Thực Hành Phật Giáo ở Hàn Quốc

K o re a n B u d d h is t P ra c tic e a s S e e n in a
N in e te e n th -C e n tu ry R o s a ry P rin t
b o u d E w ijn w a lr a v E n
he B U D D H IS M o f th e C h o s o n p e rio d (1 3 9 2 -1 9 1 0 ) h a s lo n g b e e n
T n e g le c te d b y re s e a rc h e rs , w h o a s s u m e d th a t its im p o rta n c e s te e p ly
d e c lin e d d u e to th e g o v e rn m e n t ’ s p o lic y o f “ h o n o rin g C o n fu c ia n is m a n d
s u p p re s s in g B u d d h is m ” (sungyu okpul B u d d h is m o f th is e ra
h a s o fte n b e e n d e s c rib e d a s o f little in te re s t d o c trin a lly a n d c o n fin e d to
w o m e n o f h ig h a s w e ll a s lo w s ta tu s a n d to m e n b e lo n g in g to th e lo w e r
s tra ta so c ia lly , re s u ltin g in a flo w e rin g o f m a g ic a l o r s u p e rs titio u s p ra c tic e s
s c a rc ely w o rth s e rio u s in v e s tig a tio n . O n ly in th e p a s t tw o d e c a d e s h a s th e
tid e g ra d u a lly s ta rte d to tu rn . 12 In sp ite o f g o v e rn m e n t p o lic ie s th a t c u rta ile d
B u d d h ist in s titu tio n s a n d a C o n fu c ia n d is c o u rs e th a t d is p a ra g e d B u d d h is m
a s a h e te ro d o x y n o t d e s e rv in g o f re s p e c t, s u p p o rt fo r B u d d h is m re m a in e d
stro n g , n o t le a s t o n th e p a rt o f th e ro y a l fa m ily , a n d B u d d h is ts fo u n d v a rio u s
w a y s to o v e rc o m e d is c rim in a to ry m e a s u re s . 3 A m o n g th o s e w h o a re u s u a lly
re g a rd e d a s C o n fu c ia n in te lle c tu a ls , th e re w e re m a n y w h o s h o w e d a g e n u
in e in te re s t in B u d d h is m a n d m a in ta in e d w a rm re c ip ro c a l re la tio n s h ip s w ith
B u d d h is t m o n k s . 4 T h e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n C o n fu c ia n is m a n d B u d d h is m
1 T w o e a rly K o re a n re s e a rc h e rs , Y i N u n g h w a (1 9 1 8 ) 2 0 1 0 a n d K im Y o n g su (1 9 3 9 ; E n g
lis h tra n sla tio n 2 0 1 6 ), h a v e b e e n n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s in th e a tte n tio n th e y p a id to C h o s o n
d e v e lo p m e n ts.
2 O K yonghu 2018, p. 285.
3 C h o E u n s u 2 0 0 3 ; N a m H u is u k (N a m H e e -s o o k ) 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 1 2 ; H a n S a n g g il 2 0 0 6 ; J o r
g e n s e n 2 0 0 6 ; W a lra v e n 2 0 0 7 ; K im Y o n g t ’ a e (K im Y o n g ta e ) 2 0 1 0 , 2 0 1 4 ; Y i M y o n g h o 2 0 1 1 ;
C h ’ o e 2 0 1 3 ; K im , S u n g -E u n T h o m a s 2 0 1 4 ; O K y o n g h u 2 0 1 8 .
4 Y u 2 0 0 6 ; L e e , Y o u n g h e e 2 0 0 7 a ; L e e , J o n g -s u 2 0 1 2 ; K im D a e y e o l 2 0 1 2 ; K im , S u n g -E u n
T hom as 2015.
The Eastern Buddhist 4 8 /2 : 9 3 -1 2 1

© 2 0 2 0 T h e E a ste rn B u d d h is t S o c ie ty
94 T H E E A S T E R N B U D D H IS T 4 8 , 2
w a s in tric a te a n d in d is p u ta b ly d e s e rv e s g re a te r a tte n tio n . 5 It h a s a ls o b e e n

a rg u e d th a t th e v e ry c o n c e p t o f sungyu okpul is o f d o u b tfu l v a lid ity o r a t
le a s t s h o u ld b e a p p lie d w ith g re a te r n u a n c e . 6
W h ile C h o s o n B u d d h is m in g e n e ra l h a s lo n g b e e n n e g le c te d , th e re
h a s b e e n e v e n le s s a tte n tio n to a c tu a l B u d d h is t p ra c tic e s (a s o p p o s e d to
d o c trin a l m a tte rs ) o f th e la te C h o s o n e ra (ro u g h ly 1 6 0 0 to 1 9 0 0 ), a n d to
th e b e lie fs o f la y B u d d h is ts in th a t e ra . T h is , h o w e v e r, is a ls o c h a n g in g .
O n e s ig n o f th is is a g ro w in g in te re s t in B u d d h is t v e rn a c u la r s o n g s o f th e
d id a c tic kasa g e n re , w h ic h fu n c tio n e d a s a n in te rfa c e b e tw e e n B u d
d h is t c le rg y a n d la y b e lie v e rs . 7 W h e re a s u n til th e b e g in n in g o f th is c e n tu ry
s c h o la rs p u b lis h e d s o m e c o lle c tio n s o f s u c h kasa , th e re w e re v irtu a lly n o
s tu d ie s o f th is g e n re , in s p ite o f th e m a n ife s t re le v a n c e o f th e s o n g s fo r a n
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p ro p a g a tio n o f B u d d h ism a m o n g v a rio u s la y e rs o f
th e p o p u la tio n . S in c e th e n , B u d d h is t kasa h a v e b e c o m e th e to p ic o f b o o k s
a n d a rtic le s in b o th K o re a n a n d E n g lis h . 8
A n o th e r a s p e c t th a t h a s b e e n n e g le c te d is th e ro le o f th e m a te ria lity o f
B u d d h ist o b je c ts o f v a rio u s k in d s in s h a p in g p ra c tic e s , 9 in sp ite o f w h a t
W in fie ld a n d H e in e c a ll th e “ tre n d in re lig io u s s tu d ie s s c h o la rs h ip th a t
re c o g n iz e s th e im p o rta n c e o f v is u a l a n d m a te ria l c u ltu re to re lig io u s life
a n d p ra c tic e . ” 10 H e re , a g a in , c h a n g e is o n th e w a y . A n e x h ib itio n a b o u t th e
s p o n s o rs h ip o f B u d d h is t in s titu tio n s a n d ritu a ls ( “ D e v o u t P a tro n s o f B u d
d h is t A rt” ) a t th e N a tio n a l M u s e u m o f K o re a in S e o u l in 2 0 1 5 in c lu d e d ,
fo r in s ta n c e , c o n s id e ra b le a tte n tio n to th e o b je c ts (pokchang ^ ^ ) p la c e d
in s id e B u d d h a im a g e s in o rd e r to c o n s e c ra te th e m a n d o b ta in b le s s in g s fo r
th e d o n o rs. T h e o b je c ts th a t w e re e x h ib ite d in c lu d e d a c o a t o f K in g Y o n g jo
(1 6 9 4 -1 7 7 6 ), w h o m o re th a n a n y o th e r m o n a rc h c o n s c io u s ly stro v e to
p re s e n t h im s e lf a s a n e x e m p la ry C o n fu c ia n . 11 A lth o u g h w e d o n o t k n o w to
w h a t e x te n t Y o n g jo w a s p e rs o n a lly in v o lv e d in th e d e c is io n to a d d h is c o a t
to th e pokchang , it u n d o u b te d ly illu s tra te s th e e lite s p o n s o rs h ip o f B u d -
d h is m . 12
5 K im C h o n g m y o n g 2 0 1 3 .
6 B a k e r2 0 1 4 ; S o n S o n g p ’ il 2 0 1 7 .
7 W a lra v e n a n d L e e , Y o u n g h e e 2 0 1 5 .
8 F o r e x a m p le , K im C h o n g jin 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 9 ; L e e , Y o u n g h e e 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 0 7 a , 2 0 0 7 b , 2 0 1 2 .
9 C f. R a m b e lli 2 0 0 7 fo r J a p a n , a s w e ll a s K e n d a ll 2 0 1 0 fo r K o re a n re lig io n in g e n e ra l.
10 W in fie ld a n d H e in e 2 0 1 7 , p . x ix .
11 H ab o u sh 2001.
12 K u n g n ip C h u n g a n g P a n g m u lg w a n 2 0 1 5 , p p . 1 1 8 -1 9 . Pokchang a ls o w e re th e fo c u s o f
a n in te rn a tio n a l a c a d e m ic c o n fe re n c e in 2 0 1 7 (“ C o n s e c ra tin g th e B u d d h a : O n th e P ra c tic e o f
W A L R A V E N : K O R E A N R O S A R Y P R IN T 95
Y e t, v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f m a te ria l c u ltu re re m a in u n e x p lo re d a n d m a jo r

q u e s tio n s re g a rd in g th e p ra c tic e s o f la te C h o s o n B u d d h is m still n e e d to b e
a n sw e re d . G re a te r a tte n tio n to m a te ria l c u ltu re w ill b e o n e o f th e w a y s m o re
g e n e ra l q u e s tio n s m a y b e a d d re s s e d . O n e c o n u n d ru m is th e p o s itio n o f
B u d d h is m in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . It h a s b e e n a rg u e d th a t in th is c e n tu ry
th e n u m b e r o f m o n k s a n d te m p le s s h a rp ly d e c lin e d , w h ic h c e rta in s o u rc e s
d o s e e m to s u p p o rt, 1 3 b u t a t th e s a m e tim e th e re a re in d ic a tio n s th a t B u d
d h is t p io u s e n te rp ris e s n o t o n ly c o n tin u e d to re c e iv e c o n s id e ra b le s u p p o rt
fro m th e h ig h a n d m ig h ty (in c lu d in g th e ro y a l c o u rt a n d p ro m in e n t C o n fu
c ia n s), b u t a lso fro m th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n , a n d m o re o v e r, th a t B u d d h is m
g a in e d in p re s tig e , a n d p e rh a p s e v e n e n jo y e d s o m e th in g o f a re v iv a l. 14 It is
a m o o t p o in t w h e th e r th e fig u re s s u g g e s tin g d e c lin e s h o u ld b e tru ste d . In
th e a b s e n c e o f a n a lte rn a tiv e s u c h a s C h ris tia n ity w o u ld o ffe r in th e tw e n
tie th c e n tu ry , it is u n lik e ly th a t th e d e m a n d fo r ritu a ls fo r b le s s in g s in th e
h e re a fte r, a m a jo r p a rt o f B u d d h ist ritu a l in th e C h o s o n p e rio d , s u d d e n ly
d e c rea se d . A ls o , n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry m a p s s h o w g re a t n u m b e rs o f te m p le s
d o ttin g th e la n d s c a p e a ro u n d S e o u l ( “ m a te ria lity ” w rit la rg e ), s u g g e s tin g a
c o n tin u in g d e m a n d fo r B u d d h is t s e rv ic e s a m o n g th e c itiz e n s o f th e c a p ita l,
w h o o n a v e ra g e w e re d e fin ite ly o f a h ig h e r so c ia l s ta tu s th a n m o s t K o re a n s ,
e v e n if th e y d id n o t a ll b e lo n g to th e yangban e lite . 15 O n e a lte rn a tiv e
e x p la n a tio n fo r th e a p p a re n t d is ju n c tio n b e tw e e n th e s m a lle r n u m b e r o f
te m p le s a n d m o n k s o n th e o n e h a n d a n d th e re s p e c t fo r B u d d h is m m a n i
fe s te d b y k in g s , c o u rtie rs , lite ra ti, a n d c ity -d w e lle rs o n th e o th e r, m ig h t b e
th a t th e g ro w in g u rb a n p o p u la tio n in c re a s in g ly fo rm e d p io u s c o m m u n i
tie s o f la y b e lie v e rs , re ly in g to a le s s e r d e g re e o n th e c le rg y . 16 T h e p re s e n t
p a p e r c a n n o t so lv e th is p u z z le , b u t b y fo c u s in g u p o n a p rin t re p re s e n tin g
a c h a p le t o f p ra y e r b e a d s 17 m a d e in 1 8 5 7 a t th e re q u e s t o f a n u p p e r-c la s s
In te rrin g O b je c ts \bokjang\ in B u d d h is t S ta tu e s , ” E w h a W o m e n ’ s U n iv e rs ity , A u g u s t 1 1 -1 2 )

a n d a n e x h ib itio n in th e C e n tra l B u d d h is t M u s e u m , S e o u l, in th e s p rin g o f2 0 1 8 .
13 Y i P y o n g h u i 1 9 9 7 , K im , H w a n so o 2 0 1 7 .
14 L e e , Y o u n g h e e 2 0 1 2 , p p . 9 8 -9 9 .
1 5 W a lra v e n 2 0 0 0 .
1 6 W a lra v e n 2 0 0 0 .
17 T h e p rin t h a s b e e n b rie fly in tro d u c e d in a s h o rt a rtic le th a t a im e d to s h o w th e m a n y d if

fe re n t u s e s o f p ra y e r b e a d s, irre s p e c tiv e o f p e rio d , b y b o th B u d d h is ts a n d s h a m a n s in K o re a
(W a lra v e n 2 0 1 0 ), w ith o u t a d is c u ss io n o f its d e ta ils a n d c o n te x t a s w ill b e a tte m p te d h e re . A
v e ry s im ila r p rin t w a s a lso b rie fly d e s c rib e d m u c h e a rlie r b y E li B a rr L a n d is (1 8 6 5 -1 8 9 8 ),
a n A m e ric a n m e d ic a l d o c to r w h o c a m e to K o re a a s a m iss io n a ry fo r th e A n g lic a n C h u rc h
(R u tt 1 9 5 7 ). H is fo c u s , h o w e v e r, w a s th e s u tra th a t w a s c ite d (in p a rt) in th e c e n tra l p a rt o f
th e p rin t (L a n d is 1 8 9 5 ).
upasika (ch ’ongshinnyo a fe m a le la y d e v o te e ), it in te n d s to a d d

s o m e p e rs p e c tiv e to B u d d h is t p ra c tic e s o f th e p e rio d a n d to d e m o n s tra te th e
ro le m a te ria l o b je c ts m ig h t p la y in th e in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n c le rg y a n d la y
b e lie v e rs (p la te 1 ). P ra y e r b e a d s a re p a rtic u la rly s u ite d to th is p u rp o s e a s
th e y a re s o m e o f th e m o s t u b iq u ito u s o b je c ts in B u d d h ist p ra c tic e a n d a re
u s e d d a ily b y b o th m o n k s a n d la y b e lie v e rs . 18 T h e te m p o ra l fo c u s o f th is
a rtic le h a s b e e n in te n tio n a lly lim ite d to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a s th e c a ll fo r
g re a te r n u a n c e in s tu d ie s o f C h o s o n B u d d h is m c h a ra c te ris tic o f re c e n t s tu d
ie s h a s a lso s e n s itiz e d u s to p o te n tia l c h a n g e s o v e r tim e , m a k in g it p ro b le m
a tic to g e n e ra liz e fin d in g s fo r th e e n tire p e rio d .
T H E P R IN T
T h e w o o d b lo c k u s e d to p ro d u c e th e p rin t w a s c a rv e d a t o n e o f th e m o s t
p ro m in e n t m o n a s te rie s o f K o re a , P o n g u n s a ^ M ^ , th e lo c a tio n o f w h ic h is
to d a y p a rt o f th e b u s y S e o u l a re a o f G a n g n a m -g u , s o u th o f th e H a n R iv e r,
d ire c tly o p p o s ite th e to w e rin g C O E X c o m p le x , w h ic h c o m p ris e s a h u g e
c o n v e n tio n a n d e x h ib itio n c e n te r a n d a n u n d e rg ro u n d m a ll th a t h a s b e e n
d e s c rib e d a s a s h o p p in g m e c c a fo r g lo b a l b ra n d s in fa s h io n , a c c e s s o rie s ,
b e a u ty , a n d life s ty le . In th e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , h o w e v e r, S e o u l h a d n o t
y e t e x p a n d e d s o u th o f th e riv e r; th e a re a w a s e n tire ly ru ra l a n d it w o u ld ta k e
a c o n s id e ra b le tim e to re a c h P o n g u n s a fro m S e o u l, in c lu d in g a fe rry rid e , a s
th e re w e re a s y e t n o b rid g e s s p a n n in g th e H a n R iv e r. N o n e th e le s s , th e te m
p le w a s so fre q u e n tly v is ite d b y m a le a n d fe m a le c ity d w e lle rs th a t a lre a d y
in 1 7 8 7 th e M e d ita tio n M a s te r H w a ’ a k Y N (1 7 5 0 -1 8 3 9 ) d e c id e d h e c o u ld
n o lo n g e r sta y th e re a n d fle d to a m u c h m o re re m o te te m p le . 19 P o n g u n s a
a lso a ttra c te d m a n y p ro m in e n t d o n o rs , s u c h a s th e H u n g so n T a e w o n ’ g u n
(1 8 2 0 -1 8 9 8 ) w h o a c te d a s re g e n t fo r h is s o n K in g K o jo n g
(1 8 5 2 -1 9 1 9 ) w h ile th e la tte r w a s a m in o r. H e d o n a te d la n d to th e te m
p le . 20 O th e r d o n o rs in c lu d e d fo u r (fo rm e r) M a s te rs (T a e s a s o n g of
18 K ie sc h n ic k 2 0 0 3 , p p . 1 1 6 -3 8 ; W a lra v e n 2 0 1 0 ; T a n a b e 2 0 1 2 ; M ro s s 2 0 1 7 . O f th e s e a rti
c le s , o n ly W a lra v e n 2 0 1 0 d is c u ss e s K o re a . T h e s e a u th o rs, w h o a ll p o in t to th e v a rio u s u s e s
o f th e ro s a rie s , a ls o p ro v id e a s u rv e y o f th e c a n o n ic a l b a s is fo r th e u s e o f ro s a rie s in s u tra s
s u c h a s th e Mu huanzi jing X W T f i (S c rip tu re o f th e S e e d s o f th e S o a p b e rry , tra n sla te d in to
C h in e se d u rin g th e E a s te rn J in [3 1 7 -4 2 0 ]; T n o . 7 8 6 ) a n d th e Manshushili zhouzang cang
zhongjiaoliang shuzu gongde jing (S c rip tu re o n th e E v a lu
a tio n o f M e rits o f th e R o s a ry fro m th e S p e ll T re a s u ry o f M a n ju s n , tra n sla te d b y Y ijin g
[6 3 5 -7 1 3 ]; T n o . 7 8 7 ).
19 H w a ’ a k 2 0 1 2 , p p . 2 2 6 , 2 2 9 .
20 S a c h ’ a l M u n h w a Y o n ’ g u w o n 1 9 9 7 , p . 2 3 7 .
th e C o n fu c ia n A c a d e m y (S o n g g y u n ’ g w a n w h o m a d e c o n trib u tio n s
in 1 8 5 6 to h a v e a n e w e d itio n o f th e Avatamsaka Sutra (Hwaomgyong
S ^ ) p rin te d . 21 T h e c e le b ra te d s c h o la r C h 'u s a K im C h o n g h u i
(1 7 8 6 -1 8 5 6 ) p ro v id e d th e c a llig ra p h y fo r th e s ig n b o a rd o f th e b u ild in g o f
th e m o n a s te ry in w h ic h th e w o o d b lo c k s fo r th e s u tra w e re k e p t. A fe w d a y s
la te r h e p a s s e d a w a y w h ile s ta y in g a t P o n g u n s a . It w a s , in sh o rt, a n im p o r
ta n t a n d p o p u la r m o n a s te ry in tim a te ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e so c ia l a n d in te l
le c tu a l e lite o f C h o so n .
T h e w o o d b lo c k fo r th e p rin t m e a s u re s 7 8 b y 3 6 c e n tim e te rs, a siz e th a t
su g g e sts th a t p rin ts m a d e fro m it m ig h t h a v e b e e n m o u n te d a s sc ro lls, fra m e d
a s p a in tin g s, o r p e rh a p s p a s te d o n fo ld in g sc re e n s. T h e w ritin g in th e p rin t is
n o t in th e v e rn a cu la r, b u t lik e m a n y K o re a n B u d d h is t te x ts, it is in hanmun
iM ^ , lite ra ry S in itic . In a sh o rt 1 8 9 5 p a p e r th a t fo c u s e d o n th e su tra th a t is
q u o te d in th e c e n tra l s e c tio n o f th is v e ry p rin t, E li B a rr L a n d is p ro v id e s u s
w ith a n in trig u in g c lu e , a sse rtin g th a t th e p rin t w a s “ p u t o n th e w a ll o f m a n y
o f th e B u d d h is t te m p le s o f K o re a . ” 22 T h is su g g e sts u se o f th e p rin t b y a m u l
titu d e o f b e lie v e rs, b u t its o rig in (a t le a s t in th is sp e c ific fo rm ) la y in a p riv a te
a c t o f d e v o tio n . A t th e b o tto m , th e re is a c o lo p h o n th a t p re s e n ts th e d a te , th e
n a m e o f th e d o n o r, a n d a w is h (parwon f^ M ) s ta tin g th e p u rp o s e fo r w h ic h
th e w o o d b lo c k w a s c a rv e d , w ith th e n a m e o f th e m o n k w h o d id th e c a rv in g
a t th e v e ry e n d . T h e te x t o f th e c o lo p h o n re a d s in fu ll a s fo llo w s :
E n g ra v e d a n d s to re d a t P o n g u n s a , a t M t. S u d o , in K w a n g ju , in th e
L e ft C irc u it o f K y o n g g i P ro v in c e , in th e s p rin g o f th e Chongsa
[ T E J y e a r, th e s e v e n th y e a r o f th e X ia n fe n g 1 8 5 1 -1 8 6 1 ]
e ra [i.e ., 1 8 5 7 ], T h e g re a t b e n e fa c to r w h o re q u e s te d th e e n g ra v
in g , th e upasika (ch ’ongshinnyo) L a d y P a k Y o n g s o h w a
^ ] , 23 h u m b ly w is h e s th a t th a n k s to th e m e rit o f th is, h e r d e c e a s e d
fa th e r, P a k S a il h e r d e c e a s e d m o th e r, L a d y C h ’ o e [W ],
h e r d e c e a s e d m a te rn a l g ra n d fa th e r, S ir C h ’ o e , a n d h e r d e c e a s e d
m a te rn a l g ra n d m o th e r, L a d y M u n [ ^ ] , h e r d e c e a s e d h u s b a n d Y i
Ik p a e a n d h e r d e c e a s e d y o u n g e r b ro th e r P a k C h ’ a n g s u n
[fh i= iiY ], a ll to g e th e r w ill g o to “ S u p re m e B lis s ” (K u n g n a k
[th e W e s te rn P u re L a n d o f A m ita b h a ]).
C a rv e d b y S o n g jo n [fT A ]
21 L e e , Y o u n g h e e 2 0 1 2 , p p . 9 8 -9 9 .
2 2 L a n d is 1 8 9 5 .
23 Y o n g so h w a A A '7 ( “ N u m in o u s A u s p ic io u s F lo w e r ” ) is o b v io u s ly a B u d d h is t n a m e , a
c o n firm a tio n o f th is w o m a n ’ s lo n g -s ta n d in g d e d ic a tio n to B u d d h is m .
T h is ty p e o f w is h , w ith its c o n c e rn fo r th e a fte rlife o f d e c e a s e d re la tiv e s , is

ty p ic a l fo r a m a jo rity o f p io u s d o n a tio n s . A s im ila r w is h c a n b e fo u n d , fo r
in s ta n c e , o n a sm a ll b a g th a t w a s h u n g o n a p a in tin g o f A m ita b h a m a d e in
1 8 7 6 (p la te 2 ), a v a ria n t o f th e pokchang p u t in s id e th re e -d im e n s io n a l B u d
d h a im a g e s . 24
It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t P a k Y o n g s o h w a ’ s w is h c o n c e rn e d m e m b e rs o f
h e r o w n b irth fa m ily (w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f h e r h u s b a n d ), w h o a c c o rd in g to
p a trilin e a l C o n fu c ia n p rin c ip le s w o u ld n o t b e th e re g u la r re c ip ie n ts o f ritu a l
a c tio n o n h e r p a rt.
P a k Y o n g s o h w a ’ s sta tu s a s a w e ll-to -d o m e m b e r o f th e u p p e r c la s s is
c o n firm e d b y th e a p p e a ra n c e o f h e r n a m e in th e lis t o f d o n o rs (a m o n g
w h o m a re q u ite a fe w c o u rt la d ie s , sanggung w h o m a d e p o s s ib le th e
b u ild in g o f a h a ll to h o u s e th e w o o d b lo c k s (P ’ a n jo n f c ^ ) o f th e n e w ly
c a rv e d v e rs io n o f th e Avatamsaka Sutra a t P o n g u n s a in 1 8 5 6 . S h e is m e n
tio n e d a s h a v in g c o n trib u te d th e c o n s id e ra b le s u m o f o n e h u n d re d kum A . 25
M o re o v e r, sh e is a lso o n re c o rd a s h a v in g m a d e a d o n a tio n o f th e s u m o f
^NQyang M fo r a n o th e r p u rp o s e re la te d to th e P 'a n jo n . 26
T h e re v e rs e o f th e w o o d b lo c k is a lso e n g ra v e d , w ith a d e p ic tio n o f th e
m a rk in g s o n th e fe e t o f th e B u d d h a (Sokka yorae yujokto
th e o ld e s t fo rm o f re p re s e n tin g th e B u d d h a ), a n e n g ra v in g th a t a c c o rd in g
to a c o lo p h o n w a s a ls o c o m m is s io n e d b y P a k Y o n g s o h w a , b u t th is tim e
w ith a w is h fo r h e rs e lf: fo r lo n g e v ity a n d h a p p in e s s d u rin g h e r life tim e a n d
re b irth in “ S u p re m e B lis s ” a fte r d e a th . In o th e r w o rd s , h e r p ie ty w a s fo r
th e b e n e fit o f th e life in th e h e re a fte r o f h e r c o n s a n g u in e k in (p rim a rily )
a n d h u s b a n d , a s w e ll a s fo r h e r o w n p e rs o n a l b e n e fit in b o th th is life a n d
th e h e re a fte r.
CONTENTS
The Text on the Inside of the Rosary
T h e p rin t d e p ic ts a s trin g o f 1 0 8 p ra y e r b e a d s , o n th e o u ts id e o f w h ic h a re
id e n tific a tio n s o f in d iv id u a l b e a d s w ith sp e c ific b u d d h a s , b o d h is a ttv a s ,
g u a rd ia n s o f B u d d h is m , a n d o th e r e n titie s ; a n d o n th e in s id e o f th e ro s a ry
a re q u o te s (in ha/i/m/n) fro m s u tra s a b o u t th e u s e o f p ra y e r b e a d s. T h e first
24 Y i Y o n g y u n 2 0 1 6 .
25 S a c h ’ a l M u n h w a Y o n ’ g u w o n 1 9 9 7 , p p . 2 4 3 , 2 4 4 . Kum is a n a lte rn a tiv e te rm fo r th e
m o re c o m m o n ly u s e d yang .
26 S a c h ’ a l M u n h w a Y o n ’ g u w o n 1 9 9 7 , p . 2 4 6 .
s u tra q u o te d is th e Mu huanzi jing (S c rip tu re o f th e S e e d s o f th e

S o a p b e rry ), w h ic h c o n ta in s th e in s tru c tio n s o f th e B u d d h a to K in g P ’ a ry u ri
w h o h a s c o m e to h im to a sk fo r a d v ic e o n h o w to o v e rc o m e a ll
k in d s o f a d v e rs ity th a t tro u b le h im a n d h is p e o p le . “ M y c o u n try is sm a ll
a n d in s ig n ific a n t, b u t fo r y e a rs p e s tile n c e h a s ra g e d a n d g ra in is sc a rc e , a n d
so th e p e o p le a re a t th e e n d o f th e ir te th e r, w h ile I a m n e v e r a t e a s e . ” 28
2 7 T h is
is th e o ld e s t s u tra m e n tio n in g th e u s e o f p ra y e r b e a d s , a n d it e x p la in s th a t
th e y a llo w th e u s e r w h o a lw a y s c a rrie s th e m a n d w h o , c o u n tin g th e b e a d s
c o n sta n tly , p a y s h o m a g e to th e B u d d h a , th e D h a rm a , a n d th e S a n g h a to re a p
g re a t b e n e fits, w h ic h in c re a s e e x p o n e n tia lly th e m o re o fte n th e u s e r c o u n ts
th e b e a d s . T h is is e x p la in e d in th e p rin t a s fo llo w s : “ I f y o u d o it te n tim e s , if
y o u d o it tw e n ty tim e s [a g a in a n d a g a in ], th e n y o u c a n re a c h tw o -h u n d re d -
th o u s a n d ro u n d s [o f th e b e a d s ] a n d y o u r b o d y a n d y o u r m in d w ill n o lo n g e r
b e in tu rm o il, a n d y o u w ill e lim in a te a ll fla tte ry a n d w ro n g d o in g . W h e n y o u
a re a t th e e n d o f y o u r life , y o u w ill b e a b le to b e re b o rn in th e H e a v e n o f
Y a m a (Y a m a c h ’ o n v T v ) . 29 I f y o u re a c h a m illio n ro u n d s , y o u w ill e lim i
n a te th e [b a d ] k a rm a re s u ltin g fro m th e p a s s io n s a n d o b ta in th e g re a t fru i
tio n o f p e rm a n e n t b lis s . ” T h e n a n o th e r, u n id e n tifie d , s u tra is q u o te d , w h ic h
a s s ig n s p a rtic u la r m e a n in g s c o rre s p o n d in g to th e 1 0 8 b e a d s (w h ic h p rim a r
ily re p re s e n t th e 1 0 8 “ p a s s io n s ” o r “ a fflic tio n s ” [S k t. klesas', K . ponnoe
f^ ] th a t s ta n d in th e w a y o f e n lig h te n m e n t, b u t h e re a re g iv e n a d d itio n a l
m e a n in g s ). C u rio u sly , th e m e a n in g s a re n o t e x a c tly th e sa m e a s th o s e g iv e n
o n th e o u ts id e , a n d in sp ite o f th e c la im th a t th e re a re tw e lv e s e c tio n s , o n ly
e le v e n a re g iv e n . T h e lis t a s p re s e n te d in th e te x t o n th e in s id e o f th e ro s a ry
is a s fo llo w s :
1. T h e B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i
2 . F o u r b o d h is a ttv a s
3 . S ix paramitas
4 . E ig h t vajra g u a rd ia n s
5 . T h irty -th re e h e a v e n s
2 7 In th e o rig in a l te x t o f th e s u tra h is n a m e is g iv e n a s V iru d h a k a .

28 T h e q u o te d te x t is n o t a lw a y s e x a c tly in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e te x t in th e T rip ita k a (T n o .
7 8 6 ), b u t th e d iffe re n c e s a re o f m in o r o r n o s ig n ific a n c e .
2 9 A lth o u g h a “ h e a v e n , ” th is is s till p a rt o f th e w o rld o f d e s ire (kamadhatu), w h ic h k n o w s
s e x u a l in te rc o u rs e , a lb e it th a t in th e H e a v e n o f Y a m a it is e ffe c te d th ro u g h a m e re e m b ra c e . (In
th e h ig h e s t o f th e kamadhatu h e a v e n s , it is e ffe c te d ju s t b y lo o k in g a t e a c h o th e r).
6 . T w e n ty -e ig h t “ a n im a ls ” (kumsu a c tu a lly th e n a m e s o f
sta rs a s s o c ia te d w ith th e lu n a r lo d g in g s , 30 3 1m a n y o f w h ic h
in c lu d e th e n a m e o f a n a n im a l o r a re a s s o c ia te d w ith a n a n im a l)
7 . F iv e H e a v e n ly K in g s (ch ’onwang v / ) ; '
8 . T w o e a rth d e itie s
9 . E ig h te e n h e lls
1 0 . F o u r G ra c e s (saun K M , w h ic h w ill b e d is c u s s e d fu rth e r,
b e lo w )
1 1 . C h iju C h e ja “ th e d is c ip le w h o h o ld s th e p e a rl/
je w e l ”
T h is n e a tly a d d s u p to 1 0 8 , b u t it s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e id e n tific a tio n s

o n th e o u ts id e o f th e ro s a ry a re a c tu a lly 1 1 1 in n u m b e r. T h is is th e re s u lt
o f th re e a d d itio n a l id e n tific a tio n s , s m u g g le d in a t th e b o tto m o f th e ro sa ry ,
w h e re th e e x tra sp a c e b e lo w th e th re e la rg e r-siz e d b e a d s a llo w e d fo r a d d i
tio n s o n th e o u te r rim . It s h o u ld a lso b e n o te d th a t th e c a te g o rie s la rg e ly , b u t
n o t c o m p le te ly , m a tc h th o s e o n th e o u ts id e o f th e c h a p le t; w h e n th e c a te g o
rie s d o m a tc h , th e n u m b e rs g iv e n in th e lis t a b o v e d o n o t p e rfe c tly m a tc h
th e n u m b e rs o f th e id e n tific a tio n s o n th e o u ts id e , a s th e re a re , fo r in s ta n c e ,
fe w e r h e a v e n s a n d m o re h e lls.
T h e te x t o n th e in s id e a lso p ro v id e s e v id e n c e o f th e a g e n c y o f th e b e a d s
th e m s e lv e s (ra th e r th a n o f th e a g e n c y o f th e ir use) 32 b y q u o tin g a s c rip tu re
s ta tin g th a t th e e ffic a cy o f u s in g th e b e a d s d e p e n d s o n th e m a te ria l fro m
w h ic h th e y a re m a d e . Irre s p e c tiv e o f th e p ra c titio n e r, th e b e a d s h a v e a
p o w e r o f th e ir o w n : 33
I f y o u u s e b e a d s o f th e se e d s o f th e lo tu s , y o u w ill re c e iv e th o u
s a n d -fo ld b liss. I f y o u u se c ry s ta l b e a d s , y o u w ill re c e iv e te n -
th o u s a n d -fo ld b liss. I f y o u u se b e a d s o f th e se e d s o f th e b o d h i
tre e , a n d a lw a y s h o ld th e m in y o u r h a n d , y o u w ill re c e iv e lim it
le s s b liss.
30 “ L u n a r lo d g in g s ” re fe r to th e p o s itio n s in th e s k y th ro u g h w h ic h th e m o o n m o v e s in th e
c o u rs e o fa tw e n ty -e ig h t-d a y lu n a rm o n th .
31 T h e s e a re p re s u m a b ly th e fiv e vidyarajas, o r fiv e d e itie s w ith a n a n g ry v is a g e , a s so c i
a te d w ith th e fo u r d ire c tio n s o f th e c o m p a s s a n d th e c e n te r. T h is n e a tly m a tc h e s th e S in itic
c o n c e p t o f th e fiv e d ire c tio n s , w h ic h a ls o in c lu d e s th e c e n te r.
3 2 K ie sc h n ic k 2 0 0 3 , p . 1 2 0 : “ N o t o n ly d id th e ro s a ry c o u n t re c ita tio n s ; a re c ita tio n m a rk e d
w ith a ro s a ry s o m e h o w c o u n te d m o re . ”
33 T h e a g e n c y o f th e b e a d s is a ls o m a n ife s t in th e ir w id e s p re a d u s e a s a m u le ts th a t a re c a r
rie d to p ro te c t a g a in s t d a n g e rs a n d to re a liz e th e fu lfilm e n t o f w ish e s (W a lra v e n 2 0 1 0 ).
A t th e e n d , a gatha c o n firm s th e m a rv e lo u s e ffic a c y o f th e b e a d s , p ro m

is in g th e p ra c titio n e r th e c o n te m p la tio n o f th e D h a rm a re a lm a n d re b irth
in th e W e s te rn P u re L a n d o f A m ita b h a . T h e s trin g th a t h o ld s th e b e a d s
to g e th e r is p o e tic a lly c o m p a re d to a ll-p e n e tra tin g e m p tin e s s (sunyata).
Identifications Provided on the Outside of the Rosary
T h e b ig b e a d a t th e to p , s o m e tim e s c a lle d th e m o th e r b e a d , is a s s o c ia te d
w ith th e B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i a n d is th e o n ly o n e th a t h a s a n in s c rib e d svas-
tika (p la te 3 ). T h e c h a ra c te r u s e d fo r “ b u d d h a ” h e re (a s w e ll a s fo r th e o th e r
tw o b u d d h a s lis te d ) c o n s is ts o f th e c h a ra c te r “ m a n ” (in K), u s e d a s a ra d i
c a l, w ith th e c h a ra c te r fo r “ h e a v e n ” (ch ’on W) o n th e rig h t-h a n d sid e . T h is
c a n h a rd ly b e re g a rd e d a s a n a b b re v ia tio n , a s it h a s o n ly o n e stro k e le ss
th a n th e fu ll c h a ra c te r th a t is o rd in a rily u s e d , a n d a s h o rte r a b b re v ia tio n ,
(A (a s c u rre n tly u s e d in J a p a n ), w a s a v a ila b le. Y e t, a p p a re n tly it w a s c o m
m o n ly u s e d in m a n u s c rip ts , 34 a n d th e re fo re n o s p e c ia l s ig n ific an c e m ig h t b e
a tta c h e d to its u s e h e re . H o w e v e r, if o n e th in k s o f th e d o m in a n c e o f C o n fu
c ia n d is c o u rs e in C h o s o n , o n e w o n d e rs if re a d e rs m a y n o t h a v e in te rp re te d
it a s a n a c c o m m o d a tio n to C o n fu c ia n is m , w h e re b o th m a n a n d h e a v e n
a re c ru c ia l c o n c e p ts a n d th e h e a v e n ly p rin c ip le (ch ’olli X S ) is re g a rd e d
a s c a p a b le o f b e in g fu lly re a liz e d in th e h e a rt/m in d {shim of hum an
b e in g s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e fa c t th a t (h u m a n ) n a tu re is e n d o w e d b y H e a v
e n . 35 In o th e r w o rd s, it m a y h a v e s u g g e s te d th a t a b u d d h a is a fu lly re a liz e d
sa g e a c c o rd in g to C o n fu cia n sta n d a rd s, a n d a lso , m o re g e n e ra lly , th a t th e re
is a p a ra lle lis m b e tw e e n th e in n a te b u d d h a -n a tu re o f se n tie n t b e in g s a n d th e
C o n fu cia n c o n c e p t o fh u m a n n a tu re in its o rig in a l, u n s u llie d sta te .
I f a fte r th e firs t b e a d th e ro s a ry is fo llo w e d c lo c k w is e , th e n e x t b e a d
is d e v o te d to A m ita b h a (w ith a la rg e r b e a d th a n th e fo llo w in g o n e s, b u t
s m a lle r th a n th e o n e fo r S a k y a m u n i), a n d th e n e x t tw o b e a d s (3 , 4 ) d e n o te
th e b o d h is a ttv a s M a n ju s ri a n d A v a lo k ite s v a ra . T h e n , th e re a re tw o vajra
b o d h is a ttv a s (5 , 6 ), a n d fo u r vajra g u a rd ia n s (7 -1 0 ). N e x t, th e re a re th re e
(1 1 -1 3 ) o f th e six paramitas (th e “ p e rfe c tio n s ” o f th e c u ltiv a tio n o f b o d h i
sa ttv a s: g e n e ro s ity , e n th u s ia s tic p e rs e v e ra n c e , a n d w is d o m ). T h e s e a re
fo llo w e d b y th e fo u r “ H e a v e n ly K in g s ” (1 4 -1 7 : T o ric h ’ o n w a n g
[C h e so k A N : S k t. In d ra ], M a h y e c h ’ o n w a n g [S k t. M a h e s v a ra ],
C h o n g g o c h ’o n w a n g [th e S u d d h a v a s a K in g , o r th e K in g o f th e
3 4 I w o u ld lik e to th a n k o n e o f th e a n o n y m o u s re v ie w e rs w h o a le rte d m e to th is fa ct.

35 A s s ta te d in th e firs t w o rd s o f th e Zhongyong T W (D o c trin e o f th e M e a n ).
P u re A b o d e s ], 36 a n d P o m w a n g c h ’ o n w a n g 'E E E E [S k t. B ra h m a ]), a n d
tw e n ty -e ig h t s te lla r d e itie s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e lu n a r lo d g in g s (1 8 -4 5 ).
N e x t, th e re a re tw o b e a d s (4 6 , 4 7 ) fo r th e s o -c a lle d F o u r G ra c e s: first, th e
b o o n s ( “ g ra c e ” ) o n e re c e iv e s fro m th e m o n a rc h , te a c h e rs , a n d se n io rs; a n d
se c o n d , th e b o o n s fro m p a re n ts a n d d o n o rs . 37 T h e n e x t s e v e n b e a d s (4 8 -5 4 )
a re id e n tifie d w ith v a rio u s h e lls. T h e n , a t th e b o tto m o f th e ro sa ry , th e re a re
a g a in th re e la rg e r b e a d s (5 5 -5 7 ), w ith th e la rg e s t o n e in th e m id d le re p re
s e n tin g th e b o d h isa ttv a K s itig a rb h a (C h . D iz a n g J'E A : K . C h ija n g ; Jp . Jiz o ),
th e b o d h is a ttv a w h o h a s v o w e d to d e liv e r a ll s e n tie n t b e in g s fro m th e to r
tu re s o f h e ll. 38 T h e firs t la rg e r b e a d b e lo n g s to D a o m in g Z u n z h e A N N A
(K . T o m y o n g C h o n ja ), a C h in e s e m o n k w h o is s a id to h a v e re tu rn e d fro m a
v is it to th e U n d e rw o rld , a fte rw a rd s b e c o m in g a c o m p a n io n o f C h ija n g . T h e
th ird la rg e r b e a d is a s s ig n e d to M u d o k K w iw a n g .’ E E E '/U E ( “ S p irit K in g
W ith o u t P o is o n ” ), a n o th e r fre q u e n t c o m p a n io n o f K s itig a rb h a in K o re a n
p a in tin g s , w h o is re p u te d to e lim in a te p e o p le ’ s e v il in te n tio n s . 39 T h e s e th re e
c a n b e sa id to b e in th e m id d le o fh e ll b e c a u s e th e n e x t th irte e n b e a d s (5 8 -7 0 )
a g a in re p re s e n t h e lls o f v a rio u s k in d s. T h e ir n a m e s g e n e ra lly p re s e n t a fa irly
g o o d id e a o f w h a t g o e s o n th e re ( “ S c a ld in g W a te r C a u ld ro n H e ll, ” “ C o ld
Ic e H e ll, ” “ T o n g u e E x tra c tio n H e ll, ” “ F la y in g H e ll, ” e tc .), b u t th e la s t b e a d
c o v e rs a n y h e ll th a t m ig h t n o t h a v e b e e n in c lu d e d : th e “ H e ll W h e re O n e
Is, ” o r p e rh a p s , th e “ H e ll W h e re O n e H a p p e n s to F in d O n e s e lf ” ( sojae
chiok T h e n , b e a d 7 1 s ta n d s fo r C h iju C h e ja , lite ra lly “ th e d is
c ip le w h o h o ld s th e p e a rl/je w e l, ” w h o is a m e s s e n g e r o f K s itig a rb h a a n d in
36 T h is is a c tu a lly a n a lte rn a tiv e fo rm o f M a h e s v a ra , w h ic h s u p p o rts th e in te rp re ta tio n

o f th e p re c e d in g M a h y e c h ’ o n w a n g a s M a h e s v a ra ’ s o th e r fo rm a s th e P rin c e o f D e m o n s,
P is a c a -M a h e s v a ra , w h o is d e p ic te d a s rid in g o n a w h ite b u ll. A s s u c h , P is a c a -M a h e s v a ra
a p p e a rs in a p a in tin g o f d iv in e p ro te c to rs in s ta lle d in th e P ’ a n jo n o f P o n g u n s a in 1 8 5 7 ,
th e v e ry y e a r th e w o o d b lo c k fo r th e p rin t w a s c a rv e d (T a e h a n P u lg y o C h o g y e jo n g P u lg y o
C h u n g a n g P a n g m u lg w a n 2 0 1 4 , p . 1 3 7 ).
3 7 T h e c o m p o s itio n o f th e F o u r G ra c e s is n o t a lw a y s th e s a m e . T h e te rm m a y a lso re fe r to
p a re n ts , th e m o n a rc h , s e n tie n t b e in g s , a n d th e T h re e T re a su re s; o r, to fa th e r a n d m o th e r, th e
T a th a g a ta , a n d d h a rm a m a s te rs . B u t h e re th e c o n te n t is e x p lic itly g iv e n , in a m a n n e r th a t fo r
th re e o f th e fo u r, s h o w s re sp e c t fo r C o n fu c ia n v a lu e s .
38 S e e T e is e r 1 9 9 4 , p p . 6 7 -6 9 .
3 9 A n e x a m p le is th e “ C h ija n g p o s a lto ” fro m th e c o lle c tio n o f th e M u s e e G u im e t illu s tra te d
in C a m b o n 2 0 0 1 , p . 8 5 . M u d o k K w iw a n g a p p e a rs in th e Dizangpusa benyuan jing
I S A W S (S u tra o f th e G re a t V o w s o f th e K s itig a rb h a B o d h is a ttv a ; T n o . 4 1 2 ): “ T h e re w a s
a S p irit K in g . H is n a m e w a s W ith o u t P o is o n ” (yu il kwiwang myong wal Mudok A A l A
H ^ W ), a n d h e e x p la in s th e te rro rs o f th e v a rio u s h e lls to a B ra h m a n g irl w h o h a s d e sc e n d e d
to th e u n d e rw o rld to lo o k fo r h e r d e c e a s e d m o th e r. T h e g irl is K s itig a rb h a in a p re v io u s e x is
te n c e , a n d M u d o k is id e n tifie d a s a fu tu re b o d h isa ttv a (K im C h o n g h u i 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 7 7 -8 1 , 4 2 5 ).
c h a rg e o f h u n g ry g h o s ts . 40 B e a d s 7 2 to 9 9 a re a s s o c ia te d w ith a s u c c e s s io n
o f in c re a s in g ly ra re fie d h e a v e n s . T h e s e b e g in w ith th e H e a v e n s o f th e F o u r
D e v a K in g s (S a c h ’ o n w a n g K X ^ ) , fo llo w e d b y th e H e a v e n o f th e T h irty -
th re e D e itie s , p re s id e d o v e r b y In d ra (th e T ra y a strim s a H e a v e n , T o ric h ’ o n
W ^ JW ), th e H e a v e n o f Y a m a , th e T u s ita H e a v e n (T o s o lc h ’ o n ^ ^ X ) , th e
N irm a n a ra ti H e a v e n (H w a ra k c h ’ o n ffc ^ X ), a n d th e P a ra n irm ita v a s a v a rti
H e a v e n (T ’ a h w a ja ja e c h ’ o n W L B ^ W ). T h e s e a re in a s c e n d in g o rd e r, fro m
th e lo w e s t to th e h ig h e s t, th e s ix h e a v e n s o f th e kamadhatu, th e w o rld o f
d e sire . N e x t a re e ig h te e n dhyana h e a v e n s (sonch ’on W X ; 7 8 -9 5 ), c o m
p ris e d o f fo u r le v e ls. T h e firs t th re e le v e ls c o n ta in th re e dhyana h e a v e n s
e a c h , a n d th e fo u rth le v e l c o n ta in s n in e s u c h dhyana h e a v e n s . T h e la s t n in e
a re c a lle d C lo u d le s s , F e lic ito u s B irth , L a rg e F ru ita g e , W ith o u t T h o u g h t,
W ith o u t V e x a tio n , W ith o u t H e a t, B e a u tifu l A p p e a rin g , B e a u tifu l to S e e ,
a n d E n d o f F o rm . 41 T o g e th e r th e s e h e a v e n s b e lo n g to th e w o rld o f fo rm ,
rupadhatu. T h e a s c e n t th e n c o n tin u e s to w a rd fo u r sta te s o f th e W o rld
w ith o u t F o rm (arupadhatu), o r th e F o u r Im m a te ria l H e a v e n s : th e S ta te o f
B o u n d le s s S p a c e , th e S ta te o f B o u n d le s s K n o w le d g e , th e S ta te o f N o n
e x is te n c e , a n d th e S ta te o f N e ith e r T h in k in g n o r N o t-T h in k in g (9 6 -9 9 ).
W ith b e a d s 1 0 0 -1 0 2 th e re is in a se n se a re tu rn to o u r w o rld . H e re , th e
th re e paramitas a re lis te d th a t s h o u ld b e c u ltiv a te d in J a m b u d v ip a a n d th a t
w e re n o t m e n tio n e d e a rlie r: e th ic s , c o n c e n tra tio n , a n d p a tie n c e . W ith th is ,
th e re is a re tu rn to sy m m e try : b e a d s 1 0 3 -6 re p re s e n t fo u r vajra g u a rd ia n s ,
1 0 7 a n d 1 0 8 tw o vajra b o d h is a ttv a s , a n d 1 0 9 a n d 1 1 0 th e b o d h is a ttv a s
M a h a s th a m a p ra p ta a n d S a m a n ta b h a d ra . M a h a s th a m a p ra p ta is th e re g u la r
c o m p a n io n o f A m ita b h a , s itu a te d to h is rig h t, w ith A v a lo k ite s v a ra (b e a d
40 S o o th ill a n d H o d o u s 1 9 3 7 , p . 2 0 8 . A s th e c h a ra c te r fo r “ p e a rl ” is a lso u s e d to re fe r to
th e b e a d s , th e re is a te m p ta tio n to in te rp re t th is a s re fe rrin g to th e p ra c titio n e r w h o u s e s th e
ro sa ry (a s L a n d is d o e s ), b u t a t th is p o s itio n in th e c h a p le t th a t d o e s n o t m a k e m u c h s e n se . O n
th e o th e r h a n d , a re fe re n c e to th e preta s , o n e o f th e th re e e v il re in c a rn a tio n s, b u t o n e n o tc h
a b o v e th e b e in g s in h e ll, fits w e ll in th is p la c e . “ P e a rl ” m a y a ls o re fe r to th e w ish -fu lfillin g
je w e l (S k t. cintamani) th a t is a n a ttrib u te o f K s itig a rb h a a n d a p p e a rs in q u ite a fe w o f th e
d e p ic tio n s o f h im (e .g ., P u lc h is a 1 9 9 7 , p p . 1 6 8 , 1 7 4 ; K u n g n ip T a e g u P a n g m u lg w a n 2 0 0 9 ,
p . 9 2 ; Y i P u n h u i e t a l. 2 0 1 0 , p p . 3 2 -3 3 ). It is in s tru m e n ta l in d e liv e rin g s e n tie n t b e in g s fro m
h e ll.
41 T h is list c o m p ris e s e ig h te e n h e a v e n s. T h e n u m b e r is n o t a lw a y s th e s a m e . S o m e tim e s it

is s a id to b e s e v e n te e n , w ith W ith o u t T h o u g h t m e n tio n e d a s a c h a ra c te ris tic o f L a rg e F ru it
a g e . T h e p o s itio n o f W ith o u t T h o u g h t in th is lis t is m o re o r le ss in a g re e m e n t w ith th a t. I f th e
n u m b e r is s a id to b e e ig h te e n , W ith o u t T h o u g h t is th e h ig h e s t h e a v e n o f th e g ro u p , a t th e to p
o f th e lis t o f e ig h te e n . A s it is m e n tio n e d in th is lis t in th is p o s itio n , th is m a y b e re g a rd e d a s
a c o m p ro m ise b e tw e e n th e tw o v ie w s .
4 ) s itu a te d o n th e le ft o f A m ita b h a , w h ile S a m a n ta b h a d ra a c c o m p a n ie s

S a k y a m u n i o n th e rig h t, w ith M a n ju s ri (b e a d 3 ) o n th e le ft. T h e fin a l b e a d ,
1 1 1 , is th e B u d d h a o f th e F u tu re , M a itre y a , w ith a la rg e r b e a d , w h ic h is th e
sa m e siz e a s th a t fo r A m ita b h a b u t s m a lle r th a n th a t fo r S a k y a m u n i.
S IM IL A R P R IN T S
A s L a n d is a s s e rte d , th e P o n g u n s a w o o d b lo c k (7 8 b y 3 6 c e n tim e te rs ) is n o t
u n iq u e . In K o re a th e re a re c u rre n tly fiv e k n o w n v a ria n ts . 42 A w o o d b lo c k th a t
is v e ry sim ila r, b u t u n d a te d , is k e p t a t T ’ o n g d o s a ® ^ A . A H a e in s a W b P
v e rs io n , d a te d o n ly a c c o rd in g to th e s e x a g e n a ry c y c le to a Pyongjin A A
y e a r (1 7 9 6 , 1 8 5 6 , o r e v e n 1 9 1 6 ? ), m e a s u re s 5 9 b y 3 8 .5 c e n tim e te rs. A n o th e r
v a ria n t, e x ta n t a s a d a m a g e d w o o d b lo c k fro m th e A n ’ g u k A H H e rm ita g e
o f H w a o m s a A A v a n d n o w k e p t a t th e M u s e u m o f C h o n b u k U n iv e rs ity , 43
is d a te d to 1 8 1 2 . It is s o m e w h a t la rg e r (7 5 b y 3 3 c e n tim e te rs ), a n d lik e th e
P o n g u n s a b lo c k , h a s a c a rv in g o f th e m a rk in g s o n th e B u d d h a ’ s fe e t o n th e
re v e rs e sid e . A fifth v e rs io n , a v a ila b le a s a p rin t (5 9 b y 3 8 .5 c e n tim e te rs ),
is th o u g h t to d a te b a c k to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . O n it is w ritte n “ k e p t b y
Y ondam If th is is th e fa m o u s S o n W (Jp . Z e n ) m a s te r Y o n d a m Y u il
(1 7 2 0 -1 7 9 9 ), a n d th e in s c rip tio n is c o rre c t, it s h o u ld b e d a te d a
little e a rlie r. T h e c o n te n ts a re s im p le r th a n th o s e o f th e P o n g u n s a v e rs io n ,
h a v in g fo r in s ta n c e o n ly o n e b u d d h a , S a k y a m u n i, a t th e to p , im m e d ia te ly
fla n k e d b y vajra b o d h is a ttv a s , b u t th e b a s ic a rra n g e m e n t is ro u g h ly th e
sa m e , a g a in h a v in g a re n d e rin g o f th e s u tra in s id e th e ro sa ry .
T h e re a re a lso c o m p a rab le d e p ic tio n s o f ro s a rie s in Ja p a n . In a c h a p te r
o n Z e n ro sa rie s, M ic h a e la M ro ss m e n tio n s fiv e d e p ic tio n s o f sim ila r ro s a ry
a rran g e m e n ts a m o n g th e in itia tio n d o c u m e n ts (kirigami ^ M ) tra n s m itte d in
so m e S o to lin e a g e s . 44 In sp ite o f c la im s th a t th e tra d itio n fo r th e s e a rra n g e
m e n ts g o e s b a c k to D o g e n (1 2 0 0 -1 2 5 3 ), th e e a rlie s t o f th e s e d o c u m e n ts
is d a te d o n ly to 1 6 0 9 , a n d th e re is n o c le a r e v id e n c e th a t th e ro s a ry tra d itio n
th e y d e sc rib e p re d a te s th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry . In a n y c a se , th is is e a rlie r
th a n th e e v id e n c e w e h a v e fo r th e K o re a n ro s a ry d e p ic tio n s.
T h e J a p a n e s e ro s a ry d e p ic tio n s o f th is k in d w e re n o t lim ite d to th e Z e n
tra d itio n , a n d c a n a lso b e fo u n d in th e N ic h ire n sc h o o l, w h e re th e y w e re
4 2 L a n d is 1 8 9 5 , p . 2 3 . F o r a listin g o f th e v a rio u s v a ria n ts s e e h ttp ://w o n g a k s a .o r.k r/g 4

/b b s /b o a rd .p h p ? b o _ ta b le = ju n g g a k _ 0 9 & w r_ id = 3 2 6 6 , a c c e s se d J a n u a ry 2 9 , 2 0 1 8 .
43 F o r a n im a g e s e e: h ttp ://e n c y k o re a .a k s .a c .k r/C o n te n ts /In d e x ? d a ta T y p e = 0 2 0 1 & c o n te n ts
_ id = E 0 0 3 6 3 1 3 # m o d a l, a c c e s se d F e b ru a ry 2 5 , 2 0 1 8 .
4 4 M ro ss 2 0 1 7 .
P la te 1. T h e P o n g u n s a p rin t.
P la te 2 . A b a g w ith th e w is h o f o n e o f th e
s p o n s o rs o f a n 1 8 7 6 A m ita b h a p a in tin g .
P la te 3 . D e ta il o f th e m o th e r b e a d .
P la te 4 . T w o vajra g u a rd ia n s .
P la te 5 . P a g e fro m th e
Ch ’ilchongp ’y o Lj J'2/
(C h a rts o f th e [M o v e
m e n ts o f th e ] S e v e n
H e a v e n ly B o d ie s )
a lm a n a c o f 1 8 4 2 .
P la te 6 . T h e Diamond Su
tra w ritte n in th e sh a p e o f a
p a g o d a , to g e th e r w ith ta b le ts
c a rry in g n a m e s o f th e d e a d ,
in a te m p le in S e o u l.
P la te 7 . A ro s a ry a s a n
a m u le t fo r th e d riv e r o f
a n in te rc ity b u s.
c o m b in e d w ith th e daimoku ‘A l l , th e m a n tra o fh o m a g e to th e Lotus Sutra,45

w h ic h fo r th e b e lie v e rs o f th is s c h o o l is u s e d a s th e c e n te rp ie c e o f a m a n d a -
la . 46 O n e e x a m p le is p a rt o f th e P e tz o ld C o lle c tio n o f th e H a rv a rd -Y e n c h in g
L ib ra ry , 47 b u t o th e r v e rs io n s o ffe re d o n J a p a n e s e in te rn e t a u c tio n s ite s 48
s u g g e s t th e y w e re ra th e r c o m m o n . Irre s p e c tiv e o f th e tra d itio n fro m w h ic h
th e y ste m , th e s e d e p ic tio n s h a v e so m e th in g s in c o m m o n w ith th e K o re a n
P o n g u n s a ro s a ry s u c h a s th e in c lu s io n o f lu n a r lo d g in g s , b u t th e re a re a lso
s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s . T h e J a p a n e s e ro s a rie s h a v e d e ta ils, fo r in s ta n c e ,
th a t c o n n e c t th e m w ith e s o te ric m a n d a la s , 49 a n d h a v e ta s s e ls w ith a d d e d
b e a d s — a s w e ll a s o th e r a s s o c ia te d d e itie s — th a t a re m is s in g in th e K o re a n
c h a p le ts.
S u c h d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n v a ria n ts fro m d iffe re n t s o c ie tie s a re n o t su r
p ris in g , a n d a re a re m in d e r th a t, a s L a u re l K e n d a ll h a s sa id , “ th e s a c re d life
o f m a te ria l g o o d s (o r th e m a te ria l life o f s a c re d g o o d s ) [is] a d y n a m ic , flu id ,
a n d in trin s ic a lly so c ia l p h e n o m e n o n in m u c h th e sa m e w a y th a t a n th ro
p o lo g is ts fro m M a rc e l M a u s s to A rd ju n A p p a d u ra i 50 h a v e u n d e rs to o d th e
m a te ria l o b je c ts o f e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n liv in g p e o p le a n d b e tw e e n p e o p le a n d
g o d s . ” 51 It is th e re fo re to b e e x p e c te d th a t ro s a rie s fro m J a p a n a n d K o re a
sh o w a d e g re e o f v a ria tio n . T h e p u rp o s e o f th is a rtic le is, h o w e v e r, to in te r
p re t th e m e s s a g e s a n d u s e s o f th e P o n g u n s a ro s a ry in th e K o re a n h is to ric a l
a n d so c ia l c o n te x t, ra th e r th a n tra c e th e o rig in a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u c h
ro s a ry a rra n g e m e n ts th ro u g h a c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y o f K o re a n a n d J a p a n e s e
v e rs io n s . 52
45 M ro s s 2 0 1 7 ,p . 1 1 7 .
4 6 D o lc e 2 0 0 2 .
4 7 R o s e n fie ld a n d C ra n s to n 2 0 0 3 , p p . 2 3 4 -3 6 . A n im a g e is a ls o a v a ila b le o n lin e : h ttp ://id s

. lib .h a rv a rd .e d u /id s/v ie w /2 4 6 2 4 7 4 3 ? b u tto n s = y, a c c e s se d N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 2 0 1 9 . I th a n k L u c ia
D o lc e fo r a le rtin g m e to th is, a n d fo r p ro v id in g fe e d b a c k o n a d ra ft o f th is a rtic le .
48 F o r e x a m p le , h ttp ://a u c v ie w .a u c fa n .c o m /y a h o o /q 9 6 3 4 4 0 1 3 /, a c c e s s e d N o v e m b e r 2 5 ,
2019.
4 9 R a m b e lli 2 0 0 6 , p . 6 0 .
50 A p p a d u ra i 1 9 8 6 .
51 K e n d a ll 2 0 0 8 , p . 1 0 8 .
52 A c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y w o u ld a ls o re q u ire a th o ro u g h s u rv e y to e s ta b lis h if th e re a re v a ri
a n ts in C h in a ( o f w h ic h to d a te I h a v e n o t b e e n a b le to fin d a n y tra c e ). K ie sc h n ic k (2 0 0 3 )
d o e s n o t m e n tio n a n y , n o r w e re e x a m p le s k n o w n to s o m e s c h o la rs w ith a life lo n g a c q u a in
ta n c e w ith C h in e se B u d d h is m w h o m I a s k e d .
R E A D IN G T H E P O N G U N S A P R IN T
T h e to p o f th e p rin t, w ith S a k y a m u n i in th e m id d le , A m ita b h a o n th e rig h t,

a n d M a itre y a o n th e le ft, fla n k e d le ft a n d rig h t b y b o d h is a ttv a s , vajra b o d
h is a ttv a s , a n d vajra g u a rd ia n s o f B u d d h is m c a n b e re a d in th e sa m e w a y a s
a d e v o tio n a l p a in tin g o f b u d d h a s a n d b o d h is a ttv a s s u rro u n d e d b y a h o s t o f
m in o r fig u re s s u c h a s o n e o fte n se e s in te m p le s (p la te 4 ). T h is is o n e m a n
n e r in w h ic h th e p rin t m a y h a v e fu n c tio n e d . T h e in c lu s io n o f M a itre y a ,
h o w e v e r, m a k e s th is a n u n u s u a l c o m b in a tio n . T h e re d o e x is t re p re s e n ta
tio n s o f th re e b u d d h a s w o rs h ip e d to g e th e r in p a in tin g s o r s c u lp tu re s , ra th e r
th a n th e m o re c o m m o n tria d s o f o n e b u d d h a w ith tw o b o d h is a ttv a s , b u t in
th is c a se th e b u d d h a s a re u s u a lly S a k y a m u n i, A m ita b h a , a n d B h a is a jy a g u ru .
T h is is, fo r in s ta n c e , th e a rra n g e m e n t in th e m a in h a ll o f T o n g h w a s a H 'lA
in D a e g u A ^ 53 o r C h o g y e s a in S e o u l. T h e u n u s u a l c o m b in a tio n
o f th e B u d d h a s S a k y a m u n i, A m ita b h a , a n d M a itre y a 54 is o n e in d ic a tio n th a t
p e rh a p s th e a rra n g e m e n t in th e ro s a ry s h o u ld b e re a d in a d iffe re n t w a y , o r
in m o re th a n o n e w a y . W h ile th e to p o f th e ro s a ry c a n b e s e e n a s a la rg e ly
s y m m e tric a l d e p ic tio n s u c h a s o n e fin d s in d e v o tio n a l p a in tin g s , th e re is
n o s u c h s y m m e try in th e lo w e r p a rt. W h e n th is is ta k e n in to a c c o u n t a n d
th e m e a n in g o f th e o th e r b e a d s c o n s id e re d , it m a k e s m o re se n se to re a d th e
ro s a ry c lo c k w is e in its to ta lity , a s a p a th w a y le a d in g to w a rd s a p a rtic u la r
g o a l. T h e s w itc h fro m o n e re a d in g to a n o th e r is a lso m a rk e d g ra p h ic a lly .
W h ile th e c h a ra c te rs id e n tify in g th e b e a d s in th e s y m m e tric a l to p p a rt
s h o u ld b e re a d in w a rd to w a rd th e ro sa ry , th e c h a ra c te rs a s s ig n e d to th e
o th e r b e a d s a re to b e re a d s ta rtin g fro m th e c h a ra c te r a t th e rim o f th e ro s a ry
o u tw a rd to w a rd th e e d g e s o f th e p rin t.
A n o b v io u s q u e s tio n , h o w e v e r, is h o w th e p re s e n c e o f th e tw e n ty -e ig h t
lu n a r lo d g in g s o r ra th e r th e s te lla r d e itie s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s e m a n s io n s ,
w h ic h ta k e u p a m a jo r p a rt o f th e rig h t sid e o f th e ro sa ry , m ig h t fit in th e
d is c o u rs e p re s e n te d b y th e p rin t. In J a p a n e s e m a n d a la s , th e tw e n ty -e ig h t
lu n a r lo d g in g s a re s o m e tim e s a s s o c ia te d w ith p a rtic u la r e s o te ric s c h e m e s , 55
53 K u n g n ip T a e g u P a n g m u lg w a n 2 0 0 9 .
54 T h e re is a n in s ta n c e in w h ic h S a k y a m u n i, A m ita b h a , a n d M a itre y a a re d e p ic te d to g e th e r,
b u t in c o m b in a tio n w ith a fo u rth B u d d h a , B h a is a jy a g u ru . T h e m o n o g ra p h ic s c h e m e o f th a t
p a in tin g , th e “ A s s e m b ly o f th e F o u r B u d d h a s ” (S a b u lh o e d a tin g b a c k to 1 5 6 2 a n d
m a d e fo r S a n g w o n sa E ^ A , is , h o w e v e r, s o d iffe re n t th a t it c a n n o t h a v e b e e n th e m o d e l fo r
th e a rra n g e m e n t o f th e ro s a ry (K im S e u n g h e e 2 0 0 9 , p p . 1 3 6 -3 7 ). F o r th e o rig in s o f a K o re a n
tra d itio n o f w o rsh ip in g th e se fo u r B u d d h a s to g e th e r, w h ic h a p p e a rs to h a v e n o c a n o n ic a l
b a s is , s e e K im S o y e o n 2 0 1 9 .
55 T su d a 2 0 0 6 ,p p . 1 5 2 -5 3 , 1 5 6 -5 7 .
a n d o n e m ig h t s u rm is e th a t th e y a re lis te d h e re a s o b je c ts o f w o rs h ip . 56
A d iffe re n t, a n d in a se n se m o re m u n d a n e , e x p la n a tio n m a y b e m o re a p t,
th o u g h . K n o w le d g e re g a rd in g th e lo d g in g s p la y e d a n im p o rta n t ro le in
fo rm s o f d iv in a tio n u s e d to d e te rm in e a u s p ic io u s a n d in a u s p ic io u s d a y s fo r
a ll k in d s o f h u m a n a c tiv ity . A s su c h , in d ic a tio n s o f th e lu n a r lo d g in g s w e re
a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f a lm a n a c s , w h ic h in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry c o n s titu te d
th e m o s t w id e ly d is trib u te d fo rm o f p rin te d m a tte r in K o re a (p la te 5 ). 57 T h e
a lm a n a c s re g is te re d th e p la c e in th e sk y w h e re th e m o o n re s te d d u rin g its
p a s s a g e th ro u g h th e lu n a r m o n th , b u t th e d iffe re n t lo d g in g s w e re a lso a s s o
c ia te d w ith d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e y e a r, a n d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th is , th e o rd e r
o f th e lo d g in g s in th e p rin t p ro g re s s e s n e a tly fro m sp rin g , to s u m m e r a n d
a u tu m n , c o n c lu d in g w ith w in te r, th u s m a p p in g o u t th e p ro g re s s o f th e y e a r.
It m a k e s se n se , th e re fo re , to in te rp re t th e e n u m e ra tio n o f th e lo d g in g s ,
w h ic h w o u ld b e re p e a te d in th e a lm a n a c s m o n th a fte r m o n th a n d y e a r a fte r
y e a r, a s a re p re s e n ta tio n o f th e q u o tid ia n flo w , m a rk e d b y m o n th s a n d s e a
so n s, o f e a rth ly life a s it w a s liv e d b y e v e ry m a n . T h e n a rra tiv e th a t th e n
u n fo ld s in th e n o n -s y m m e tric p a rt o f th e p rin t is o n e o f life o n e a rth , e n d
in g in d e a th , fo llo w e d b y th e p u rg a to ry o f a s u c c e s s io n o f g ru e s o m e h e lls ,
in th e m id d le o f w h ic h K s itig a rb h a a n d h is tw o h e lp e rs h o ld o u t a p ro m is e
o f d e liv e ry fro m a ll to rm e n ts . T h is is th e n fo llo w e d b y a re fe re n c e to C h iju
C h e ja , s u g g e s tin g th e p o s s ib ility o f s a lv a tio n if o n e is re in c a rn a te d a s a h u n
g ry g h o s t a n d , a t th e e n d , th e re is a n a s c e n d in g ra n g e o f h e a v e n ly a b o d e s
o f a n in c re a sin g ly s p iritu a l n a tu re th a t c a n b e re a c h e d th ro u g h m e d ita tio n .
T h e fin a l s ta tio n is M a itre y a w ith h is p ro m is e o f a fu tu re p a ra d is e o n e a rth .
T h is n a rra tiv e is fra m e d o n b o th sid e s b y th e s y m m e tric e n u m e ra tio n , th re e
o n th e rig h t a n d th re e o n th e le ft, o f th e six paramitas, s u g g e s tin g th e n e e d
fo r s p iritu a l p ra c tic e . In o th e r w o rd s , th e p rin t p re s e n ts a c o m p le te m a p o f
th e ro u te fo r life a n d th e a fte rlife . T h is m a p a lso o u tlin e s a jo u rn e y th a t in a
se n se e n d s w h e re it b e g a n , s o m e th in g th a t w ill b e fu rth e r d is c u s s e d b e lo w .
A lth o u g h th e te x t o f th e s u tra q u o te d in s id e th e c h a p le t s u g g e s ts a m u c h
w id e r u s e , m e n tio n in g th e n a m e o f A m ita b h a o f c o u rs e p rim a rily re c a lls th e
p ra c tic e o f yombul ^ W , th e m in d fu l in v o c a tio n o f h is n a m e fo r th e p u rp o s e
o f re b irth in th e W e ste rn P a ra d ise . In fa c t, A m ita b h a is a to w e rin g fig u re
in la te C h o s o n B u d d h is m , w ith its c o n c e n tra tio n o n th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a
re b irth a fte r d e a th in h is P u re L a n d , w h ic h e ffe c tiv e ly w o u ld sto p th e in te r
m in a b le c y c le o f re in c a rn a tio n in th e w o rld o f o rd in a ry m a n k in d , o r e v e n
56 A ls o s e e K o ty k 2 0 1 7 .
57Y i Y unsok 2016, ch. 9.
a s lo w e r fo rm s, th a n k s to th e b e n e fic ia l e ffe c t o f A m ita b h a ’ s p re a c h in g o n

th o s e w h o m a n a g e to m a k e it to h is P u re L a n d . 58 A s h a s o fte n b e e n p o in te d
o u t, th e p io u s w is h fo r h a p p in e s s in th e a fte rlife fo r d e c e a s e d p a re n ts v e ry
w e ll a g re e d w ith th e filia l p ie ty re q u ire d b y th e d o m in a n t d is c o u rs e o f C o n
fu c ia n is m . B u t a s th e d e v o tio n a l w is h (parwori) a t th e b o tto m o f th e p rin t
m a k e s c le a r, c o n c e rn fo r th e d e c e a s e d a lso e x te n d e d to c o n s a n g u in e a l k in ,
a n d e q u a lly to p e rs o n s w h o w e re ju n io r to th e d e v o te e , in d ire c tly p o in tin g to
la c u n a e in C o n fu c ia n p ra c tic e s fo r th e d e a d .
A m o n g th e fig u re s su rro u n d in g th e b u d d h a s in s y m m e tric al fa s h io n a t
th e to p o f th e ro s a ry th e re a re fo u r vajra b o d h is a ttv a s (K u m g a n g K w o n
P o sa l S k t. V a jra sa m ad h i; K u m g a n g S a k P o sa l S k t.
V a jra p a sa ; K u m g a n g A e P o s a l S k t. V a jra ra g a ; a n d K u m g a n g
O P osal S k t. V a jra b h a sa ), to g e th e r w ith e ig h t vajra g u a rd
ia n s (C h ’ o n g je ja e K u m g a n g P y o k to k K u m g a n g W W ^ IW l,
H w angsugu K um gang P aekchongsu K um gang
C hoksonghw a K um gang C h o n g je ja e K u m g a n g
C h a h y o n s h in K u m g a n g a n d T a e sh illy o k K u m g a n g
It w o u ld b e e a sy to e x p la in th e ir a p p e a ran c e h e re m e re ly a s m e m b e rs o f th e
h o s t o f se c o n d a ry d iv in e fig u re s o fte n se e n in B u d d h is t p a in tin g s , th e shin-
jung w ith o u t a s s ig n in g a p a rtic u la r m e a n in g to th e m . In la te C h o so n
p a in tin g s, th e fo u r b o d h is a ttv a s a n d e ig h t p ro te c to rs w e re a lso d e p ic te d
to g e th e r, th e fo rm e r a s ty p ic a l, d ig n ifie d b o d h isa ttv a s, a n d th e p ro te c to rs a s
b ra w n y , fe a rso m e b ru te s w ith p ro tru d in g e y e s, a ll b ra n d is h in g so m e k in d o f
w e a p o n . 59 B u t th is c o m b in a tio n o f fo u r vajra b o d h is a ttv a s a n d e ig h t vajra
g u a rd ia n s p o in ts to a p a rtic u la r c o n n e ctio n w ith th e Jingang bore boluomi
jing (S k t. Vajracchedika prajnaparamita sutra ; h e re a fte r,
Diamond Sutra ). 60 T h e se tw e lv e fig u re s a re re g a rd e d a s p ro te c to rs o f th e
b e lie v e rs w h o “ h o ld o n ” to th e su tra , a n d a s su c h a re in v o k e d a t th e b e g in n in g
o f K o re a n e d itio n s o f th is sc rip tu re , b o th in th e p a s t a n d a t p re se n t. W h e n
c o n sid e rin g th e ir m e a n in g in th e c o n te x t o f th is p rin t, it s h o u ld a lso b e n o te d
th a t in K o re a , a g a in in th e p a s t a s w e ll a s a t p re se n t, th e Diamond Sutra h a s a
stro n g c o n n e ctio n w ith a c o n c e rn fo r th e d e a d . In 1 4 5 7 , in th e e a rly C h o so n
p e rio d , fo r e x a m p le , th e k in g p e rs o n a lly c o p ie d th e te x t o f th e su tra to se rv e
a s th e b a s is fo r a p rin tin g o f th e te x t fo r th e h a p p in e s s in th e h e re a fte r o f th e
58 K im Y o n g ta e 2 0 1 5 , W a lra v e n 2 0 1 5 .
59 H u n g s o n e ta l.2 0 0 3 ,p p . 1 7 5 -8 1 .
60 H u n g s o n e t a l. 2 0 0 3 , p . 1 7 4 .
d e c e a s e d c ro w n p rin c e . 61 M u c h la te r, in 1 8 8 3 , th e su tra w a s re p rin te d a t th e

e x p e n se o f th e la y b e lie v e r S o w o l fo r th e so u ls o f h is d e c e a s e d p a re n ts . 62
N o w a d a y s th e te x t o f th e su tra a rra n g e d in th e sh a p e o f a p a g o d a is u s e d in
ritu a ls im m e d ia te ly a fte r d e a th a n d w h e n c o m m e m o ra tin g th e d e a d , b y b o th
m o n k s a n d sh a m a n s (p la te 6 ).
P rin te d c o p ie s o f th is p a g o d a a re e a s ily a v a ila b le to d a y in th e B u d d h is t
sh o p s in fro n t o f C h o g y e s a in S e o u l, b u t — m o re re le v a n t in th is c o n te x t —
in C o u ra n t's Bibliographie coreenne, a n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry v e rs io n is m e n
tio n e d th a t w a s p rin te d in 1 8 7 1 . 63 T h e in d ire c t c o n n e c tio n , th ro u g h th e fo u r
b o d h is a ttv a s a n d e ig h t p ro te c to rs , w ith th e Diamond Sutra a s a s u tra fo r th e
d e a d o f c o u rs e fits th e p u rp o s e fo r w h ic h th e ro s a ry p rin t w a s m a d e a c c o rd
in g to its c o lo p h o n .
T h e c o n n e ctio n o f th e Diamond Sutra w ith d e a th is c o n firm e d b y a n o th e r
a d d itio n to th e in tro d u c to ry p a rt o f K o re a n e d itio n s o f th e su tra th a t e x p re sse s
a w is h fo r w h a t h o ld in g o n to th e su tra m ig h t e ffe c t: th a t th e b e lie v e rs m a y
re q u ite th e F o u r G ra c es (w h ic h is ty p ic a l o f C h o s o n B u d d h is m ’ s re s p e c t o f
th e se c u la r C o n fu cia n o rd e r) a n d o v e rc o m e th e h a rd s h ip s o f th e th re e e v il
re in c a rn a tio n s (in h e ll, a s h u n g ry g h o sts, o r a s a n a n im a l). It is a lso h o p e d
th a t if p e o p le re a d o r h e a r th e su tra , th e y w ill d e v e lo p th e a sp ira tio n fo r
e n lig h te n m e n t (pori sim S k t. hodhicilln). a n d w ill b e re b o rn to g e th e r
in th e L a n d o f S u p re m e B liss (K u n g n a k k u k lY T /H I ). 64
O n e m ig h t ra is e th e q u e s tio n w h e th e r, b e y o n d th e c o n v e n tio n a l a sso c iatio n
w ith d e a th th a t is a b u n d a n tly p re se n t in th e p a rts o f th e ro sa ry th a t o u tlin e
th e s u c c es s io n o f h e lls (b e a d s 4 8 -7 1 , in c lu d in g th e b e a d s fo r C h ija n g a n d
h is th re e h e lp e rs ), a n d a p a rt fro m th e p re se n ce o f th e vajra b o d h is a ttv a s a n d
vajra g u a rd ia n s, a m o re te x tu a l c o n n e c tio n w ith th e Diamond Sutra c a n b e
d e te c te d in th e o th e r p a rts o f th e ro sa ry . A t first th is m a y se e m u n lik e ly in
v ie w o f th e b a fflin g via negativa th ro u g h w h ic h th e e m p tin e ss o f a ll c o n d i
tio n e d p h e n o m e n a is a s s e rte d in th e su tra . Y e t, th e p ro g re s s io n th ro u g h th e
h e a v e n s o f e v e r in c re a s in g a b s tru s e n e s s e n d s w ith a d o u b le n e g a tio n th a t is
re m in is c e n t o f th e lo g ic o f th e Diamond Sutra', th e sta te o f n e ith e r th in k in g
61 Y i N u n g h w a 1 9 1 8 (2 0 1 0 ), p p . 1 3 8 -3 9 . T h e c o n n e c tio n c o n tin u e s . T h u s a fte r th e d e a th

o f e x -p re s id e n t R o h M o o -h y u n , m o n k s re c ite d th e Diamond Sutra fo r h is h a p p in e ss in
th e a fte rlife ; see h ttp ://n e w s .c h o su n .c o m /s ite /d a ta /h tm l_ d ir/2 0 0 9 /0 5 /2 6 /2 0 0 9 0 5 2 6 0 1 0 3 5
.h tm l? rs M o b ile = fa lse , a c c e ss e d J a n u a ry 2 8 , 2 0 1 8 .
6 2 C o u ra n t 1 9 9 7 , n o . 2 6 2 9 .
63 C o u ra n t 1 9 9 7 , n o . 2 6 3 0 -2 .
6 4 C h o s o n e d itio n s o f th e Diamond Sutra w ith s u c h a d d itio n s in te n d e d fo r ritu a l u s e c a n , fo r
in s ta n c e , b e fo u n d in th e K y u ja n g g a k //Y I// c o lle c tio n a t gyujung F T 3 8 1 a n d 3 8 2 .
n o r n o t-th in k in g (pisangbibisangch ’o T h e c irc u la r p ro g re s

sio n o f th e b e a d s , e n d in g a t th e sa m e p o in t w h e re th e c o u n tin g sta rte d , is a lso
in a g re e m e n t w ith th e c o n te n t o f th e su tra . T h e h ig h e s t sta te , p e rfe c t e n lig h t
e n m e n t, is n o t a re m o te d e stin a tio n , b u t p o te n tia lly a lre a d y p re s e n t fro m th e
o u tse t. T h e p ra c titio n e r o n ly n e e d s to re a liz e th is.
In th e la te s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry , a n o v e l w a s w ritte n in C h o s o n th a t o u t
lin e d th e p ro c e s s o f re a c h in g th is re a liz a tio n th a t is im p lic it in th e Diamond
Sutra.65 T h is is Kuunmong 'L .'p T (A N in e C lo u d D re a m ) b y K im M a n ju n g
A M A (1 6 3 7 -1 6 9 2 ), th e m o s t p o p u la r n o v e l o f th e e n tire p e rio d a m o n g
w o m e n , w h o lo v e d p a in te d o r e m b ro id e re d sc re e n s d e p ic tin g sc e n e s fro m th e
n o v e l. It w a s still p o p u la r in th e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h e sto ry is a b o u t
a p ro m is in g y o u n g m o n k w h o , w h e n se n t o n a n e rra n d o n a b e a u tifu l sp rin g
d a y , m e e ts e ig h t fa irie s to w h o m h e is stro n g ly a ttra c te d a n d w ith w h o m
h e e x c h an g e s so m e p le a sa n trie s. B a c k in h is m o n a s te ry h is m a ste r, w h o
h o ld s th e Diamond Sutra in th e h ig h e s t re g a rd , k n o w s w h a t h a p p e n e d a n d
a n n o u n ce s th a t th e y o u n g m a n w ill d ie a n d b e re in c a rn a te d a s p u n ish m e n t.
H e is re b o rn a s a ta le n te d y o u n g m a n w h o d u rin g h is life m e e ts th e e q u a lly
re in c a rn a te d fa irie s, m a rry in g th e m a ll, a n d a c h ie v e s fa m e a n d h ig h o H ic e . A t
th e e n d o f h is life , w h ile h e e n jo y s th e a u tu m n w ith h is w iv e s, h e su d d e n ly
re a liz e s th e e m p tin e ss o f it a ll, a n d is in s ta n ta n e o u sly tra n s p o rte d to th e m o n
a ste ry a g a in . “ H e lo o k e d d o w n a t h im s e lf a n d sa w a ro s a ry o f a h u n d re d a n d
e ig h t b e a d s a ro u n d h is w rist. H e fe lt h is h e a d ; it w a s fre sh ly sh a v e n . ” 66 T h e n
th e M a s te r p re a c h e s th e Diamond Sutra a n d re c ite s a fa m o u s v e rs e fro m th e
c o n c lu d in g p a s s a g e o f th e su tra :
A ll is d h a rm a , illu s io n
A d re a m , a p h a n ta s m , b u b b le , sh a d o w ,
E v a n e s c e n t a s d e w , tra n s ie n t a s lig h tn in g ;
A n d m u s t b e s e e n a s s u c h . 67
65 C h o n g 1 9 7 6 , p p . 2 3 1 -4 5 , 3 4 2 -4 7 ; B a n tly 1 9 9 6 .
66 R u tt a n d K im 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 7 5 ; K im M a n ju n g 1 9 7 3 , p p . 4 1 6 -1 7 .
6 7 R u tt a n d K im 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 7 6 ; K im M a n ju n g 1 9 7 3 , p p . 4 2 1 -2 3 . T h e firs t th re e lin e s a re
in te rp re te d a s re fe rrin g to “ a ll c o n d itio n e d p h e n o m e n a . ” P a u l H a rriso n re n d e rs th e v e rs e a s:
A s h o o tin g s ta r, a c lo u d in g o f th e s ig h t, a la m p ,
A n illu s io n , a d ro p o f d e w , a b u b b le ,
A d re a m , a lig h tn in g ’ s fla sh , a th u n d e r c lo u d —
T h is is th e w a y o n e s h o u ld s e e th e c o n d itio n e d .
S e e U n iv e rsity o f O s lo , F a c u lty o f H u m a n itie s , B ib lio te c a P o ly g lo tta , a t h ttp s://w w w 2

.h f.u io .n o /p o ly g lo tta /in d e x .p h p ? p a g e = re c o rd & v id = 2 2 & m id = 1 1 5 2 6 9 , a c c e s se d N o v em b er
25, 2019.
T h e p ro ta g o n is t o f th e sto ry a n d th e e ig h t fa irie s , w h o h a v e tu rn e d in to
n u n s , th e n a t th e sa m e tim e a c h ie v e e n lig h te n m e n t, th e tru e fru itio n that
neither arises nor perishes. T h e y o u n g m o n k h a s c o m e fu ll c irc le , a rriv in g
e v e n tu a lly , a fte r a lo n g a n d e x h ila ra tin g jo u m e y , a t th e p la c e fro m w h ic h h e
h a d d e p a rte d , b u t is n o w fu lly a w a re o f h is b u d d h a -n a tu re . 68
T h u s, it is p o s s ib le to re g a rd th e ro s a ry a n d th e Kuunmong b o th a s p o p u
la riz a tio n s o f th e Diamond Sutra, w h ic h in K o re a is n o t o n ly a n e x tre m e ly
im p o rta n t p h ilo s o p h ic a l te x t fo r S o n B u d d h is m , 69 b u t a lso a p ro m in e n t p a rt
o f p o p u la r B u d d h ism . W h e re a s Kuunmong p re s e n ts th e te a c h in g o f th e su tra
in a b e g u ilin g ly a ttra c tiv e , e a sily u n d e rs to o d fo rm , 70 th e ro s a ry w ith its p ro
g re s s io n fro m kamadhatu to rupadhatu a n d arupadhatu e n c a p su la te s b o th
th e s o p h is tic a tio n o f th e s u tra ’ s te a c h in g a n d th e p o p u la r c o n n e c tio n w ith
its u se in d e a th ritu a ls. T h e c o n n e c tio n s im p lic it in th e ro s a ry p rin t w ith th e
Diamond Sutra a n d Kuunmong a d d p o te n tia l la y e rs o f m e a n in g to it th a t a re
re le v a n t fo r its sig n ific a n c e in p ra c tic e a n d w ill b e fu rth e r d is c u s s e d b e lo w .
T h e a p p e a ra n c e o f M a itre y a w ith th e la s t b e a d m a y b e u n e x p e c te d ,
b e c a u s e th e p re c e d in g b e a d s d o n o t p re p a re fo r th is, b u t it is in a w a y e a sy
to u n d e rs ta n d a s M a itre y a re p re s e n ts w h a t is c o m in g in th e fu tu re to o u r
w o rld , e s ta b lis h in g a n a lte rn a tiv e h e a v e n o n e a rth . B e c a u s e o f th is , th e
C h o s o n p e rio d sa w so m e re b e llio u s m ille n a ria n m o v e m e n ts th a t c la im e d
th e a g e o f M a itre y a h a d c o m e . M a itre y a w a s a lso m a te ria lly p re s e n t in th e
K o re a n la n d s c a p e , w h e re h is n a m e w a s a tta c h e d to h u g e B u d d h a im a g e s
th a t w e re th e o b je c t o f p o p u la r d e v o tio n . 71 D e v o tio n to M a itre y a w a s o fte n
a im e d a t o b ta in in g th is -w o rld ly b e n e fits , a n d m ig h t m e rg e w ith s h a m a n ic
p ra c tic e s . 72 T h e in c lu s io n o f M a itre y a m a y b e re g a rd e d a s c a te rin g to th e
im m e d ia te w o rld ly n e e d s a n d d e s ire s o f th e b e lie v e rs . It a lso b rin g s th e
re a d e r o f th e g lo s s e s to th e b e a d s b a c k to th e w o rld w e liv e in , th e w o rld
w h e re M a itre y a is d u e to a p p e a r, in o th e r w o rd s , to th e p o in t o f d e p a rtu re .
W h ile it is p o s s ib le to re a d th e p rin t in v a rio u s w a y s, a c ru c ia l q u e s tio n
th a t re m a in s is to w h a t e x te n t p e o p le a c tu a lly p e rc e iv e d th e v a rio u s m e a n in g s
68 C h o n g 1 9 7 6 , p . 2 4 2 .
6 9 M u lle r 2 0 0 6 ,p . 4 4 .
70 S e e B a n tly 1 9 9 6 , p . 1 6 2 : “ T h e th re e fo ld s tru c tu re o f Kuunmong d e ta ils a p ro g re ss io n o f
s p iritu a l u n d e rsta n d in g th a t is p a ra lle l to th e Diamond Sutra's n e g a tio n a n d fin a l a ffirm a tio n
o f fo rm . ”
71 S u c h im a g e s w e re n o t n e c e s s a rily c re a te d to re p re se n t M a itre y a fro m th e o u ts e t. A n

e x a m p le is th e im a g e o f K w a n c h ’ o k -s a in U n jin ® '^ , w h ic h p ro b a b ly w a s in te n d e d
a s a re p re se n ta tio n o f A v a lo k ite sv a ra .
7 2 K im Y o n g t ’ a e 2 0 1 4 ,p . 1 2 9 .
su g g e ste d a b o v e . T h e b a s ic m e a n in g , th a t o f a ro u te m a p fo r life a n d d e a th , is
q u ite e v id e n t a n d w ill h a v e b e e n c le a r to m o s t w h o sa w th e p rin t o r re c e iv e d
a sim p le e x p la n a tio n o f th e m e a n in g s o f th e b e a d s; b u t to w h a t e x te n t w o u ld
th e o th e r a sp e c ts o f th e p rin t h a v e b e e n d e te c te d ? O n e m ig h t c o n je c tu re th a t
b e c a u s e o f th e la n g u a g e in w h ic h th e m e s s a g e s w e re c o u c h e d , th e p rin t c o u ld
n o t b e re a d b y th e m a jo rity o f p e o p le . H o w e v e r, th e n u m b e r o f th o s e w h o
h a d so m e k n o w le d g e o f hanmun s h o u ld n o t b e u n d e re stim ate d . L ite ra c y in
C h o s o n is n o to rio u s ly d iffic u lt to m e a s u re , b u t a c c o rd in g to th e Veritable
Records (Choson wangjo shillok C h o n g jo E M 2 4 [1 8 0 0 ],
th ird m o n th , tw e n ty -firs t d a y ), th e re w e re n o fe w e r th a n 1 1 8 ,8 3 8 a p p lic a n ts
fo r th e lite ra ry e x a m in a tio n s (w h ic h o f c o u rs e re q u ire d m a s te ry o f hanmun ),
o f w h o m 3 8 ,6 1 4 a c tu a lly h a n d e d in e x a m in a tio n e s s a y s . 73 T h is s u g g e sts
th a t th e re w e re q u ite a fe w p e o p le a ro u n d w h o m ig h t u n d e rs ta n d th e te x t o f
th e p rin t o r c o u ld a t le a s t g ra s p its b a s ic m e a n in g , a n d th e y in tu rn w o u ld b e
a b le to e x p la in w h a t w a s w ritte n to th o s e w h o c o u ld n o t re a d a t a ll.
P O T E N T IA L F U N C T IO N S O F T H E R O S A R Y P R IN T
O n e so u rc e o f th e p e rfo rm a tiv ity o f th e ro s a ry p rin t is o f c o u rse th e w a y th e

ro s a ry its e lf fu n c tio n s: in th e first in sta n c e , to c o u n t e x p re ssio n s o f d e v o tio n ,
b u t, m o re im p o rta n tly , a lso a s a n o b je c t w ith sa c re d a n d sy m b o lic p o w e r. O n
th e o n e h a n d , ro s a rie s a re s y m b o ls o f s p iritu a l a u th o rity a n d c le ric a l id e n
tity , a s in th e p o rtra its o f im p o rta n t m a s te rs , w h o a re n e a rly a lw a y s d e p ic te d
5 Kuunmong w e h a v e s e e n th a t th e ro s a ry w a s firs t m e n
h o ld in g o n e . 74 7 In
tio n e d a m o n g th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f a m o n k w h e n th e p ro ta g o n is t re tu rn e d
to h is o rig in a l, m o re s p iritu a l id e n tity . O n th e o th e r h a n d , a s a n a c c e s s o ry
th a t w a s e s s e n tia l fo r th e e x tre m e ly w id e ly p ra c tic e d p o p u la r d e v o tio n o f
th e m in d fu l in v o c a tio n o f A m ita b h a , yombul, 15 th e ro s a ry w a s p a rt o f th e
d a ily life o f la y b e lie v e rs . 76 T h u s, a t th e sa m e tim e it w a s a sig n a n d sy m b o l
o f th e ir fa ith a n d o f th e ir a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e p ro fe ss io n a l h a n d le rs o f th e
ro sa ry , th e c le rg y . It w a s th e o n ly a ttrib u te th e y sh a re d w ith th e m o n k s , w h o
w e re e x c lu s iv e ly e n title d to th e o th e r m a te ria l sig n s o f th e ir id e n tity , th e
m o n k ’ s s ta ff a n d th e c le ric a l ro b e s. In th is w a y th e ro s a ry m e d ia te s th e sp a c e
b e tw e e n p ro fe s s io n a l p ra c titio n e rs a n d o rd in a ry b e lie v e rs . F o r b o th , c a rry
73 Y i Y u n s o k 2 0 1 6 , p p . 3 5 -3 6 .
7 4 H u n g s o n e t a l . 2 0 0 3 , p p . 2 5 7 -3 1 3 .
75 K im Y o n g t ’ a e 2 0 1 5 .
76 Its p o p u la rity is a lso re fle c te d in th e w id e u s e o f th e ro s a ry b y s h a m a n s a n d th e ir c lie n ts
(W a lra v e n 2 0 1 0 ).
in g a ro s a ry w a s a m e a n s to id e n tify th e ir s ta tu s a s B u d d h is t p ra c titio n e rs .
A d d itio n a lly , e v e n th e m e re a c t o f p io u s ly c a rry in g o n e w a s s u p p o s e d to
c o n trib u te to th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f sa lv a tio n . In p o p u la r p ra c tic e th e ro s a ry
w a s a n d is a lso c a rrie d a s a n a m u le t (p la te 7 ) th a t p ro te c ts a n d b rin g s th e
fu lfilm e n t o f w is h e s . B y e x p la in in g a n d e x a ltin g th e u s e s o f th e ro sa ry , th e
p rin t a lso s e rv e d th e s e fu n c tio n s.
T h e w a y s to m e n ta lly c o n s e c ra te th e ro s a ry a n d m a k e it m o re m e a n in g
fu l th a n a c o u n tin g to o l a re m a n ifo ld . B y th e ir v e ry n u m b e r, th e 1 0 8 b e a d s
o f th e m o s t c o m m o n ro s a rie s a re o f c o u rse a re m in d e r o f th e 1 0 8 p a s s io n s o r
d e file m en ts th a t sta n d in th e w a y o f e n lig h te n m e n t, th e fo re m o s t in s ta n c e o f
c h a rg in g th e b e a d s w ith m e a n in g . B u t th e re a re n u m e ro u s e ffo rts to fu rth e r
c h a rg e th e b e a d s, a n d a lso th e th re a d th a tjo in s th e m , w ith a p a rtic u la r sig n ifi
c a n c e , so m e o f w h ic h h a v e b e e n d e s c rib e d in th e lite ra tu re a b o u t ro s a rie s in
C h in a a n d J a p a n . 77 In Ja p a n , in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e sig n ific a n c e o f th e b e a d s
fre q u e n tly lin k th e ro s a rie s to e so te ric m a n d a la s. T h e K o re a n v a ria n t o f th e
a tte m p t to c h a rg e th e ro s a ry w ith m e a n in g in th e p rin t th a t is th e fo c u s h e re
d o e s n o t h a v e c o n n e c tio n s w ith e so te ric m a n d a la s , b u t m a y v e ry w e ll b e c o n
sid e re d a m a n d a la a c c o rd in g to th e d e fin itio n g iv e n b y E lis a b e th T e n G ro te n -
h u is: “ T h e m a n d a la , a k in d o f c o s m ic g ro u n d p la n o r m a p , la y s o u t a s a c re d
te rrito ry o r re a lm in m ic ro c o s m , s h o w in g th e re la tio n s a m o n g th e v a rio u s
p o w e rs a c tiv e in th a t re a lm a n d o ffe rin g d e v o te e s a s a c re d p re c in c t w h e re
e n lig h te n m e n t ta k e s p la c e . ” 78 T h e g o a l o f e n lig h te n m e n t is c le a rly p re s e n t
b o th in th e te x t fro m th e s u tra s in th e m id d le , a s w e ll a s in th e s u c c e s s io n
o f h e a v e n s a t th e e n d o f th e c irc le ; it s h o u ld b e n o te d , th o u g h , th a t s h o rt o f
e n lig h te n m e n t, th e p rin t a lso e m p h a s iz e s th e p o s s ib ility o f d e liv e ra n c e fro m
th e p u rg a to ria l to rtu re c h a m b e rs a n d re b irth in th e P u re L a n d .
M a n y e le m e n ts o f th e p rin t a re a lso p re s e n t in th e Kamno t'aeng
th e S w e e t-D e w p a in tin g s , w h ic h fro m th e m id -s ix te e n th c e n tu ry
fo rm a c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re o f C h o s o n B u d d h ism . In th e Kamno t'aeng, o n e
se e s d e p ic tio n s o f d a ily life in th is w o rld , ju x ta p o s e d w ith sc e n e s fro m h e ll
a n d th e re a lm o f th e h u n g ry sp irits, to g e th e r w ith in d ic a tio n s o f th e m e a n s
th a t a llo w a n e sc a p e fro m sa m sa ra , w ith th e h e lp o f th e c le rg y a n d , a b o v e a ll,
th e b u d d h a s a n d b o d h is a ttv a s re p re s e n te d in th e u p p e r p o rtio n s o f th e p a in t
in g s. T h e S w e e t-D e w p a in tin g s in tu rn sh a re m a n y c h a ra cte ristic s w ith th e
J a p a n e s e d e p ic tio n s o f th e Kumano kanjin jikkai mandara
7 7 K ie s c h n ic k 2 0 0 3 , M ro s s 2 0 1 7 .
78 T e n G ro te n h u is 1 9 9 9 , p . 2 .
§ ^ M , w h ic h d e p ic t life , d e a th , a n d re b irth . 79 8It

0 is in trig u in g th a t th e la tte r
sh o w a c le a re r re p re se n ta tio n o f th e c o u rse o f h u m a n life th a n th e S w e e t-D e w
p a in tin g s, m a k in g th e m e v e n m o re s im ila r c o n c e p tu a lly to th e K o re a n ro s a ry
p rin t. S e e n fro m a n o th e r a n g le , a s a c o m p le tely v e rb a l, a n ic o n ic m a n d a la , th e
ro s a ry p rin t re la te s to th e S w e e t-D e w p a in tin g s in th e sa m e w a y th a t in J a p a n
th e p u re ly v e rb a l N ic h ire n -s h u daimoku mandara^ re la te s to th e m o re v iv id
v is u a liz a tio n o f th e Kumano kanjin jikkai mandara.
T h e p rin t fu rth e r c o n trib u te s to th e s a c ra liz a tio n o f th e u s e o f th e ro s a ry
b y its in v o c a tio n o f s c rip tu re s th a t e m p h a s iz e th e m ira c u lo u s e ffic a cy o f
its u s e , w h ic h g o in g fa r b e y o n d its u s e fu ln e s s a s a to o l to c o u n t d e v o
tio n s , p ro m is e s a s h o rtc u t to s a lv a tio n ; it a lso d o e s so b y s u p e rc h a rg in g th e
b e a d s w ith m e a n in g s th a t s u g g e s t m o re th a n o n e p a th w a y to re d e m p tio n .
T h e q u o ta tio n fro m th e Mu huanzi jing d e s c rib e s th e c o n s ta n t a n d c o n c e n
tra te d in v o c a tio n o f th e B u d d h a , th e D h a rm a , a n d th e S a n g h a a s a p ra c tic e
o f m in d fu ln e s s th a t e v e n tu a lly w ill g u a ra n te e n irv a n a . T h o s e w h o d o u b t
th e ir a b ility to p ra c tic e th is a re e n c o u ra g e d b y o th e r q u o ta tio n s th a t a ssu re
th e d e v o te e th a t p a rtic u la r m a te ria ls o f w h ic h th e ro s a ry c a n b e m a d e w ill
a lso e n h a n c e its e ffic a c y . P u re L a n d p ra c tic e s c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
ro s a ry a n d th e B u d d h a A m ita b h a , e x tre m e ly p o p u la r in th e C h o s o n p e rio d
w h e re s e c ta ria n d iffe re n c e s a s fo u n d in J a p a n w e re n o n e x is te n t, s u g g e s te d a n
a lte rn a tiv e th a t fo c u se d o n re b irth in p a ra d ise ra th e r th a n o n n irv a n a . In th is
w a y , th e a s s o c ia tio n w ith th e P u re L a n d lin k e d th e p rin t w ith life a fte r d e a th ,
w h ic h in th e C h o s o n p e rio d w a s o n e o f th e m a in c o n c e rn s o f B u d d h ism . It
m a tc h e s th e c o lo p h o n sta tin g th e w is h e s o f P a k Y o n g s o h w a , th e d o n o r o f th e
c a rv in g o f th e p rin t, fo r h e r d e c e a s e d re la tiv e s . T h e re la tio n s h ip w ith life
a fte r d e a th is re in fo rc e d b y th e im p lic it a s s o c ia tio n o f th e p rin t I h a v e s u g
g e s te d w ith th e Diamond Sutra, w ith its s tro n g lin k to K o re a n d e a th ritu a ls.
R e b irth in p a ra d is e m ig h t b e c o n c e iv e d a s a lite ra l tra n s fe r to th e re a lm
o f A m ita b h a , b u t a lth o u g h th a t w ill h a v e b e e n h o w a m a jo rity o f b e lie v e rs
im a g in e d it, a m o n g le a rn e d m o n k s a d iffe re n t in te rp re ta tio n e x iste d , w h ic h
d id n o t v ie w re b irth in th e P u re L a n d a s in v o lv in g c o m in g o r g o in g to a
re m o te re a lm in a lite ra l se n se , b u t a s th e re a liz a tio n th a t s a lv a tio n is a lre a d y
p re s e n t o r c a n b e re a liz e d in th e h e re a n d n o w . 81 T h e id e a th a t e n lig h te n m e n t
in v o lv e s a jo u m e y o f g ro w in g a w a re n e s s , w h ic h if s u c c e s s fu l w ill b rin g th e
7 9 K a m in is h i 2 0 0 6 .
80 D o lc e 2 0 0 2 .
81 C h a n g 1 9 9 6 , p . 6 3 9 . T h e id e a w a s ta k e n u p b y th e e a rly tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry re fo rm e r H a n
Y ongun (1 8 7 9 -1 9 4 4 ). S e e H a n [1 9 1 0 ] 2 0 1 6 , p p . 1 3 0 -3 2 .
p ra c titio n e r to th e p o in t o f d e p a rtu re is , a s o u tlin e d a b o v e , a c o n c e p t th a t

a lso c a n b e re a d in th e ro sa ry , a s in th e s im ila r c irc u la r stru c tu re o f th e n o v e l
Kuunmong. In th is w a y , th e ro s a ry p rin t le n d s its e lf to a q u ite s o p h is tic a te d
in te rp re ta tio n . A n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu re o f th e a b s tru s e h e a v e n s e n u
m e ra te d a t th e e n d o f th e c irc le w o u ld re in fo rc e s u c h a n in te rp re ta tio n .
T h e b e a d s re p re s en tin g th e F o u r G ra c es e m p h a s iz e th e d e b t o n e h a s to
th e m o n a rc h , te a c h e rs , se n io rs, a n d o n e ’ s p a re n ts , b rin g in g th e ro s a ry in
a g re e m e n t w ith th e C o n fu c ia n s a c re d o rd e r. A s u g g e s tio n o f th is a g re e m e n t
c a n a lso b e s e e n in th e p e c u lia r c h a ra c te r m e n tio n e d a b o v e th a t is u s e d to
w rite “ b u d d h a , ” w h ic h is n o t fo u n d in a n y d ic tio n a ry b u t c a n n o n e th e le s s
re a d ily b e u n d e rs to o d a s su c h b e c a u s e it im m e d ia te ly fo llo w s th e n a m e s o f
S a k y a m u n i, A m ita b h a , a n d M a itre y a . S u c h th in g s , h o w e v e r, d o n o t m e a n
th a t B u d d h is m s u b m itte d fu lly to C o n fu c ia n n o rm s , b u t ra th e r c o n s titu te a
d e fe n s iv e stra te g y , a rg u in g th a t B u d d h is m , w h ile m a in ta in in g its o w n tru th s
a n d a im s , d o e s n o t fa ll s h o rt o f C o n fu c ia n s ta n d a rd s , w h ic h w a s a c o m m o n
a p o lo g e tic s ta n c e . 82
W h ile e v e ry b e lie v e r c o u ld id e n tify w ith th e b a s ic life a n d a fte rlife tra je c
to ry o u tlin e d in th e id e n tific a tio n s o f th e b e a d s in th e p rin t, a n d in th is w a y
m a k e it p e rs o n a l, th e p rin t m o re s p e c ific a lly p e rs o n a liz e d th e d e v o tio n , a n d
th e re b y th e m e rit, o f th e d o n o r, P a k Y o n g s o h w a . P u t in th is w a y , th is fu lly
a c c o rd s w ith th e k a rm ic lo g ic fo rm u la te d w ith in B u d d h is m itse lf. B u t w e
m a y a s s u m e th a t d o n a tin g fu n d s fo r s u c h a p u rp o s e a lso s e rv e d a p s y c h o
lo g ic a l p u rp o s e , re a s s u rin g th e d o n o r in a c o n c re te , m a te ria l fo rm th a t h e r
a c t w o u ld b e n e fit h e r a n d th o s e sh e c a re d fo r, th u s p ro v id in g m e n ta l p e a c e
a n d se re n ity . T h is, in tu rn , w o u ld se rv e to s tre n g th e n h e r re la tio n s w ith th e
c le rg y . In th is w a y , to o , th e p rin t s e rv e d a s a m e d iu m in th e in te ra c tio n s
b e tw e e n P a k Y o n g s o h w a a n d th e m o n k s.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e sin g le lin e L a n d is d e v o te s to th e u b iq u ity o f th e
p rin t s u g g e s ts th a t it w a s a lso o f im p o rta n c e fo r th e p ra c tic e o f th e g re a t
m a s s o f d e v o te e s w h o h a d n o t in c re a s e d th e ir m e rit b y d ire c tly in v e s tin g
in its c a rv in g . T h e y m a y h a v e re c e iv e d a s m a lle r d o se o f m e rit b y b u y in g a
p rin t m a d e fro m th e w o o d b lo c k , th e m e a n in g o f w h ic h th e c le rg y w ill h a v e
e x p la in e d to th e m to a c e rta in e x te n t. A lte rn a tiv e ly , it m a y a lso h a v e b e e n
e x p la in e d b y th e m o n k s to th o s e w h o c o u ld n e ith e r s p o n s o r a c a rv in g n o r
m a k e a d o n a tio n to o b ta in a p rin t.
82 A s trik in g e x a m p le o f th is s tra te g y is th e le n g th y p e titio n th a t th e m o n k C h ’ o n u n g

(1 6 1 7 -1 6 8 0 ) s e n t to th e g o v e rn m e n t a t a tim e w h e n p o lic ie s a g a in s t B u d d h ism w e re u n u s u a lly
h a rsh (P a e k k o k 2 0 1 5 , p p . 3 2 6 -7 3 ).
It c a n b e c o n fid e n tly a v e rre d th a t fe w p e o p le w ill h a v e u n d e rs to o d a ll th e

m e a n in g s o f th e p rin t s u g g e s te d a b o v e . T h is d o e s n o t, h o w e v e r, m a k e th e
m e a n in g s th a t w e re n o t u n d e rs to o d , o r o n ly p a rtly u n d e rs to o d , in sig n ific a n t.
T h e in c re a s in g ly su b tle h e a v e n s e n u m e ra te d a t th e e n d w ill h a v e h a d b u t
little s ig n ific an c e fo r a m a jo rity o f b e lie v e rs . B u t th a t d o e s n o t im p ly th a t
th e y d id n o t se rv e a p u rp o s e . T h e y c o n s titu te d a s u rp lu s o f m e a n in g , d iffi
c u lt to p e n e tra te fo r th e a v e ra g e p e rs o n , w h ic h p ro te c te d th e a u th o rity o f th e
le a rn e d c le rg y . In th is se n se , to o , th e p rin t h a d th e p o te n tia l to le n d d ire c
tio n a n d fo rm to th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e B u d d h is m in s titu tio n a liz e d in th e
m o n k h o o d a n d m o n a s te rie s a n d th e b e lie v e rs o f d iffe re n t s o c ia l c la sse s.
In its to ta lity th e ro s a ry p rin t p o te n tia lly c o n ta in s re fe re n c e s to a w id e
a rra y o f B u d d h is t c o n c e p ts a n d p ra c tic e s , w h ic h is ty p ic a l o f th e e c le c tic ,
n o n -s e c ta ria n n a tu re o f C h o s o n B u d d h is m . O f c o u rse, th e ro s a ry is m o s t
c lo s e ly lin k e d to th e in v o c a tio n o f A m ita b h a to b e re b o rn in th e P u re L a n d ,
b u t th a t its e lf m ig h t b e u n d e rs to o d in tw o w a y s , a s a re b irth in a p a ra d is e
in a n a c tu a l lo c a tio n , re m o te fro m o u r w o rld , o r a s a s p iritu a l re b irth in th e
h e re a n d n o w th a t in v o lv e s n e ith e r c o m in g n o r g o in g . T h e u s e o f th e ro s a ry
a n d th e m a k in g o f th e p rin t a re a lso a w a y to sa v e lo v e d o n e s fro m th e to r
m e n ts o f th e m a n y h e lls a n d e n s u re th e ir re b irth in th e P u re L a n d . In th e te x t
in th e c e n tra l p a rt o f th e p rin t it is a lso s u g g e s te d th a t th e in v o c a tio n c a n
b e c o m e a s p iritu a l, o r e v e n m a g ic a l, p ra c tic e th a t w ill b rin g h a p p in e s s o r
b liss. B u t A m ita b h a is n o t th e o n ly g o a l o f th e jo u m e y o u tlin e d in th e p rin t,
b u t o n ly o n e o f th e th re e b u d d h a s a t th e to p . I f th e fin a l g o a l is M a itre y a , it
m a y b e u n d e rs to o d a s (re b irth in ) th e p a ra d is e o n e a rth th a t w ill b e re a liz e d
w h e n M a itre y a d e s c e n d s fro m th e T u s ita h e a v e n . I f it is S a k y a m u n i, th e
fin a l g o a l m a y b e u n d e rs to o d a s a c h ie v in g b u d d h a h o o d its e lf, th ro u g h o n e ’ s
o w n e ffo rts. T h e w a y to w a rd s th a t is im p lie d in th e s u c c e s s io n o f dhyana
h e a v e n s , th e h e a v e n s o n e m a y re a c h if o n e p ra c tic e s m e d ita tio n . T h e a llu
sio n s to th e Diamond Sutra a re lin k e d to th e p o p u la r K o re a n u s e o f th e su tra
fo r h a p p in e s s in th e h e re a fte r (myongbok M M ) fo r th e d e c e a s ed , b u t o n th e
o th e r h a n d m a y a lso p o in t to th e s o p h is tic a te d B u d d h ist o n to lo g y a n d lo g ic
o f th e su tra , w h ic h w o u ld ra th e r a p p e a l to th e h ig h ly e d u c a te d . In sh o rt,
th e p o te n tia l o f th e p rin t is s u c h th a t it p ro v id e s s o m e th in g fo r b e lie v e rs o f
w h a te v e r b a c k g ro u n d a n d a b ility . In th is w a y it is a p rim e m a n ife s ta tio n o f
upaya.
A b b re v ia tio n
T Taisho shinshu daizokyo 8 5 v o ls . E d . T a k a k u s u J u n jiro i ‘. A ii'i

a n d W a ta n a b e K a ig y o k u ® O . . T o k y o : T a is h o Is sa ik y o K a n k o k a i,
1 9 2 4 -3 2 .
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K o re a n B u d d h is t P ra c tic e a s S e e n in a

The Eastern Buddhist 4 8 /2 : 9 3 -1 2 1

w a s in tric a te a n d in d is p u ta b ly d e s e rv e s g re a te r a tte n tio n . 5 It h a s a ls o b e e n

Y e t, v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f m a te ria l c u ltu re re m a in u n e x p lo re d a n d m a jo r

In te rrin g O b je c ts \bokjang\ in B u d d h is t S ta tu e s , ” E w h a W o m e n ’ s U n iv e rs ity , A u g u s t 1 1 -1 2 )

17 T h e p rin t h a s b e e n b rie fly in tro d u c e d in a s h o rt a rtic le th a t a im e d to s h o w th e m a n y d if ­

upasika (ch ’ongshinnyo a fe m a le la y d e v o te e ), it in te n d s to a d d

T h is ty p e o f w is h , w ith its c o n c e rn fo r th e a fte rlife o f d e c e a s e d re la tiv e s , is

The Text on the Inside of the Rosary

s u tra q u o te d is th e Mu huanzi jing (S c rip tu re o f th e S e e d s o f th e

2 7 In th e o rig in a l te x t o f th e s u tra h is n a m e is g iv e n a s V iru d h a k a .

T h is n e a tly a d d s u p to 1 0 8 , b u t it s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e id e n tific a tio n s

A t th e e n d , a gatha c o n firm s th e m a rv e lo u s e ffic a c y o f th e b e a d s , p ro m ­

Identifications Provided on the Outside of the Rosary

3 4 I w o u ld lik e to th a n k o n e o f th e a n o n y m o u s re v ie w e rs w h o a le rte d m e to th is fa ct.

36 T h is is a c tu a lly a n a lte rn a tiv e fo rm o f M a h e s v a ra , w h ic h s u p p o rts th e in te rp re ta tio n

41 T h is list c o m p ris e s e ig h te e n h e a v e n s. T h e n u m b e r is n o t a lw a y s th e s a m e . S o m e tim e s it

4 ) s itu a te d o n th e le ft o f A m ita b h a , w h ile S a m a n ta b h a d ra a c c o m p a n ie s

4 2 L a n d is 1 8 9 5 , p . 2 3 . F o r a listin g o f th e v a rio u s v a ria n ts s e e h ttp ://w o n g a k s a .o r.k r/g 4

c o m b in e d w ith th e daimoku ‘A l l , th e m a n tra o fh o m a g e to th e Lotus Sutra,45

4 7 R o s e n fie ld a n d C ra n s to n 2 0 0 3 , p p . 2 3 4 -3 6 . A n im a g e is a ls o a v a ila b le o n lin e : h ttp ://id s

T h e to p o f th e p rin t, w ith S a k y a m u n i in th e m id d le , A m ita b h a o n th e rig h t,

a s lo w e r fo rm s, th a n k s to th e b e n e fic ia l e ffe c t o f A m ita b h a ’ s p re a c h in g o n

d e c e a s e d c ro w n p rin c e . 61 M u c h la te r, in 1 8 8 3 , th e su tra w a s re p rin te d a t th e

61 Y i N u n g h w a 1 9 1 8 (2 0 1 0 ), p p . 1 3 8 -3 9 . T h e c o n n e c tio n c o n tin u e s . T h u s a fte r th e d e a th

n o r n o t-th in k in g (pisangbibisangch ’o T h e c irc u la r p ro g re s ­

S e e U n iv e rsity o f O s lo , F a c u lty o f H u m a n itie s , B ib lio te c a P o ly g lo tta , a t h ttp s://w w w 2

71 S u c h im a g e s w e re n o t n e c e s s a rily c re a te d to re p re se n t M a itre y a fro m th e o u ts e t. A n

O n e so u rc e o f th e p e rfo rm a tiv ity o f th e ro s a ry p rin t is o f c o u rse th e w a y th e

§ ^ M , w h ic h d e p ic t life , d e a th , a n d re b irth . 79 8It

p ra c titio n e r to th e p o in t o f d e p a rtu re is , a s o u tlin e d a b o v e , a c o n c e p t th a t

82 A s trik in g e x a m p le o f th is s tra te g y is th e le n g th y p e titio n th a t th e m o n k C h ’ o n u n g

It c a n b e c o n fid e n tly a v e rre d th a t fe w p e o p le w ill h a v e u n d e rs to o d a ll th e

T Taisho shinshu daizokyo 8 5 v o ls . E d . T a k a k u s u J u n jiro i ‘. A ii'i

A p p a d u ra i, A rju n , e d . 1 9 8 6 . The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspec­

C a m b o n , P ie rre . 2 0 0 1 . L'Art coreen au musee Guimet. P a ris : R e u n io n d e s m u s e e s n a tio n -

K a m in ish i, Ik u m i. 2 0 0 6 . Explaining Pictures: Buddhist Propaganda and Etoki Storytelling

K im Y o n g t ’ a e [K im Y o n g ta e ] f H U il. 2 0 1 0 . Choson hugi pulgyosa yon ’gu: Imje popt’ong

P a e k k o k C h ’ o n u n g P T T w . 2 0 1 5 . Taegak Tunggye chip P T P P P (W o rk s o f T a e g a k

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17 T h e p rin t h a s b e e n b rie fly in tro d u c e d in a s h o rt a rtic le th a t a im e d to s h o w th e m a n y d if

A t th e e n d , a gatha c o n firm s th e m a rv e lo u s e ffic a c y o f th e b e a d s , p ro m

n o r n o t-th in k in g (pisangbibisangch ’o T h e c irc u la r p ro g re s

A p p a d u ra i, A rju n , e d . 1 9 8 6 . The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspec