10.

Causes and prevention of cracks

in buildings
1. Cracks in different components of buildings
(walls, roofs, floors, plasters, windows, RCC, joints
etc.)
2. Causes of cracks and Remedial measures to
cracks

1
Introduction:
 A crack is a complete or incomplete separation of concrete into
two or more parts, produced by breaking or fracturing.
 Majority of cracks occur when the building or its components or
the material of which the building is made up of is subjected to
forces which are greater than those forces which it can
withstand.
 Cracks may also occur if the material used in the building is of
poor quality and the construction is not carried out in
accordance with relevant drawings, prescribed job specifications
and workman like manner.
 Cracks in concrete can scar a building’s architectural
appearance.
 They can be the cause of leaks from rain or groundwater. Or
they can be the first telltale signs of a potential wall collapse.
Thus, no crack should go unexamined.

2
• The crack in concrete is an inherent feature, which cannot be
completely prevented but can only be controlled and minimized.
• Concrete being a material having very low tensile strength,
readily cracks when such tensile stress beyond the tensile
strength of concrete occur in structure.
• An engineer should have a sound knowledge of all the facts of
concrete technology i.e. of the behavior of construction material,
construction techniques, and types of crack likely to occur, their
causes and respective remedial measure. In short, treatment of
cracks involves detection, diagnosis and remedy.
• Cracks also occur due to:
settlement,
temperature,
shrinkage effect,
poor construction practice, etc.
3
Types of cracks:
Structural cracks:
Extensive cracks of foundations walls, beams, columns or slabs etc, are
examples of structural cracks.
Structural cracks endanger the stability of the building and may be
difficult to be rectified.
Structural cracks may arise due to various reasons such as
 Defective ductile detailing in the structures.
 Incorrect load assumption and false perception about the
behavior of the structure.
 Overloading of the structural components.
 Overloading of the soil on which the building is constructed.
 Poor constructional technique and workmanship.
 Incorrect assessment of bearing capacity and soil property.
4
5
Prevention:
1. Proper and correct structural design.
2. Correct information about the soil condition
should be considered.
3. Using required grade of concrete.
4. Adequate thickness of cover for the
reinforcement and quality steel bars should be
used.
5. Proper reinforcement layout should be done.
6. Proper workmanship.

6
Non-structural cracks:
• Generally due to internal forces developed in the building on account
of changes in the size of building components due to moisture
variation, temperature variation, growth of vegetation, the effect of
gases, liquid and solids on the building components.
• Can be repaired provided the reasons for cracks are identified and
suitable remedial measures are taken to prevent their reoccurrence.
• To a layman even the non-structural cracks give the impression that
the structure is getting unsafe.
• However in view of the reasonably high value of factor of safety
adopted in the design of the building, it is very rare that the a
structure collapses soon after crack is noticed.
• In some case, if remedial measures are not taken, the nonstructural
cracks may, on account of penetration of moisture in the cracks, result
in reducing the durability of the materials (by erosion, chemical
attacks, corrosion of reinforcement etc) and ultimately affect the
stability of the structure.
7
Cracks can be broadly classified as:

• Vertical cracks
• Horizontal cracks
• Diagonal cracks
• Toothed cracks
• Irregular cracks or random cracks.

• Closely spaced fine cracks on surface of the material are known

as crazing.
• From the examination of the portion in which the cracks appear,
it is possible to have an idea of the possible factors responsible
for the formation of cracks.

8
Vertical Cracks Horizontal Cracks Random Cracks

9
Diagonal Cracks Toothed Cracks
1) Diagonal cracks in bricks wall:-
CAUSES :-
• Differential settlement of foundation.
• Shrinkage of clayey soil below foundation. This sometimes happens due the absorption
of moisture by the tree roots in the vicinity.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES:-
 Building should be constructed over soil strata having uniform characteristics.
 Adequate plinth protection and drainage arrangements should be made around the
building to minimize water entry in the foundation.
 Avoid construction of walls on filled up soil
 Do not let trees grow too close to buildings and compound wall specially if the soil is
shrinkage soil/clay.
2) Vertical cracks in long compound wall:-
CAUSES :-
In cold weather, the wall tends to contract due to temperature drop but when it is not
allowed to contract freely it develops tensile stress. When the tensile stress exceeds the
strength, the wall cracks. Similarly in hot weather, wall tends to expand and if expansion is
not allowed to occur freely; compressive stresses will develop in the wall and when they
exceed the strength , wall will break.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :- Provide expansion/contraction joints at regular interval specially
in long span wall.

10
11
3) Cracks in load bearing masonry
wall below RCC slab:-
CAUSES :-
• Absence of slip joints between RCC
slab and wall does not allow RCC slab
to move freely over wall and leads to
cracking in the wall.
• Some times the movement of the slab
may also cause cracking in masonry at
lintel and window sill level because
here the masonry is weak. These
cracks are observed mainly on the top
most story of the building because
roof is more exposed to temperature
variation .
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :- Before casting
RCC slabs over brick wall , smooth
bearing plaster should be done over brick
walls coupled with white wash / bitumen
coating over it. It allows slab to move
freely over wall.

12
4) Vertical cracks at the base of parapet wall:-
CAUSES :-
a) Thermal coefficient of concrete is twice that of brick work and thus differential
expansion and contraction causes a horizontal shear stress at the junction of the two
materials.
b) Drying shrinkage of concrete is three to four times that of brick masonry.
c) Parapet are generally built on concrete slab before the latter has undergone its drying
shrinkage fully . Parapet or railing does not have much self weight to resist horizontal
shear force caused by differential thermal movement and differential drying shrinkage.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
 Construction of masonry over the slab should be deferred as much as possible ( at
least one month) so that concrete undergoes some drying shrinkage prior to
construction of parapet.
 Mortar of parapet masonry should be rich and a good bond should be ensured
between masonry and concrete.
 Plastering on masonry and RCC work should be deferred as much as possible and
made discontinuous at the junction by providing V groove in plaster. This way the
cracks (if occur), will get concealed behind the groove and not be conspicuous.

13
14
5) Vertical cracks at junction of main wall and cross walls:-
CAUSES :-
Improper bonding of cross walls with main walls
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
Main and cross walls should be properly bonded by proper toothing.

6)Vertical and horizontal cracks in panel walls in RCC framed structure:-

CAUSES :-
• Panel walls are built very tightly to the RCC beams so that RCC beams are not free to
deflect, load is transmitted to the wall and vertical and horizontal cracks are produced
in the wall depending upon the direction in which wall is more slender ( i.e. along
height or length ) .
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
 Some gap should be left between top of panel wall and bottom of the beam/slab so
that beam can deflect freely. This gap can be filled by weak mortar.
 If lateral support is required to be given to wall beam/slab then some special lateral
connections can be made in such a way that free deflection of beam is not hindered in
vertical direction.

15
16
7) Horizontal cracks in the top most story below slab:-
CAUSES :-
• Cracks are due to deflection of slab and lifting up of edge of the slab.
• Cracks are mostly confined to the top most story because of light vertical load of
parapet wall on slab due to which end of the slab lifts. These cracks normally occur in
roof slabs of large span.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
 Bearing plaster should be done on top of wall below RCC slab with a coat of white wash
or bitumen.
 Avoid large spans of roof slab , if possible provide beams to reduce the length of the
slab.

17
8) Diagonal cracks in panel walls in
RCC framed structure:-
CAUSES :- When RCC frame
moves/deflects due to loads,
temperature variation etc. it causes
diagonal cracks in walls which are located
parallel to the movement.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :- Walls should
not be build tightly to the columns. For
taking lateral supports from column,
special connections should be made
between wall and column which provide
lateral supports to wall but does not tie it
too tightly to the column.

18
9 ) Vertical cracks below openings in line
with window jambs:-
CAUSES :-
• These cracks are caused due to vertical
shear caused by differential strain in the
lightly loaded masonry below the opening
and heavily loaded portion of wall having no
opening.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
 Too much disparity in stress in different
walls or parts of a wall should be avoided.
 Portion of wall acting as pillars and having
too much concentrated loads should be
replaced by RCC pillars, if possible.

19
10) Cracking due to arching and up
heaving of a floor:-
CAUSES :-
• Due to sulphate action in base
concrete.
• Due to expansion of clayey soil below
by absorbing moisture.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :-
 Take all measures to prevent contact
of sulphates with cement or use
sulphate resistant cement.
 If clayey soil exists below building ,
measures should be taken to prevent
water entry under the ground by
constructing suitable plinth protection
and drains etc.

20
11) Arching up and cracking of coping above retaining/boundary wall:-
CAUSES :- Due to not leaving expansion joints wall & coping.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES :- Leave proper expansion joints in walls. Avoid long
stretches of wall.

21
Crack running from roof
22
Cracks in wall
23
24
 Causes of occurrence of cracks:

The important causes responsible for occurrence of the cracks are

1) Structural deficiency resulting from design deficiency or
construction deficiency and overloading.
2) Shrinkage effects.
3) Cracks due to faulty workman ship and poor construction practice
4) Cracks due to moisture changes
5) Cracks due to temperature variation
6) Cracks due to elastic deformation and creep
7) Cracks due to effect of chemical reaction
8) Cracks due to movements of ground
9) Cracks due to vegetation

25
1. Cracks due to structural deficiency resulting from design deficiency or construction
deficiency and overloads:
• Concrete structure and individual members all carry loads. Some carry only the
weight of the materials they are made of, while others carry loads applied to the
structure. All material change volume when subjected to stress, concrete is no
exception. When subjected to tensile stress, concrete stretches; when subjected to
compressive stress it shortens. Concrete possesses high compressive strength but
little tensile strength, and reinforcing steel provides the needed strength in tension.
The loads induced during construction can be far more severe than they are
experienced in service. Concrete problems, such as excessive deflection, cracking
may be caused by volume changes associated with load effect. Most concrete
members are subjected to tensile forces. Slabs and beams are the most common
members subjected to significant tension. Reinforcing bars are placed in the
concrete to carry tension forces. When reinforced bar are subjected to tension they
stretch. The concrete around the reinforcing bars is consequently subjected to
tension and stretches. When tension in excess of tensile strength of concrete is
reached, transverse crack may appear near reinforcing bars.
• Cracks occur due to shear, flexural and torsion steel deficiency.
• Cracks occur due to abrupt curtailment of reinforcing bars, construction joints etc.
• Improper anchorage.
• Cracks due to overloading of members.
26
Preventive measures:
• Special care need to be taken in the design and detailing of
structures in which cracking may cause a major serviceability
problem.
• These structures also require continuous inspection during all
phases of construction to supplement the careful design and
detailing.
• Damages from unintentional construction overloads can be
prevented only if designer provide information on load
limitation for the structure and if the construction personnel
heed to these limitations.
• Ensure proper anchorage to the reinforcing bars.
• Follow proper design specifications.

27
2. Shrinkage crack
 Shrinkage cracks show up in two basic locations in most walls; the
approximate mid-point of a long section of wall, and the narrowed section
of the wall such as across a door or window head.
 Shrinkage cracks are most often vertical to diagonal.
 Shrinkage cracks are virtually uniform in width from top to bottom and
typically extend from the top of the wall to within a couple of feet of the
foundation.
 Common cause for shrinkage cracks in concrete walls would be excessive
water content within the concrete. In general terms, higher water content
within a concrete mix will result in a greater amount of shrinkage. This is
quite evident in some concrete walls where there are an excessive number
of cracks.
 On exposure to atmosphere, concrete loses some of its original water and
shrink.
 If the member is restrained from moving, stress build-up may exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete. This overstressing results in dry shrinkage
cracking.

28
3. Cracks due to faulty workmanship and poor
construction practice:
Causes:
• Improper reinforcing steel placement
• Improper bar detailing
• Premature removal of forms
• Improper column form placement
• Cold joints
• Segregation
• Plastic shrinkage cracking
Preventive measures:
• By providing proper water cement ratio.
• Proper curing.
• Proper support for forms.
• Following proper design codes and recommendations.
29
 4. Cracks due to moisture changes:
• Most of building materials like bricks, concrete, mortar, stone,
timber etc. have pores. Hence these materials increase in size or
expand on absorbing moisture and decrease in size or shrink on
drying.
• Changes in the moisture level in the building triggers shrinkage
cracks.
Cracks due to moisture change can be prevented by:
 Minimizing use of rich cement mortar.
 Using lean cement mortar or composite cement- lime mortar in
masonry work
 Using stiffer and leaner concrete mix and allow adequate time
for curing and drying.

30
5. Cracks due to temperature variation:
 The effect of temperature on concrete structure and member is one of
volume change.
 The volume relationship to temperature is expressed by the coefficient of
thermal expansion/contraction.
 Volume changes create stress when the concrete is restrained. The resulting
stress can be of any type: tension, compression, shear, etc.
 The stressed conditions may result in undesirable behavior such as cracking,
spalling and excessive deflection.
 A typical case of occurrence of cracks due to temperature variation is that of
roof slab being exposed to the heat of sun, which is subjected to alternate
expansion and contraction. This movement of slab may result in pushing out
top course of masonry and develop horizontal cracks in the supporting walls.
Preventive Measures:
 Adequate insulating or terracing treatment over roof slab and by introducing
joint between the slab and the supporting wall.
 Painting top of roof with reflective finish such as white wash can also
minimize cracks.
 Chances of cracking due to temperature variation can be minimized by
introducing expansion, contraction joints at appropriate locations. 31
6. Cracks due to elastic deformation and creep:
• The different components of the building viz. wall, column, beam, slab etc,
undergo elastic deformation when loaded.
• The magnitude of such deformation depends upon the type of building
materials used in the construction viz. brick, cement concrete blocks etc. as
well as the spans of the structural members and loading conditions.
Preventive measures for this type of cracks:
i) Cracks in masonry when wall is unevenly
loaded.
Figure shows the elevation of a load bearing wall.
The building has large openings in the external
walls. It can be seen that portion of wall
immediately below the sill is subjected to much
lesser loads as compared to the portion of the wall
on either side of the window opening. This results
in uneven loading of the wall which may cause
vertical cracks. Cracks of this nature can be
prevented by so selecting the size and location of
openings as to avoid unequal loading conditions in
the same wall. 32
ii) Cracks in masonry due to deflection of RCC beam or slab:

 It is observed when a beam or slab having large spans

undergoes deflection and there is insufficient downward loads
above the supporting wall, horizontal cracks appear in the
masonry at supports.
 Cracks of this type can be prevented by designing the slab or
beam in such a way that the depth provided is adequate to
restrict the deflection within permissible limits.
33
iii) Cracks at junction of brick masonry with
RCC columns in load bearing walls:
 Many times it becomes necessary to
introduce RCC columns in a load bearing
walls for supporting heavier loads.
 With the passage of time, RCC columns
undergo some shortening due to elastic
deformation and creep resulting in vertical
cracks appearing at the junction of column
with masonry.
Prevention:
Can be prevented by ensuring adequate
curing of the RCC columns and by providing
air gap between the masonry and the
column.
 Groove in the plaster at the joints between
column and masonry also helps in
restricting cracks within the groove.

34
iv) Cracking in brick panel wall in frame structure:
• The direction of crack in the tightly built panel wall in frame
structure depends mainly upon the length to height ratio of
the panel wall. The cracks could be horizontal or vertical.
Prevention:
 The construction of panel wall should preferably be taken
up as late as possible so that most of deformation due to
shrinkage , creep etc in R.C.C , beams and columns is
allowed to take place prior to construction of panel wall.
 The panel walls should not be constructed tightly between
the RCC frames. Movement joints should be provided
between the top of panel wall and soffit of the beam.
These joints may be filed up with some compressible
jointing material.

35
36
 7. Cracks due to effect of chemical reaction:
• Chemical reactions in in building materials increase the volume and
internal stress cause cracks.
• The components of structure also weaken due to chemical reactions.
• Some common instances of chemical reactions are as follows:
1. Sulphate attack on cement products
2. Carbonation in cement based products
3. Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete
4. Alkali aggregate reaction
• The carbon dioxide present in the air reacts chemically with cement
based products (cement concrete, mortar or cement blocks etc)
resulting in appreciable increase in volume of these materials which
ultimately leads to cracking.
• Soluble sulphates which may be present in soil, ground water or clay
bricks react chemically with Portland cement in the presence of water
and cause the concrete or mortar joint or brick itself to expand
considerably leading to formation of cracks.
37
 Preventive measures:
 Use dense and good quality concrete and provide increased
cover for R.C.C members to prevent carbonation.
 For preventing sulphate attack avoid use of bricks containing
high percentage of soluble salts. In case the subsoil contains
high proportion of sulphate salts use rich cement mortar or
concrete or sulphate resistant cement in executing the work.
 Since sulphate attack can take place only in the presence of
moisture, provide adequate damp proofing treatment to
ensure dry conditions.

38
 8. Cracks due to movement of ground:
• Where a building is erected on or near an area which is likely to
be subjected to landslides, earthquake, the movement of
ground due to these factors can cause cracks in building.

Preventive measures:
 In case of shrinkable soils adopt under-reamed pile
foundation.
 The structural design of the foundation should be carried out
in such a manner as to achieve uniform distribution of
pressure on the ground to avoid differential settlement.

39
Cracks due to settlement:
• Uneven (differential) settlement can be a major structural problem in small
residential buildings, although serious settlement problems are relatively
uncommon.
• Many signs of masonry distress are incorrectly diagnosed as settlement-
related when in fact they are due to moisture and thermal movements.
• Indications of differential settlement are vertical distortion or cracking of
masonry walls, warped interior and exterior openings, sloped floors, and
sticking doors and windows.
• Settlement most often occurs early in the life of a building or when there is
a dramatic change in underground conditions.

40
Often such settlement is associated with
 Improper foundation design, particularly inadequate footers and
foundation walls.
 Soil consolidation under the footings
 Soil shrinkage due to the loss of moisture to nearby trees or large plants
 Soil swelling due to inadequate or blocked surface or house drainage
 Soil heaving due to frost or excessive root growth
 Gradual downward drift of clay soils on slopes
 Changes in water table level
 Soil erosion from poor surface drainage, faulty drains, leaking water mains
or other underground water movements (occasionally, underground water
may scour away earth along only one side of a footer, causing its rotation
and the subsequent buckling or displacement of the foundation wall
above)
 Soil compaction or movement due to vibration from heavy equipment,
vehicular traffic, or blasting, or
 From ground tremors (earthquakes).

41
42
Preventive measures:
 In case of shrinkable soils, adopt under reamed pile
foundation.
 The structural design of the foundation should be carried out
in such a manner as to achieve uniform distribution of
pressure on the ground to avoid differential settlement.
 The foundation should be so proportioned that the safe
bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded.
 The soil should be well compacted.

43
9. Cracks due to vegetation:
• Cracks may occur sometimes due to the existence of fast
growing trees in the vicinity of the building.
• Such cracks can be prevented by not planting fast growing
trees near the building.

44
10.2 Preventing and Repair of Cracks in Building
Prevention
1. Avoid growing trees close to the building.
2. Avoid construction on filled-up soil.
3. Provide proper drainage around the building so that the water
doesn’t entry below the foundation.
4. Use of quality materials and mortars.
5. Proper workmanship.

Repair
1. Sealing with epoxies
2. Stitching
3. Autogenous healing (carbonation process)
4. Grouting
5. Overlays

45
46