following prompt
by referring to Reksten and Ager and incorporating your own research findings into your
essay:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

B) Skim the model essay below and choose the essay prompt for which it is written.
a) Explain information technologies that could be used in the field of education. To what
extent can these be applied in the schools of your country?
b) Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of using information technologies in schools.
Discuss whether the changes in education that took place after the use of IT has
contributed to student motivation.
c) Explain how schools can make the best use of information technology. To what extent do
you think can the use of information technologies contribute to student motivation?
d) Is training necessary to integrate information technologies into schools’ curriculum?
Discuss how this could affect students’ success.
C) Read and analyze the model essay below and answer the following questions:
1) Essay
Underline the thesis statement. How does it address the essay prompt?
Underline the topic sentence and identify the main idea of each body paragraph.
Which supporting techniques are used to develop the main idea?
How is smooth flow of ideas maintained in each body paragraph?
How does each paragraph relate to/follow one another? Are there proper
links/transitions?
2) citation
Are the citations relevant?
Are the in-text references given properly?
Which idea does each citation support?
Are the citations effectively integrated? (consider ICE method)
INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES INTO EDUCATION

Computers, the Internet, and advanced electronic devices have changed the way information
is gathered, which has had considerable impact on education. How this new technology is
utilised in the curriculum and managed by teachers have an important role to play in
widening the resource and knowledge base for all students. For this reason, to make the best
use of information technology (IT), schools need to fully integrate it into all aspects of the
curriculum. In this way, not only can they use IT more effectively, but also increase student
motivation.

Today, nearly all classrooms in Western societies have access to a computer. However,
simply purchasing latest technological equipment is not enough; unless the equipment is
incorporated into the curriculum or integrated into teaching and learning, it only means
waste of money. As Reksten (2000) argues, conducting research as to what IT is available,
what technology would best serve the school’s purpose and then formulating a policy stating
how IT is going to assist student development are only the initial steps of IT integration.
Next comes an equally important phase which is careful planning. For Ager (2000), careful
planning is essential for effective implementation of curriculum as IT needs to be used and
understood in all subjects in the same way as the ability to read is necessary, and “must be
used across the curriculum, in the same way that a pen and pencil are used in most subject
areas” (p. 15). In order to make IT in the classroom as indispensable as the traditional pen
and paper, school administration needs to develop a clear plan to clarify the ultimate goal in
utilizing these technologies; otherwise, it might be difficult for teachers to be clear about
what they need to do before they start incorporating it into their lessons. For this reason,
school administration should establish a committee that conduct research on the prevalent IT
alternatives, how that institution can benefit from the chosen IT, and then the committee
should shape the document on the possible uses and outcomes of utilizing the selected
technology.

In order to incorporate information technology into a school system, it is also significant that
all staff members are well-informed and fully supported. It is the responsibility of school
management, and should be part of the school’s plan, to ensure that all staff are informed
about the innovations and changes IT brings about as “just making technology available in
schools does not mean that teachers will make use of the technology, nor will it necessarily
be used effectively” (Cuban, as cited in Eady & Lockyer, 2013, p.6). Some teachers may be
resistant, especially if they have not had much experience with computers, which might
result in either failure or avoidance of using IT. Hence, training teachers is essential in
implementing IT into the school curriculum as the Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) report published by the Department of Education and Science in Ireland
(2008) also recommends:
Consideration should be given to ensuring that teachers are provided with
opportunities to develop skills that are directly applicable to the use of ICT in
the classroom. This should be addressed in a strategic way through a combination
of pre-service, induction and in-service training. (p. 174)
Such pre-service or in-service training, coupled with regularly held workshops may help
staff members feel involved in the process of acquiring technology, and in learning how to
operate it. Consequently, such training will boost their confidence and make the teachers
more motivated to incorporate IT into their lessons (Reksten, 2000; Barnett, 2001). The
usefulness of IT in classroom, as with any learning tool, depends on the competence of the
teacher so staff support should be an integral part of the school policy.

Once this transition is achieved and IT is used in classes effectively, it seems only natural
that student motivation will increase. Today, IT is so ingrained in students’ lives that using it
in classroom as teaching/ learning tools, or outside the classroom for further study is an
effective way of suiting their needs. Teachers using a wide range of modern technology such
as interactive whiteboards, computer aided design tools, or video conferencing can create
increasingly stimulating and exciting learning environments for their students who are
digital natives. In this way, they can increase students’ interest and motivation, which will
also lead to greater participation by students. Furthermore, IT provides students with a more
individualised learning environment by giving them the opportunity to study on their own,
at their own pace. For instance, online material which students can access in their own time
gives them valuable self-study opportunities. Owing to such self-study material, students
can build on their skills and overcome their weaknesses whenever and however they want.
This could contribute to students’ success as well as their motivation since they could feel
more confident and satisfied with their work by identifying and minimizing their
weaknesses, and adding up on their existing skills and knowledge. In addition, IT allows
them to enjoy more interactive methods of learning such as teamwork and collaboration.
Through such methods, students can have the opportunity to study in a less stressful
environment. These not only help them increase their academic achievement, as Courville
(2011) claims, but also motivates them by offering them alternative ways to study, learn or
practise.

On the whole, the current information explosion makes it essential that IT be used
extensively within and outside the classroom. It is significant that schools should have well-
defined policies and clear plans about what they want their students to achieve through IT.
Teachers must also be fully informed about available IT and receive continuous support to
be trained and updated about new technologies and innovations in their field. In this respect,
school boards should provide self-development and growth opportunities for their teachers
to improve themselves. Such appropriate incorporation of IT into the classroom would
contribute to student motivation, allowing them to be better prepared for their future. Thus,
in order not to fall behind the new trends and innovations of this digital age, schools should
embrace IT and do their best to fully integrate it in their curriculum.

References
Ager, R. (2000). The art of information and communications technology for teachers.
London, UK: David Fulton.
Barnett, H. (2001). Successful K-12 technology planning: Ten essential Elements. ERIC
Digest.Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED457858
Courville, K. (2011, June). Technology and its use in education: Present roles and future
prospects. Paper presented at the 2011 Recovery School District Technology
Summit, Louisiana. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED520220.pdf
Department of Education and Science. (2008). ICT in schools.
Retrieved from https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspection-Reports-
Publications/Evaluation-Reports-Guidelines/ICT-in-Schools-Inspectorate-
Evaluation-
Studies.pdf
Eady, M. & Lockyer, L. (2013). Tools for learning: technology and teaching strategies.
Retrieved from https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=
https://www.google.com.tr/&httpsredir=1&article=1413&context=asdpapers
Reksten, L. E. (2000). Using technology to increase student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.

Adapted from:: http://owll.massey.ac.nz/pdf/sample-essay-1.pdf

 ANALYSING ESSAY QUESTIONS

Essay questions/prompts are usually written in order to test your knowledge about a topic or
theme, and see how well you can relate your ideas and articulate yourself. In order to
demonstrate that you can do these things, you must be able to
 correctly identify the focus of the question/prompt
 deal with it consistently and within the terms of the essay and discipline
That is, you must answer the prompt/question, which requires you to carefully analyze it to
clearly understand what is expected of you. Analysis refers to the process of breaking down a
topic/concept/group of facts into components or categories, looking for relationships between
ideas or concepts, and understanding how each component contributes to the whole picture
drawing conclusions about their significance. To be able to do this, make sure you understand:
 Directive/instruction words
These words are the verbs that direct you and tell you how to go about answering a question,
understanding the meaning helps you to know exactly what you have to do.
e.g. discuss, compare and contrast, evaluate, explain (See Module 1 for a list of directive
words)
 Content words (key terms)
These words tell you what the topic area(s) of your assignment are and take you halfway
towards narrowing down your material and selecting your answer. Content words help you to
focus your research and reading on the correct area.
e.g. our categories of 'nature' and 'culture', architectural use, witchcraft phenomenon, effects
of television on children
For example, the prompt,
How does play contribute to the development of the primary school-aged child?
(Education)

requires you to
 understand what is meant by the two key concepts of play and development
 identify different types of play, for example, board games, group games, solitary play,
imaginative play, and the like
 organise these different types of play into logical groupings or categories for your
discussion, for example, inside versus outside play, group versus solitary play, organised
versus spontaneous play and so on
  identify different areas of development, for example, social, cognitive, emotional,
physical, language and psychological development and so on
 then by referring to the literature show how (= in what ways) the different categories of
play contribute to different areas of development.

Study the following essay question from the field of education and decide what the question
is asking the student to do.
It has been cited with alarm that modern children spend more hours in front of television
than they spend at school. Is this necessarily cause for alarm? By examining the relevant
literature, critically discuss the effects of television on children with respect to at least one of
the following:

a) the development of aggression

b) educational television
c) the development of fantasy and imagination
d) the development of sex-role stereotypes

This essay question is asking you to present and justify a value judgement and to take a position
on the proposition such as (a) yes, it is cause for alarm or (b) no, it is not cause for alarm or (c)
maybe - sometimes it is/sometimes it is not ....
In the example above, your discussion on the effects of television on children and the position
you take will also depend upon your selection of the type of television programme (scope).
Below are some examples of how scope may influence position.
SCOPE POSITION TAKEN
The effects of violence on television on the It is cause for alarm
development of aggression
The effects of educational programmes on the It is not cause for alarm
development of prosocial behaviours
The effects of both violent and educational Sometimes it is/sometimes it is not -
television programmes depending upon television programme
The essay question can also suggest the structure of the answer. The structure of the essay above
might look like this:
Introduction: State topic, proposition and scope
Body: Reasons / evidence 1, 2 ...etc to support your position
Conclusion: Sum up, restate proposition
Task 1: Break down the following questions into parts, and decide the function of each.
a) Selecting either post and lintel or arcuated structural systems, and taking examples from
three historical periods, discuss similarities and differences in the architectural use of that
particular structural system. (Architecture)
b) Do historians working on the witchcraft phenomenon as it appeared in different areas of
Europe come to the same conclusions as to its nature and causes? Use the documents and
two historians, one from any two of the three areas grouped in the reading list. (History)
Remember: there is not one correct approach to questions such as these. There are often several
structures which could adequately address the different parts of the question.

Task 2: Answer these questions in the space provided next to the 5 essay questions below.
a) What are the instruction words or implied instructions and the content words?
b) Do any of the terms need to be defined?
c) What are the implications for the structure of the response?

Essay questions Answers (a, b, c)

1. Is dreaming a biological necessity? Discuss
the view that dreaming is a
neurophysiologically/neurochemically distinct
state of consciousness. (Psychology)
2. Critically evaluate the statement that
'inflation is always and everywhere a
monetary phenomenon.' (Economics)
3. What are the main differences between
pluralist and elitist analyses of power
distribution in liberal democracies? (Politics)
4. Explain why property is so important in
the formation of class. Explain two theories
about class formation, referring to
Australian society.
 (Sociology)
5. How are national stereotypes formed? Is
there any truth in them? Can they be
changed?
(Social Psychology)

How can this information help you?

Below is a checklist of questions to help you apply what you have learned here to your
own work.
 How many sections are there in the essay question?
 What is the function of each section?
 What will be the focus of your essay? Look at the wording of the question.
- What are the directive/instruction words? If there are no instruction words, what
instructions are implied?
- What are the content words?
 If there is more than one set of instruction, what is the connection between them?
 Are you required to write descriptively and/or analytically in order to respond
adequately? Are you being asked for an explanation, an interpretation, an evaluation
and/or argumentation in your response to the essay question?
 What can you predict about the essay structure from this analysis?

Adapted from
http://www.depts.washington.edu/owrc
&
https://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/.../AnalyseEssayQuestion.doc
UNIT 7 GRAMMAR ASPECTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basics of English Grammar
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

2.0 Unit Objectives

At the end of this Introductory Unit you should be able to do the following:
• Demonstrate understanding of the basics of English Grammar in their writing

3.0 Introduction
Academic writing must be clear, consistent, and concise. Various communication efforts
beginning with the initial draft and continuing through proofreading, editing, and revising help
authors achieve these goals. This unit considers three major issues that underlie these techniques:
 Grammar basics
 Common problems in grammar, style, and usage
 Revision strategies
3.1 Grammar Basics
In order to revise a document successfully, a writer needs to know how best to evaluate the
grammatical function of words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs, as well as entire
documents. This section briefly defines basic grammatical terms used in the remainder of this
unit.
3.1.1 Phrase Types
Phrases are groups of related words without a subject or finite verb or both. Phrases cannot make
a complete statement as a clause can but instead act as nouns, verbs, or modifiers in a sentence.
Exhibit 3–1: Grammatical Functions of Parts of Speech
Part of Speech Definition and Role in Sentences
Nouns A word or phrase used to name a person,
place, thing, idea, quality, or action. Nouns
function as either a subject or an object and
can be singular or plural.
Pronouns A word used in place of a noun. Pronouns
usually function as either a subject or object
and change case depending on their
grammatical role.

Pronouns can be personal, demonstrative,

relative, reflexive, indefinite,
interrogative, intensive, or reciprocal.
Possessive pronouns, like possessive
nouns, always function as adjectives.
Verbs A word that expresses a sentence’s action.
Verbs must agree with number of subject,
tense, voice, mood, and person.

A helping verb works with another verb to

indicate tense and other
meanings.
Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs Words that describe aspects of subjects,
objects, or actions. Their usage and adverbs
depends on their relationship to the modified
word or phrase.

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns only;

adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. Modifiers can be individual words,
phrases, or clauses.

Special case: Conjunctive adverbs link

independent clauses only.
Prepositions Words used with nouns and pronouns to form
modifying phrases.

Use prepositions to link a noun or pronoun to

some other word in a sentence. All
prepositions must have a noun or pronoun,
which functions as the object of the
preposition within a prepositional phrase.
 The assertion that a preposition never ends a
sentence is untrue.

Occasionally, prepositions follow instead of

precede their objects, and they can be placed
at the end of a sentence:

What is this program for?

Conjunctions Structures that connect words, phrases, and
clauses within a sentence.
Conjunctions may be coordinating,
correlative, or subordinating.
• Coordinating conjunctions connect similar
grammatical units: nouns
with nouns, prepositional phrases with
prepositional phrases, and so on.
These conjunctions include and, but, for, so,
yet, or, nor.
• Correlative conjunctions connect parallel
structures within a sentence.
They consist of the following pairs: either . . .
or, not only . . . but also,
neither . . . nor, both . . . and, whether . . . or.
• Subordinating conjunctions signal a
dependent clause and connect it to
an independent clause within a sentence.
Some subordinating conjunctions
are because, if, although, when, as, while.
Interjections These words express emotions or surprise.
For the most part, they are
inappropriate in technical and scientific
writing.

Exhibit 3–2: Phrase Types

Phrase Characteristics
Noun Noun phrases include nouns and their
adjectival modifiers:
The system program manual contains
program code.
This sentence has two noun phrases: the
system program manual and program
code.
Appositive An appositive or appositive phrase, another
noun or pronoun that renames or defines its
referent, directly follows the noun or pronoun
to which it refers:
The SAVE command writes files in
ASCII format to a disk file, DSK in
Version 3.1, in the system directory.
DSK in Version 3.1, an appositive phrase,
renames or elaborates on disk file.
Verbal phrases A verbal phrase contains a verb that is not
expressed in a simple tense (in which
the verb is only one word). For example:
The corporation may have had trouble
at that point. (conditional)
The line is connected by the adapter.
(passive)

Laboratory personnel will monitor the

test. (future)

This office is consuming too much

coffee. (progressive)
Verbals Verbals include participial, gerund, and
infinitive phrases. Verbals are created
from nonfinite verb forms that look like verbs
but do not act like them.
Providing directional indicators for
data exchange, the DMAACX signal
can request data. (participial phrase)

The crew enjoyed flying experimental

aircraft. (gerund phrase)

To service the machine accurately, use

this access code. (infinitive phrase)
Prepositional Prepositional phrases act as adjectives and
adverbs. They consist of a preposition
as a headword (the phrase’s first word) and a
noun or pronoun acting as the
object of the preposition:
The preliminary report should go to
the Marketing Department.
 The prepositional phrase to the Marketing
Department acts as an adverb modifying the
verb phrase should go.
Absolute Absolute phrases modify the entire sentence
and therefore act as adverbs. They can be a
confusing structure in the midst of complex
information because they seem like elliptical
constructions:
The error messages being correct, I
can finish executing.
Turn the absolute phrase the error messages
being correct into a dependent clause to
create a more obvious connection:
Because the error messages are
correct, I can finish executing.
3.1.2 Clause Types
A clause contains both a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses:
Exhibit 3–3: Clause Types
Clause Characteristics
Independent An independent clause can stand alone as a
sentence:
Mary sat on her hat.
Dependent A dependent clause cannot stand alone. A
subordinating word introduces a
dependent clause and defines the clause’s
function. For example:
• An adverbial dependent clause
Because she was distracted, Mary sat
on her hat.

• An adjectival dependent clause

Writers who don’t revise their work
are seldom published.

• A nominal (noun) dependent clause

(as object of a preposition)
Jones knew nothing about what the
team had decided
Most of the problems that arise with dependent clauses involve punctuation
3.1.3 Sentence Types
English has four sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound/complex. The
number and kind of clauses in a sentence determines its type.
Exhibit 3–4: Sentence Types
UNIT 8 GRAMMAR ASPECTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Punctuation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading