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HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATIONS
● The environment and history greatly influence how human groups behave. This
behaviour helps them adapt to different environmental challenges and is shaped by
their beliefs, practices, and material possessions. Over time, these behaviours create
traditions that are passed down from generation to generation.
Nationality
refers to being part of a nation or country, sharing its history, traditions, and language, and
living within its political borders. People can gain nationality by being born in a country or
through naturalization.
Ethnic groups
on the other hand, are smaller cultural communities within a nation. They have their own
unique traditions and histories that might differ from the mainstream culture.
Gender
According to the World Health Organization (2013), gender is about the roles, behaviors,
and attributes that society expects from men and women. Unlike sex, which is based on
biological characteristics (male or female), gender includes a broader range of identities,
such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (collectively known as
LGBTQI).
Socioeconomic
status refers to groups of people with similar privileges in society, which often come from
inherited wealth or the job status of the household's main income earner.
Religion
Belief in the supernatural has existed for about 60,000 years. Early religions aimed to
explain natural events like extreme weather, disasters, illness, and death.
Now, religion has become more complex, addressing topics like human nature, the afterlife,
and natural occurrences.
Exceptionality
refers to individuals who don’t fit typical behavioral or cognitive norms, not by choice, but
because they possess unique abilities. It describes a range of capacities, from geniuses on
one end to those with disabilities on the other.
Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Every society has its own norms that guide behaviour, indicating what is considered proper,
appropriate, or right. These norms set boundaries for how individuals can pursue their goals.
Typically, norms are expressed as rules or standards that people follow based on societal
conventions and their specific roles.
Norm of Decency
The norm of decency refers to appropriate clothing for different occasions and includes
manners that reflect refinement and civility, such as treating guests kindly. In some societies,
it also encompasses using polite words and gestures.
Norm of Conventionality
These are beliefs and practices that are acceptable to certain cultures but can be inimical to
other cultures.
Conformity
Growing up in a society involves internalizing norms—this means that individuals

automatically follow social expectations without questioning them. Conformity is the process
of adopting these norms as part of one's personality. When individuals and groups conform
to these norms, they become accepted conventions.
Deviance
It is a violation of norms and expectations. Deviant behaviour involves violating norms

accepted by either a significant number in a community or society or those with the power to
enforce
Taboos
These are bans and inhibitions resulting from social custom or religious practice.
Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Changes in culture can impact society and individuals, while changes in society and
individuals can also affect culture and politics.
1. Social Change refers to the differences in how people live together in a community
or country over time.
○ Invention: Creating new combinations or uses of existing knowledge, leading
to new ideas or social patterns.
○ Discovery: Recognizing existing elements of the world that were previously
unnoticed or seen in a new way.
○ Diffusion: The spread of cultural traits from one group to another.
2. Political Change involves shifts in how a government or political system functions,
including changes in leadership, policies, or government structure.
3. Cultural Change happens when aspects of culture—such as beliefs, traditions, and
practices—begin to change over time.
DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY
Anthropology: The Study of Humans
Anthropology is the holistic study of humans, examining both biological and social aspects. It
seeks to answer: What does it mean to be human?
It looks at genetics, evolution, and human behaviors and beliefs, covering practices from
birth to burial. Anthropology studies humans across time and different cultures.
In essence, it is "the study of people—their origins, development, and variations worldwide"

(Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).
Branches of Anthropology
● Archaeology studies the remains of ancient and historical populations to understand

how humans adapted and developed over time.
● Cultural Anthropology explores a society’s culture through its beliefs, practices, and
possessions.
● Linguistic Anthropology examines language and its connection to culture.
● Physical Anthropology focuses on the biological development of humans and their
current variations.
● Applied Anthropology seeks to address modern problems using theories and
methods from the field.
Sociology: The Study of Society
Sociology is the scientific study of society, examining social relationships, interactions, and
culture (Calboune, 2002). Coined by Auguste Comte in 1830, it emphasizes rigorous
methods to explore human activities, challenging common sense with more accurate insights
into behaviors and populations.
Fields of Sociology
● Social Organization studies social structures like institutions, groups, stratification,

mobility, and ethnicities.
● Social Psychology examines how group life influences individual nature and
personality.
● Social Change and Disorganization explores shifts in social and cultural
interactions, including issues like delinquency and conflict.
● Human Ecology investigates the relationship between human behavior and social
institutions.
● Population or Demography studies the connections between population
characteristics and political, economic, and social systems.
● Applied Sociology uses research and methods to address contemporary problems,
often taking an interdisciplinary approach.
Difference Between a Political Scientist and a Common Individual
A political scientist evaluates government projects using rigorous scientific methods, while
a layperson interprets government actions based on personal experience.
Political Science derives from the Greek words polis (city-state) and scire (to know),
focusing on understanding activities within the state, including human interactions, conflicts,
relations, and power distribution.
The American Political Science Association defines the discipline as "the study of
governments, public policies, political processes, systems, and political behavior" (2013).
Branches of Political Science
● Political Theory studies political views, thoughts, and ideologies related to the state,
including ethical and moral standards for government.
● Public Law examines government powers, duties, organization, and authority limits
concerning individual rights, as well as relationships between sovereign states.
● Public Administration focuses on the methods and techniques for managing state
affairs across the three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judiciary.

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HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATIONS

Growing up in a society involves internalizing norms—this means that individuals

It is a violation of norms and expectations. Deviant behaviour involves violating norms

Social, Political, and Cultural Change

DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY

Anthropology: The Study of Humans

In essence, it is "the study of people—their origins, development, and variations worldwide"

● Archaeology studies the remains of ancient and historical populations to understand

Sociology: The Study of Society

● Social Organization studies social structures like institutions, groups, stratification,

Difference Between a Political Scientist and a Common Individual

Branches of Political Science

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