What are the most commonly used radioisotopes in nuclear medicine, and how do they work

in medical diagnostics and treatment?

Answer:
The most commonly used radioisotopes in nuclear medicine include Technetium-99m (Tc-
99m), Iodine-131 (I-131), Fluorine-18 (F-18), and Yttrium-90 (Y-90). Each of these
isotopes plays a unique role in diagnostics and treatment due to their different properties.

1. Technetium-99m (Tc-99m):
Tc-99m is the most widely used radioisotope in nuclear diagnostics, especially in
imaging procedures like Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
(SPECT) scans. It emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera,
allowing doctors to visualize internal organs and detect abnormalities such as tumors
or bone disorders. Tc-99m has a short half-life of about 6 hours, making it ideal for
diagnostic purposes without long-term radiation exposure.
2. Iodine-131 (I-131):
I-131 is used both for diagnostic imaging and treatment, particularly in thyroid
conditions. It is taken up by the thyroid gland and used to treat hyperthyroidism or
thyroid cancer by destroying overactive thyroid cells. It also emits gamma rays,
making it useful in diagnostic scans to assess thyroid function.
3. Fluorine-18 (F-18):
F-18 is commonly used in Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans. It is a
positron emitter and is often attached to glucose molecules to form
Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). This radiotracer highlights areas of high metabolic
activity, such as cancer cells, which helps in cancer detection, staging, and monitoring
treatment effectiveness.
4. Yttrium-90 (Y-90):
Y-90 is a beta-emitting radioisotope used in radioembolization therapy to treat liver
cancer. Tiny radioactive beads containing Y-90 are injected into the blood vessels that
feed the tumor, delivering localized radiation and minimizing damage to surrounding
healthy tissue.

These radioisotopes are carefully selected for their ability to provide clear diagnostic
information or effective treatment while minimizing radiation exposure to the patient.

Application of Radioactive Isotopes in Bone Fracture Healing:

Radioactive isotopes, particularly Technetium-99m (Tc-99m), are widely used in nuclear

medicine to monitor bone fracture healing through bone scintigraphy. This technique helps
assess the bone’s metabolic activity and detect any abnormalities during the healing process.

1. Bone Scintigraphy for Fracture Detection and Healing Monitoring:

o Tc-99m is injected into the bloodstream, where it binds to areas of high bone
turnover, which is typically seen in healing fractures.
o Gamma cameras capture the emitted radiation, creating images that show
areas of increased uptake, indicating active bone regeneration or potential
complications such as non-union fractures or infections.
2. Benefits in Monitoring Healing:
o The use of Tc-99m allows doctors to detect fractures that might not appear on
X-rays, especially stress fractures or microfractures.
 o It also helps in evaluating the progress of fracture healing, ensuring proper
treatment and intervention when necessary.

Thus, radioactive isotopes play a crucial role in enhancing the diagnosis and monitoring of
bone healing, aiding in the early detection of complications and providing real-time insights
into the body's natural repair processes.

Application of Radioactive Isotopes in Assessing Blood Volume:

Radioactive isotopes are used in blood volume studies to accurately measure the total
volume of blood in a patient's circulatory system. One of the most commonly used isotopes
for this purpose is Chromium-51 (Cr-51).

1. Procedure:
o In this method, red blood cells (RBCs) are labeled with a small amount of Cr-
51, a gamma-emitting radioisotope.
o A sample of the patient’s blood is withdrawn, mixed with the Cr-51 isotope,
and reinjected into the patient.
o After allowing the labeled red blood cells to circulate, a small blood sample is
taken, and the concentration of Cr-51 in the blood is measured.
2. Volume Calculation:
o The blood volume is calculated by analyzing the dilution of the Cr-51-labeled
red blood cells, providing an accurate measurement of total red cell mass and
plasma volume.
3. Clinical Use:
o This technique is valuable in diagnosing and managing conditions such as
anemia, polycythemia, and heart failure, as well as in determining blood
volume changes in critically ill patients.

Radioisotope-based blood volume studies offer precise, minimally invasive measurements,

helping healthcare providers tailor treatments based on the patient’s exact blood volume
status.

Application of Radioactive Isotopes in Brain Tumor Localization:

Radioactive isotopes play a crucial role in the diagnosis and localization of brain tumors
through imaging techniques such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single
Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT). The commonly used isotopes for this
purpose include Fluorine-18 (F-18) and Technetium-99m (Tc-99m).

1. Fluorine-18 (F-18) in PET Scans:

o F-18 is commonly attached to glucose molecules to create
Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), a radiotracer used in PET scans. Since brain
tumors typically have higher metabolic activity than normal brain tissue, they
absorb more FDG.
o PET scans with F-18 can detect these areas of increased glucose metabolism,
allowing for precise localization of the tumor and differentiation between
malignant and benign tissues.
2. Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) in SPECT Scans:
 o Tc-99m-labeled compounds, such as Tc-99m Sestamibi, are used in SPECT
imaging. These radiotracers accumulate in tumor tissues, highlighting areas of
abnormal brain activity or blood flow.
o SPECT scans can be particularly useful in detecting brain tumors, evaluating
their size and location, and monitoring changes during or after treatment.
3. Clinical Use:
o These imaging techniques help in identifying the exact location, size, and
metabolic activity of brain tumors, guiding surgical planning, radiation
therapy, or chemotherapy.
o They are also useful for monitoring tumor recurrence or response to treatment
over time.

In summary, radioactive isotopes, especially F-18 in PET and Tc-99m in SPECT, are
essential tools for accurately localizing brain tumors and providing valuable information for
treatment planning.

The oxyacids H₃PO₄ (phosphoric acid) and HIO₄ (periodic acid) are not strong acids in
water because they do not completely dissociate into ions when dissolved. Here’s why:

1. Phosphoric Acid (H₃PO₄):

o Phosphoric acid is a triprotic acid, meaning it has three hydrogen atoms (H⁺)
that can be ionized. However, it is a weak acid because it does not completely
release all its protons in water.
o The first dissociation step (H₃PO₄ → H₂PO₄⁻ + H⁺) is relatively weak, with
a moderate dissociation constant. The second and third dissociation steps
(H₂PO₄⁻ → HPO₄²⁻ and HPO₄²⁻ → PO₄³⁻) are even weaker.
o The conjugate bases (H₂PO₄⁻, HPO₄²⁻) have relatively strong tendencies to
retain their protons, making H₃PO₄ a moderate to weak acid in aqueous
solutions.
2. Periodic Acid (HIO₄):
o Periodic acid (HIO₄) is a monoprotic acid, meaning it can release only one
hydrogen ion (H⁺) in water. However, it is still considered a weak acid
because it does not fully dissociate in water.
o The strength of oxyacids depends on the electronegativity of the central atom
(iodine, in this case) and the number of oxygen atoms bonded to it. While
HIO₄ has several oxygens, the iodine atom has a lower electronegativity
compared to other halogens like chlorine or fluorine, making the bond
between H and O stronger and less likely to dissociate completely.

In summary:

 Both H₃PO₄ and HIO₄ do not fully dissociate in water due to their molecular
structures and bond strengths, resulting in partial ionization. This makes them weak
to moderate acids rather than strong acids like HCl or H₂SO₄, which dissociate
completely in aqueous solutions.
The proton affinity of ammonia (NH₃) is 854 kJ/mol, and the proton affinity of water (H₂O)
is 697 kJ/mol. Based on these values, explain which molecule is a stronger base, and
calculate the energy difference between their proton affinities. Why is this energy difference
significant in terms of their basicity?

Solution:

1. Comparing Proton Affinities:

o Proton affinity is the amount of energy released when a molecule accepts a proton
(H⁺). A higher proton affinity means the molecule is more likely to accept a proton,
making it a stronger base.
o For ammonia (NH₃), the proton affinity is 854 kJ/mol, while for water (H₂O), it is 697
kJ/mol.

2. Energy Difference:
o The energy difference between the proton affinities of NH₃ and H₂O can be
calculated as: ΔE=854 kJ/mol−697 kJ/mol=157 kJ/mol
o This means ammonia has a proton affinity 157 kJ/mol higher than that of water.

3. Significance of Energy Difference:

o Since ammonia has a higher proton affinity, it is a stronger base than water. This is
because ammonia releases more energy when it accepts a proton, indicating a
greater tendency to gain H⁺ ions.
o The 157 kJ/mol energy difference highlights that NH₃ is significantly more basic than
H₂O. In an acid-base reaction, NH₃ would more readily accept a proton compared to
H₂O, which correlates to ammonia’s stronger basicity in aqueous solutions.

Conclusion: Ammonia is a stronger base than water, and the 157 kJ/mol difference in proton
affinities reflects the relative ease with which these molecules accept protons.

Consider the following data for the proton affinities of three molecules:

 Methanol (CH₃OH): 754 kJ/mol

 Ammonia (NH₃): 854 kJ/mol
 Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S): 711 kJ/mol

Given the proton affinities, answer the following:

1. Rank the basicities of these three molecules based on their proton affinities.
2. If a gas-phase proton transfer reaction occurs between ammonia and methanol, where
NH₄⁺ and CH₃O⁻ are the products, calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) of this
reaction.
3. Based on your calculation, explain the direction of proton transfer and whether it is
thermodynamically favorable.
4. Predict whether hydrogen sulfide would act as a stronger or weaker base compared to
water (proton affinity of water is 697 kJ/mol) and provide a brief explanation.

Solution:
 1. Ranking Basicities:
o The higher the proton affinity, the stronger the base. Based on proton
affinities:
 Ammonia (854 kJ/mol) > Methanol (754 kJ/mol) > Hydrogen sulfide
(711 kJ/mol).
o Ammonia is the strongest base, followed by methanol, and hydrogen sulfide
is the weakest base.
2. Proton Transfer Reaction (NH₃ + CH₃OH → NH₄⁺ + CH₃O⁻):
o The enthalpy change (ΔH) of a proton transfer reaction can be estimated as the
difference in proton affinities of the conjugate acids and bases involved.
o Proton affinity of ammonia (NH₃) = 854 kJ/mol
o Proton affinity of methanol (CH₃OH) = 754 kJ/mol
o ΔH for the reaction = Proton affinity of CH₃O⁻ – Proton affinity of NH₃:
ΔH=754 kJ/mol−854 kJ/mol=−100 kJ/mol
o The negative value of ΔH indicates that the reaction is exothermic.
3. Direction of Proton Transfer:
o Since the enthalpy change is negative, the proton transfer from ammonia
(NH₃) to methanol (CH₃OH) is thermodynamically favorable. This suggests
that methanol would act as a weaker base than ammonia, and the proton would
prefer to be associated with ammonia (forming NH₄⁺).
4. Comparison with Water:
o The proton affinity of hydrogen sulfide (711 kJ/mol) is slightly higher than
that of water (697 kJ/mol), which suggests that H₂S is a slightly stronger
base than water. However, the difference is small, and in many cases, H₂S
may behave similarly to water in terms of basicity.

Conclusion: Ammonia is the strongest base among the three molecules, and the proton
transfer reaction between ammonia and methanol is exothermic, indicating ammonia's
preference to hold the proton. Hydrogen sulfide is slightly more basic than water, though the
difference is marginal.

The proton affinities of the following molecules are provided:

 Ammonia (NH₃): 854 kJ/mol

 Pyridine (C₅H₅N): 930 kJ/mol
 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN): 713 kJ/mol

1. Rank the basicities of these three molecules based on their proton affinities.
2. Calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a gas-phase proton transfer between pyridine
and ammonia, where pyridinium ion (C₅H₆N⁺) and ammonia (NH₄⁺) are formed.
Explain whether this reaction is thermodynamically favorable.
3. Consider a scenario where a reaction between pyridine and hydrogen cyanide occurs
in the gas phase. Calculate the enthalpy change for the proton transfer (pyridine +
HCN → pyridinium ion + CN⁻) and explain whether the proton would favor
attachment to pyridine or HCN.
4. Would you expect pyridine to act as a stronger base in the gas phase or in aqueous
solution? Briefly explain your reasoning based on solvation effects.
Solution:

1. Ranking Basicities:
o The higher the proton affinity, the stronger the base. Based on the data:
 Pyridine (930 kJ/mol) > Ammonia (854 kJ/mol) > Hydrogen cyanide
(713 kJ/mol).
o Pyridine is the strongest base, followed by ammonia, with hydrogen
cyanide being the weakest.
2. Proton Transfer Reaction (NH₃ + C₅H₅N → NH₄⁺ + C₅H₆N⁺):
o The enthalpy change (ΔH) can be calculated as the difference between the
proton affinities of pyridine and ammonia.
o Proton affinity of pyridine = 930 kJ/mol
o Proton affinity of ammonia = 854 kJ/mol
o ΔH for the reaction = Proton affinity of NH₃ – Proton affinity of pyridine:
ΔH=854 kJ/mol−930 kJ/mol=−76 kJ/mol
o The negative enthalpy change indicates that the reaction is exothermic,
meaning it is thermodynamically favorable for the proton to transfer from
ammonia to pyridine.
3. Proton Transfer Reaction (C₅H₅N + HCN → C₅H₆N⁺ + CN⁻):
o The enthalpy change is calculated based on the proton affinities of pyridine
and hydrogen cyanide.
o Proton affinity of pyridine = 930 kJ/mol
o Proton affinity of hydrogen cyanide = 713 kJ/mol
o ΔH for the reaction = Proton affinity of HCN – Proton affinity of pyridine:
ΔH=713 kJ/mol−930 kJ/mol=−217 kJ/mol
o Since ΔH is negative, this reaction is also thermodynamically favorable, and
the proton will prefer to attach to pyridine rather than HCN. The large energy
difference (217 kJ/mol) shows a strong preference for pyridine to act as the
base.
4. Basicity of Pyridine in Gas Phase vs. Aqueous Solution:
o In the gas phase, pyridine is a stronger base due to its high proton affinity
(930 kJ/mol). However, in aqueous solution, the solvation effects (especially
hydrogen bonding) stabilize the proton more when it is attached to a smaller
and more polarizable molecule like ammonia.
o Pyridine's basicity in aqueous solution is reduced compared to the gas phase
because the nitrogen lone pair in pyridine is less available due to the resonance
structure involving the aromatic ring, which diminishes its ability to strongly
interact with water molecules.

Conclusion: Pyridine is the strongest base in the gas phase, and proton transfer from
ammonia and HCN to pyridine is thermodynamically favorable. Pyridine’s basicity decreases
in aqueous solution compared to the gas phase due to solvation and resonance effects.

The proton affinities of ammonia (NH₃), phosphine (PH₃), and arsine (AsH₃) are provided
as:
  Proton affinity of NH₃ = 854 kJ/mol
 Proton affinity of PH₃ = 784 kJ/mol
 Proton affinity of AsH₃ = 758 kJ/mol

1. Rank the basicities of NH₃, PH₃, and AsH₃ based on their proton affinities.
2. Calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a gas-phase proton transfer from PH₄⁺ (the
protonated form of PH₃) to NH₃.
3. Explain why the basicity trend follows the proton affinity values and how atomic size
and electronegativity of N, P, and As contribute to these values.

Solution:

1. Ranking Basicities Based on Proton Affinities:

o Proton affinity is directly related to the basicity of a molecule; the higher the
proton affinity, the stronger the base.
o Based on the provided proton affinities:
 Ammonia (NH₃) has the highest proton affinity (854 kJ/mol) and is
the strongest base.
 Phosphine (PH₃) has a proton affinity of 784 kJ/mol, making it less
basic than NH₃.
 Arsine (AsH₃) has the lowest proton affinity (758 kJ/mol), making it
the weakest base.

Ranking: NH₃ > PH₃ > AsH₃.

2. Enthalpy Change for Proton Transfer from PH₄⁺ to NH₃:

o In this case, the proton transfer reaction is: PH₄⁺ + NH₃ → PH₃ + NH₄⁺.
o The enthalpy change (ΔH) can be calculated as the difference in proton
affinities of the two bases (NH₃ and PH₃).

ΔH=Proton affinity of PH₃−Proton affinity of NH₃{Proton affinity of NH₃}

ΔH=Proton affinity of PH₃−Proton affinity of NH₃

o Substituting the values:

ΔH=784 kJ/mol−854 kJ/mol=−70 kJ/mol\Delta H = 784 \, \text{kJ/mol} - 854 \, \

text{kJ/mol} = −70kJ/mol

The enthalpy change is -70 kJ/mol, meaning that the proton transfer from
o
PH₄⁺ to NH₃ is exothermic and thermodynamically favorable.
3. Explanation of Basicity Trend:
o The basicity trend (NH₃ > PH₃ > AsH₃) is explained by the atomic size and
electronegativity of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and arsenic (As):
 Atomic Size: As we move down the group in the periodic table (N →
P → As), the atomic size increases. As the atomic size increases, the
lone pair of electrons on the central atom becomes more diffused and
less available for protonation, decreasing the basicity.
  Electronegativity: Nitrogen is more electronegative than phosphorus
and arsenic, making NH₃ more likely to accept a proton (higher proton
affinity), as the lone pair is more tightly held and better able to attract a
proton.

Conclusion:

 Ammonia (NH₃) is the strongest base due to its highest proton affinity, followed by
PH₃ and AsH₃.
 The enthalpy change for the proton transfer from PH₄⁺ to NH₃ is -70 kJ/mol,
showing that this reaction is exothermic and favors NH₃ gaining a proton.
 The decreasing basicity from NH₃ to AsH₃ is due to the increasing atomic size and
decreasing electronegativity of the central atoms.

Explain the leveling effect of solvents and its role in determining the strength of acids and
bases in aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. Compare the acid strengths of HCl, HBr, and HI
in water and in acetic acid. Why do these acids exhibit similar behavior in water, but different
behaviors in acetic acid? Provide an explanation based on the leveling effect and solvent
properties.

Solution:

1. Leveling Effect in Solvents:

o The leveling effect occurs when a strong acid or base in a solvent dissociates
completely, and the observed acid or base strength is determined by the
solvent’s ability to stabilize the ions formed.
o In a protic solvent like water, strong acids such as HCl, HBr, and HI fully
dissociate into H₃O⁺ ions, and their actual acid strengths are "leveled" by the
solvent. As a result, all these acids appear to have the same strength in water,
since the strongest acid that can exist in water is the hydronium ion (H₃O⁺).
2. Acid Strengths in Water:
o In water, HCl, HBr, and HI dissociate completely to form H₃O⁺ ions:
HCl→H++Cl−HCl \to H^+ + Cl^-HCl→H++Cl− HBr→H++Br−HBr \to H^+
+ Br^-HBr→H++Br− HI→H++I−HI \to H^+ + I^-HI→H++I−
o Due to the leveling effect, the strengths of these acids are identical in water
because they all produce the same H₃O⁺ concentration.
3. Acid Strengths in Acetic Acid:
o Acetic acid is a weaker proton acceptor compared to water, so it does not
exhibit as strong a leveling effect. Therefore, the intrinsic differences in acid
strengths between HCl, HBr, and HI are more noticeable in acetic acid.
o In acetic acid:
 HI is the strongest acid, followed by HBr, and then HCl, because their
dissociation is less "leveled" by the solvent, and their intrinsic bond
strengths and tendencies to donate protons become more apparent.
o The strength order is determined by the bond dissociation energy in the gas
phase:
 HI has the weakest H–I bond, so it donates a proton most easily.
 HCl has the strongest H–Cl bond, so it donates a proton less easily
compared to HI and HBr.
4. Explanation Based on Solvent Properties:
o In water, the leveling effect causes strong acids to appear equally strong, as
they all dissociate to give H₃O⁺. Thus, HCl, HBr, and HI behave similarly in
aqueous solution.
o In acetic acid, the leveling effect is weaker because acetic acid is a poorer
proton acceptor than water. As a result, the intrinsic differences between the
acids become more apparent, and their acid strengths differ according to their
bond dissociation energies.

Conclusion:

 The leveling effect of a solvent like water causes strong acids to behave with equal
strength due to complete dissociation into H₃O⁺ ions.
 In a solvent like acetic acid, where the leveling effect is weaker, the intrinsic
differences in acid strength among HCl, HBr, and HI become more apparent, with HI
being the strongest acid.

would the following increase, decrease or have no effect on the acidity of the solution? Why?
(1) Addition of Li3N to liquid ammonia (2) Addition of HgO to an aqueous KI solution (3)
Addition of SiO2 to molten Fe + FeO (4) Addition of CuSO4 to aqueous (NH4)2SO4 (5)
Addition of Al(OH)3 to NaOH (6) Addition of KHSO4 to H2SO4 (7) Addition of
CH3COOK to liquid ammonia

Here’s how each of the listed additions affects the acidity of the respective solutions:

1. Addition of Li₃N to liquid ammonia

Effect: Increases Acidity Reason: Lithium nitride (Li₃N) reacts with liquid ammonia to
form lithium amide (LiNH₂) and ammonia (NH₃). The reaction produces NH₂⁻ ions (amide
ions), which are strong bases. However, NH₂⁻ ions abstract protons from NH₃, creating
NH₂⁻ + NH₄⁺, which increases the concentration of NH₄⁺ (ammonium), a weak acid, thus
increasing the acidity.

Li₃N+3NH₃→3LiNH₂+NH₄+\text{Li₃N} + 3 \text{NH₃} \to 3 \text{LiNH₂} + \

text{NH₄}^+Li₃N+3NH₃→3LiNH₂+NH₄+

2. Addition of HgO to an aqueous KI solution

Effect: No Effect on Acidity Reason: In aqueous KI, HgO would not react directly with KI
to produce acidic or basic ions. Instead, HgO is amphoteric, but under neutral conditions, it is
relatively inert. There is no significant acid-base reaction to affect the pH of the solution.

3. Addition of SiO₂ to molten Fe + FeO

Effect: Increases Acidity Reason: SiO₂ (silica) is an acidic oxide. In the molten state, it
reacts with FeO (a basic oxide) to form silicate compounds. This reaction removes basic
oxides from the mixture, thereby increasing the relative acidity of the system.

SiO₂+FeO→FeSiO₃\text{SiO₂} + \text{FeO} \to \text{FeSiO₃}SiO₂+FeO→FeSiO₃

4. Addition of CuSO₄ to aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄

Effect: Decreases Acidity Reason: Copper sulfate (CuSO₄) reacts with ammonium sulfate
((NH₄)₂SO₄) to form a coordination complex such as [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ (tetraammine
copper(II)) due to the formation of Cu²⁺-NH₃ complexes in solution. This reduces the
concentration of free NH₄⁺, a weak acid, which in turn decreases the overall acidity of the
solution.

5. Addition of Al(OH)₃ to NaOH

Effect: No Effect or Decreases Acidity (Increases Basicity) Reason: Aluminum hydroxide

(Al(OH)₃) is amphoteric and reacts with NaOH (a strong base) to form soluble aluminate
ions:

Al(OH)₃+OH−→[Al(OH)₄]−\text{Al(OH)₃} + \text{OH}^- \to \text{[Al(OH)₄]}^-

Al(OH)₃+OH−→[Al(OH)₄]−

This reaction removes Al(OH)₃ from the solution, further increasing the basicity due to the
presence of excess OH⁻ ions. Thus, the solution becomes less acidic (more basic).

6. Addition of KHSO₄ to H₂SO₄

Effect: No Significant Effect on Acidity Reason: KHSO₄ (potassium bisulfate) dissociates

into K⁺ and HSO₄⁻ in solution. HSO₄⁻ is a weak acid, but the presence of strong sulfuric
acid (H₂SO₄) already provides a high concentration of H⁺ ions. The addition of KHSO₄
doesn’t significantly change the pH because the solution is already highly acidic.

7. Addition of CH₃COOK to liquid ammonia

Effect: Decreases Acidity Reason: Potassium acetate (CH₃COOK) dissociates in ammonia,

forming CH₃COO⁻ (acetate ion) and K⁺. Acetate ion (CH₃COO⁻) is the conjugate base of
acetic acid and behaves as a weak base in liquid ammonia, abstracting protons from NH₄⁺
(ammonium), thus reducing the acidity of the solution.
Summary of Effects:

1. Li₃N in liquid ammonia: Increases acidity

2. HgO in KI solution: No effect on acidity
3. SiO₂ in molten Fe + FeO: Increases acidity
4. CuSO₄ in (NH₄)₂SO₄: Decreases acidity
5. Al(OH)₃ in NaOH: No effect or decreases acidity (increases basicity)
6. KHSO₄ in H₂SO₄: No significant effect on acidity
7. CH₃COOK in liquid ammonia: Decreases acidity

Explain the leveling effect of solvents and its role in determining the strength of acids
and bases in aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. Compare the acid strengths of HCl,
HBr, and HI in water and in acetic acid. Why do these acids exhibit similar behavior in
water, but different behaviors in acetic acid? Provide an explanation based on the
leveling effect and solvent properties.