AC Source

For any system, the power delivered to a load at any instant is defined by the
product of the applied voltage and the resulting current;
p=vi
In this case, since v and i are sinusoidal quantities, let;

v=Vₘsin(⍵t+θ) i=Iₘsin⍵t

The chosen v and i include all possibilities because, if the load is purely resistive,
θ = 0°. If the load is purely inductive or capacitive, θ = 90° or θ = - 90°,
respectively. For a network that is primarily inductive, v is positive (v leads i),
and for a network that is primarily capacitive, v is negative (i leads v).
Power in an AC Circuit
Substituting the equations for v and i into the power equation will result in:
p=VₘIₘ sin(⍵t)sin(⍵t+θ)

And applying a number of trigonometric identities, the following form for the
power equation will result:

p=VIcosθ(1 − cos 2⍵t) + VIsinθ(sin 2⍵t)

where V and I are the rms values. The conversion from peak values Vₘ and Iₘ to
rms values resulted from the operations performed using the trigonometric
identities.
Pave=1⁄2VₘIₘcosθ
Power in resistive and reactive AC circuits
Consider the following purely resistive circuit
For a purely resistive circuit, v and i are in phase,

pR=VIcos(0°)(1−cos⍵t)+VIsin(0°)sin⍵t
=VI(1−cos⍵t)+0
pR=VI − VIcos⍵t
Because this load is purely resistive (no reactance), the current is in phase with the voltage,
and calculations look similar to that in an equivalent DC circuit.

P = VI = (VₘIₘ)/2 = I²R = V²/R (watts, W)

If we were to plot the voltage, current, and power
waveforms for this circuit, it would look like:

*Note that the waveform for power is always

positive, never negative for this resistive circuit.
This means that power is always being
dissipated by the resistive load, and never
returned to the source as it is with reactive loads.

Also note that the waveform for power is not at the same frequency as the voltage or
current. Rather, its frequency is double that of either the voltage or current
waveforms. The best way to proceed with AC power calculations is to use scalar
notation, and to handle any relevant phase relationships with trigonometry.

The total power delivered to a resistor will be dissipated in the form of heat.
For a purely inductive circuit, v leads i by 90°,

pL=VIcos(90°)(1−cos⍵t)+VIsin(90°)sin⍵t
=0+VIsin2⍵t
pL=VI sin(⍵t)

The net flow of power to the pure (ideal)

inductor is zero over a full cycle, and no
energy is lost in the transaction.
For a purely capacitive circuit, i leads v by 90°,

pC=VIcos(-90°)(1−cos⍵t)+VIsin(-90°)sin⍵t
=0−VIsin2⍵t
pC=−VIsin(⍵t)

The net flow of power to the

pure (ideal) capacitor is zero
over a full cycle.
True, Reactive and Apparent Power
True Power (P): The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called
true power, and it is measured in watts(W). And is a function of a circuit’s dissipative
elements, usually resistances (R).

P=true power, P=I²R=E²/R (Watts)

Reactive Power (Q): We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors
dissipate zero power, yet the fact that they drop voltage and draw current gives the
deceptive impression that they actually do dissipate power. This is called reactive power,
and it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts. And is
a function of a circuit’s reactance (X).

Q=reactive power, Q=I²X=E²/X (VAR)

Apparent Power (S): The combination of reactive power and true power is called
apparent power, and it is the product of a circuits voltage and current, without reference
to phase angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA). Apparent
power is a function of a circuits total impedance (Z).

S=apparent power, S=I²Z=E²/Z=IE (VA)

Power Triangle
These three types of power - true, reactive, and
apparent- (as in fig.) are trigonometrically related to
one another. Using the laws of trigonometry, we can
solve for the length of any side (amount of any type of
power), given the lengths of the other two sides, or
the length of one side and an angle
In a right triangle,
P = adjacent length,
Q = opposite length, and
S = hypotenuse length
The opposite angle is equal to the circuit’s impedance
(Z) phase angle.
Power Factor
Power Factor: the ratio between true power and apparent power.

As was mentioned before, the angle of this “power triangle” graphically indicates
the ratio between the amount of dissipated (or consumed) power and the amount of
absorbed/returned power. It also happens to be the same angle as that of the
circuit’s impedance in polar form. Because true power and apparent power form the
adjacent and hypotenuse sides of a right triangle, respectively, the power factor ratio
is also equal to the cosine of that phase angle.

pf= true power/apparent power

-For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1 (perfect), because the reactive
power equals zero. Here, the power triangle would look like a horizontal line,
because the opposite (reactive power) side would have zero length.

-For the purely inductive circuit, the power factor is zero, because true power equals
zero. Here, the power triangle would look like a vertical line, because the adjacent
(true power) side would have zero length.

-The same could be said for a purely capacitive circuit. If there are no dissipative
(resistive) components in the circuit, then the true power must be equal to zero,
making any power in the circuit purely reactive. The power triangle for a purely
capacitive circuit would again be a vertical line (pointing down instead of up as it
was for the purely inductive circuit).
Example #1: An ac generator whose emf is given by v(t)=(4.00V)sin[(1.00×104 rad/s)t] is
connected to an RLC circuit for which L=2.00×10-3H, C=4.00×10-6F, and R=5.00Ω.
(a)What is the rms voltage across the generator? (b)What is the impedance of the
circuit? (c)What is the average power output of the generator?
Given:
Sol’n: v(t)=(4.00V)sin[(1.00×104
rad/s)t]
a) Since V0=4V, the rms across the generator is:
L=2.00×10-3H
Vrms=(1/√2)(4V)=2.83V
C=4.00×10-6F
b) The impedance of the circuit is: R=5.00Ω
Z=(R2+(XL−XC)2)½

={(5Ω)2+[(1.00×104 rad/s)(2.00×10-3H)−1/((1.00×104 rad/s)(4.00×10-6F))]2}½

=7.07Ω

c) Pave=Vrms2R/Z2

=(2.83V)2(5Ω)/(7.07Ω)2

=0.801W
Example #2: A solenoid coil with a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductance of 200mH is
connected to a 230VAC, 50Hz supply. Calculate: (a) the solenoids impedance, (b) the current
consumed by the solenoid, (c) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage, and
(d) the average power consumed by the solenoid. Given:
R = 30Ω
Sol’n: L = 200mH
a) Impedance (Z) of the solenoid coil: V = 230V
ƒ = 50Hz
R = 30Ω

XL=2πƒL=(2π)(50)(200×10-3)=62.8Ω

Z=(R2+XL2)½=(302+62.82)½=69.6Ω

b) Current (I) consumed by the solenoid coil:

V=I×Z

∴ I=V/Z=230/69.6=3.3A(rms)
Example #2: A solenoid coil with a resistance of 30 ohms and an inductance of 200mH is
connected to a 230VAC, 50Hz supply. Calculate: (a) the solenoids impedance, (b) the current
consumed by the solenoid, (c) the phase angle between the current and the applied voltage, and
(d) the average power consumed by the solenoid. Given:
R = 30Ω
Sol’n: L = 200mH
c) The phase angle, θ: V = 230V
ƒ = 50Hz
cosθ=R/Z, or sinθ=XL/Z, or tanθ=XL/R

∴ cosθ=R/Z=30/69.6=0.431

cos-1(0.431)=64.5° lagging

d) Average AC power consumed by the solenoid coil:

Pave=V×I×cosθ

=(230)(3.3)cos(64.5°)

=326.76 W
Resonance in an AC Circuit
OBJECTIVES:
- Determine the peak AC Resonant Angular Frequency for an RLC Circuit

- Explain the width of the average power versus angular frequency curve and its
significance using terms like bandwidth and quality factor

- Solve Exercises regarding resonance

Let’s Consider a Radio
We used to listen to the Radio to listen to Music, Sports Commentaries, and News

Sometimes we hear unwanted sounds or other forms of noise in the radio, then we try to set the
frequency and tuning of the radio to get rid of the unnecessary noises.

These circuits sets a specific condition by cancelling Inductive and Capacitive Reactance.
This condition is is the concept of RESONANCE.
Let’s Review the RLC Circuit
WHAT IS RESONANCE?
Object or Situation that has a Natural of Fixed Frequency that receives an External
force vibration at the same frequency.

It is a Phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another

system around it vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of
operation.
Resonance in an AC Circuit
It is a Condition where the current is at its maximum.

Let’s understand how we reach this condition:

Formula for Impedance:
Peak Value of the Current
Note:

If the Impedance (Z) decreases, the Peak Value of the Current increases
The Graph for the Resonant Frequency:
In this graph, the left part and the right part are less compared to the Resonant
Frequency since it is only accepting the PEAK or the circuit is making the current
Maximum only for Resonant Frequency.

- This Circuit is also called Acceptor Circuit.

Bandwidth

The bandwidth Δω of the resonance peak is defined as the range of angular

frequencies ω over which the average power P ave is greater than one-half the
maximum value of P ave.
Quality Factor

The sharpness of the peak is described by a dimensionless quantity known as the

quality factor Q of the circuit. By definition,
where ω0 is the resonant angular frequency. A high Q indicates a sharp resonance
peak. We can give Q in terms of the circuit parameters as
PROBLEM #1
A series L–R–C circuit has a sinusoidal input voltage of maximum value 12 V. If
inductance, L = 20 mH, resistance, R = 80 Ω, and capacitance, C = 400 nF,
determine (a) the resonant frequency?
Problem #2
(a) What is the resonant angular frequency of an RLC circuit with R= 0.200 Ω,L=
4.00 × 10^−3 H,and C = 2.00 × 10^−6 F?

(b) If an ac source of constant amplitude 4.00 V is set to this frequency, what is the
average power transferred to the circuit?

(c) Determine Q and the bandwidth of this circuit.

(a) For Resonant Angular Frequency:
(b) the average power transferred to the circuit is a maximum
(c) The quality factor of the circuit
(d) The Bandwidth
Transformers Components & Its relations to
numbers of Turns and Currents
Transformer Basics
Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field
The Voltage Transformer can be
thought of as an electrical component
rather than an electronic component. A
transformer basically is very simple
static (or stationary) electro-magnetic
passive electrical device that works on
the principle of Faraday’s law of
induction by converting electrical
energy from one value to another. A Typical Voltage Transformer
Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between

the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation
Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the
input voltage supply and converts or transforms the electrical power into a
magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this alternating
magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output voltage as
shown.
Current Transformer
A current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy wire. It is
always connected in series in the circuit in which current is to be measured. The
secondary coil is made up of many turns of fine wire, which must always be
connected across the ammeter terminals. The secondary of a current transformer
must never be open-circuited. This is because the primary is not connected to a
constant source. There is a wide range of possible primary voltages, because the
device can be connected to many types of conductors.
Transformer Action

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from
the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This
magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in
opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.
 Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked
magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
transformer.
Transformer Loading

Transformers can provide a voltage on their

secondary winding but to transfer electrical
power between their input and output they
need to be loaded
In the previous transformer tutorials, we
have assumed that the transformer is ideal,
that is one in which there are no core losses
or copper losses in the transformers
windings. However, in real world
transformers there will always be losses
associated with transformer loading as the
transformer is put “on-load”. But what do we
mean by: Transformer Loading.
 A Transformers Turns Ratio

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of
wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.
Transformer Basics Example No2
If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same
transformer above, what will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.