APPLICATIONS OF IKS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

IKS? Indigenous Knowledge Systems

 Indigenous knowledge refers to knowledge that certain communities or cultures have

acquired over generations through their interaction with the environment
 Indigenous knowledge often forms the basis of decisions relating to agriculture,
healthcare, the preparation of food, education and the management of resources.
 Biotechnology is the use of living organisms (particularly microorganisms) or biological
systems in industrial processes such as food processing, the production of antibiotics
and the genetic manipulation of crops.

TRADITIONAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Indigenous medicinal plants are used by more than 60% of South Africans.
 Around 3 000 plant species are used by the ± 200 000 traditional healers in South
Africa
 A large informal trade sector in medicinal plants has become established as a result of
large-scale urbanisation.
 The negative aspect of large-scale utilisation of these plant species is that the
populations are depleted in nature.
 Consequently, many plant species are 'under pressure', 'under threat', or have
completely disappeared from their natural habitat
 If medicinal plants could be supplied in sustainable quantities, indigenous plants could
play a large role in primary healthcare in South Africa in the future.

Name Locality Use

African potato-star flower Africa Arthritis,allergies,anti-inflammatory purposes
Aloe South Africa Skin care, heart burn, stomach ulcers
Rooibos South Africa Anti-depresent, insomnia, colic
Mentha India Colds, chest ailments

Two examples of plants with medicinal value are discussed here. Le Devil's claw and the
African potato
Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens)

Devil's daw is a plant found mainly in the sandy Kalahari Desert of South Africa, Namibia and
Botswana

The medicinal value of the plant lies in its tubers (underground stems)

The active components have anti-inflammatory as well as anti-rheumatic and analgesic

properties that relieve muscle and joint pain

Devil's claw is therefore used to treat arthritis and rheumatism

African potato (Hypoxis homerocallidea)

The African potato mainly grows in grasslands and is especially cultivated by traditional
healers in KwaZulu-Natal and Pondoland.

This plant has been used by indigenous people as a laxative for many years

The underground tubers (swollen stems) contain sterols (phytosterols and sterolins) as an
active ingredient

Sterols are a subgroup of steroids, which are found naturally in plants, animals and fungi.
They are waxy compounds that are insoluble in water Cholesterol is the most well known
animal sterol, and ergosterol the most well known plant sterol

Phytosterols strengthen the immune system and increase the body's resistance to disease.

Phytosterols obtained from the African potato are especially used to strengthen the immune
system of people with HIV/AIDS, as well as to treat TB and rheumatoid arthritis.

MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Immunity is the body’s resistance to infection by bacteria and viruses. The body could be
Immunity is the body’s resistance to infection by bacteria and viruses. The body could be
infected by a host of microorganisms including bacteria, protozoa, viruses and fungi. The
body has a host of defences against infections. The body defends itself against infection
through a variety of means, such as physical, chemical and cellular barriers to infection.

 Physical barriers include the skin, saliva, tears and mucus. They also include hairs in
the lining of the respiratory tract known as cilia.
 Chemical barriers include the various allergic responses that result in inflammation or
swelling. These are caused by a chemical response system that results in the body
releasing chemicals to attack any foreign objects entering the body. White blood cells
known as eosinophils are normally responsible for the allergic response.
  Cellular mechanisms exist to fight bacterial infections. These include neutrophils,
macrophages and which attack pathogens and ”engulf” and eat them through a
process of phagocytosis.

The above defence mechanisms described are part of the innate immune system. The body
also has an adaptive immune system which ‘remembers’ each pathogen that invades the
body based on the specific markers on the pathogen. These markers are known as antigens.
When a foreign organism invades, the adaptive immune system launches an antigen-specific
response which destroys the infectious agent.

IMMUNITY

The way in which the human body protects itself against pathogenic (disease causing) viruses,
bacteria, protozoons or fungi is known as the immune response

The immune system must be able to determine which particles belong to the body as
opposed to particles that are 'foreign' to it. The immune response is divided into two primary
categories.

1. Natural immunity
2. Acquired immunity

NATURAL IMMUNITY

The body's first line of defence against pathogens are the external barriers that prevent
harmful substances from entering the body

In humans, the skin is the first line of defence.

The coughing and sneezing reflexes (which expel pathogens and other irritants from the air
passages), the rinsing action of tears and the mucus secreted by the respiratory passages that
trap microorganisms, are all examples of natural immune responses that protect the body
from the invasion of pathogens. If pathogens penetrate the barriers of natural immunity and
infiltrate the body. the first response is usually fever and inflammation, which serve as the
second line of defence. Fever and inflammation prevent the reproduction or spread of
pathogens

The body temperature is raised during a fever. Most pathogenic bacteria grow optimally in
lower temperatures, which is why the increased body temperature will restrict their growth.

Inflammation causes redness, pain, heal and swelling at the site of injury or infection. The
blood vessels in this area widen, causing more blood to flow to the area. In this way, immune
cells reach the area faster, move out of the bloodstream and into the tissues to destroy the
pathogens.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

× Pathogens that have infiltrated the body are now actively destroyed and the body
stores a memory of the response
× All body cells, viruses bacteria, protozoons and fungi have protein molecules known
as antigens on their surfaces
× Pathogens are recognised as foreign bodies by white blood cells (leucocytes) as soon
as they enter the bloodstream due to the antigens on their surface The white blood
cells destroy or neutralise the pathogens in response
× Some white blood cells, known as phagocytes, engulf pathogens in the process of
phagocytosis

Phagocytosis? A process whereby a cell surrounds a large particle or cell and engulfs/destroys
it

× Other white blood cells, the lymphocytes, produce antibodies (specific to a particular
antigen) that are released into the blood plasma. The antibodies attach themselves to
their corresponding antigens on the pathogens
× The pathogenic cells burst and are destroyed
× Certain lymphocytes also secrete substances that destroy or neutralise pathogens
× Some of the lymphocytes become memory cells that remain in the blood
× When the body is infected by the same pathogen again, the memory lymphocytes will
multiply and produce antibodies The pathogen will be destroyed before it can
multiply and make the person sick
× the person is now immune to that specific pathogen

Acquired immunity is subdivided into two types, depending on the way in which immunity is
attained

NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

This type of immunity is acquired without immunisation taking place A distinction is made
between passive and active naturally acquired immunity

Passive Antibodies are transferred from the mother to the foetus via the placenta, and
through the mothers milk to the baby.

Active immunity develops through contact with pathogens which stimulates the immune
system to produce antibodies
ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

This type of immunity develops only through intentional actions such as immunisation

A distinction is made between passive and active artificially acquired immunity

∆ Passive - The body is injected with antibodies that are produced in another organism
Immediate protection is offered against a specific antigen
∆ Active The body is inoculated with a dead or weakened form of a pathogen, which
stimulates the immune system to form antibodies

IMMUNISATION AND VACCINES

Immunisation (inoculation) is the administration of a vaccine by means of an injection or

orally (through the mouth) in order to develop immunity to a disease

A vaccine usually consists of a dead or weakened form of the pathogen (microorganism) that
causes the disease The vaccine stimulates the body's immune system to produce antibodies
and also to develop a memory of the response

When the body is attacked by the actual pathogen at a later stage the immune system will be
able to react quickly, produce antibodies and destroy the pathogen.

This person is now immune to the disease

Vaccination has made it possible to eliminate smallpox, which led to the death of many
people worldwide

Edward Jenner did groundbreaking work in 1706 in the development of the vaccine against
smallpox Although Jenner did not develop the vaccine himself, his work is regarded as the
foundation of immunology

Vaccines against a variety of diseases that include measles, mumps, rubella (German
measles), tetanus (lockjaw), polio, influenza, yellow fever, typhoid fever, as well as hepatitis A
and B. have already been developed

Vaccines against malaria and HIV are not yet available

ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics are chemical substances that destroy pathogenic bacteria.

Most antibiotics are manufactured from moulds (fungi). Penicillin, extracted from the fungus
Penicillium notatum, was the first antibiotic. It was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming

Today, most antibiotics are semi-synthetic in that natural antibiotics are chemically modified
in the biotechnology industry in order to have different effects on different bacteria

NB: Antibiotics only destroy bacteria and not viruses.

BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS

Blood groups

Red blood corpuscles (erythrocytes) carry specific antigens on their surfaces, ie the A antigen
and the B antigen An individual may have one, both or neither of the antigens (this is
genetically determined)

The human population's blood groups can be divided into four, le A, B, AB and O (also known
as the ABO system)

Antibodies against these antigens are present in the blood plasma, ie anti-A antibodies and
anti-B antibodies.

universal donor – people with blood type O can donate blood to recipients with any blood
group
universal recipient – people with blood type AB can receive blood from donors
with any blood group
Anti A antibodies in the blood plasma cause agglutination (blood clot formation) if antigen A
occurs on the red blood corpuscle

it is therefore not possible for an individual to have antigen A on the red blood corpuscle and
anti-A antibodies in the blood plasma or antigen B on the red blood corpuscle and anti-B
antibodies in the blood plasma The four blood groups contain the following antigens and
antibodies

If two different blood types are mixed, and agglutination (clot formation) occurs, these two
blood types are incompatible

A transfusion of blood with the same blood group as the recipient is completely safe

When blood from different blood groups is mixed, agglutination can occur if the blood groups
are incompatible. This can cause death.
ALWAYS REMEMBER

The antigen on the red blood corpuscle of the donor must be compatible with the antibodies
in the blood plasma of the recipient. This means that the antigens of the donor cannot be the
same as the antibodies of the recipient.

 Blood group O is compatible with all the other blood groups because it contains no
antigens
 Blood group A or B can be donated safely to an AB recipient because
 AB blood contains no antibodies
 Therefore Blood group O is known as the universal donor and blood group AB as the
universal recipient.

Furthermore, the Rhesus factor of both the recipient and donor need to be determined. The
Rhesus factor is another type of antigen found on the surface of red blood cells.
Approximately 85% of the population has this protein and are know to be Rhesus positive.
The remaining 15% of the population are Rhesus negative because this protein is not present
in their red blood cells.

So, blood group A negative means the recipient has antigen A, but does not have the Rhesus
factor, a recipient who is O positive means the recipient has neither antigen A or B but does
have the Rhesus factor. It is important that a person receiving a blood transfusion receives
blood from a donor that is compatible in both blood group and Rhesus factor.
 CLONING
Cloning is the process in which a genetically identical replica of a molecule (eg DNA), cell or
entire organism is made.

The new molecule, cell or organism is known as a clone.

The first organism to be cloned was in 1952.

There are three types of cloning: DNA-cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning

A distinction is made between the three types of doring

DNA CLONING

The transfer of a part of DNA (a gene) from an organism to a foreign host of to obtain a
desired characteristic

REPRODUCTIVE CLONING

This is the creation of an organism that contains the same DNA as another living or dead
organism. The most well-known example is Dully, the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned
from a fully-grown somatic cell in 1997

In contrast to animal cells, all plants cells have the ability to grow and differentiate into a
complete plant, as long as they are provided with a suitable growth medium
THERAPEUTIC CLONING

Also known as 'embryo cloning' Human embryos are cloned for stem cell research.

1. DNA cloning (also called recombinant DNA technology). In this type of cloning, a
DNA fragment from a specific organism is transferred, using a carrier, into a foreign
host cell. This type of technology was developed in the 1970s and is in common use
by molecular biologists.

2. Reproductive cloning. In this type of cloning DNA from one animal is used to
generate another identical animal. Reproductive cloning uses a technology called
somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Scientists transfer genetic material from the
nucleus of a donor adult cell to an egg whose nucleus, and so its genetic material,
has been removed. Cell division is stimulated using an electrical current or
chemicals. The cell is now a dividing cell and once it reaches a suitable stage of
development, it is transferred to the uterus of a female host and continues to
develop until it is born.
 3. Therapeutic cloning. This type of cloning uses human embryos that are produced
for research. It is used to harvest stem cells that can be used to treat disease, not to
produce cloned humans. Stem cells are important to scientists because they can be
used to produce almost any type of specialised cell. Scientists hope that in the
future stem cells can be used to treat heart disease, help people who have spinal
injuries to walk again and to cure dementia.
Tissue culture involves the growing of a plant or part of an animal from a few
cells which is tissues. It is carried out under a septic germ-free conditions in a
semi liquid medium which is placed in a glass container. Tissues grown in this
way can be experimented upon and tests using various medicines and other
substances may be carried out ensuring that no animals or humans are harmed.
 Arguments for cloning Arguments against cloning
 more people will have the same  uncertain about the survival of the
genes. cloned individual
 it would not harm anyone.  we will be playing God
 why stand in the way of progress.  could have many people with same
 can replace the child that died. fingerprints.
homosexuals can have children of  bonding will not be the same.
their own. homosexuals can adopt children

ETHICAL ISSUES
Various ethical issues have been raised with regard to cloning and stem cell research

Ethics addresses questions conceming moral values ie whether an issue should be regarded
as right/wrong, good/ bad or justifiable/not.

The following questions are often asked Do people have the right to change the natural
course of life?

Who assumes responsibility for the newly cloned individual? What are the legal implications?
Do our country's laws make provision for the cloned individual? Research on cloning humans
involves experimenting on humans Because the outcome of the process is unknown, this is
ethically unacceptable

Therapeutic cloning involves removing stem cells from embryos which then perish. Is this
ethically correct?

Will governments be able to regulate the constant development of new biotechnology in the
field of genetic manipulation and cloning?
 STEM CELL RESEARCH
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells in the human body that have the ability to differentiate
into virtually any type of specialised cell

 These harvested stem cells can be preserved for later use, Le to study human
development
 to replace damaged tissues and organs, and to treat diseases such as leukaemia,
diabetes and Alzheimer's
 to treat Parkison’s disease.