BANKURA UNNAYANI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

MATHEMATICS
LINEAR ALGEBRA

ASMITA SINHA
COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING
PROF:-PRATIVA RANJAN DE
 january 27, 20xx
MATHEMATICS STUDIES

TECHNICAL REPORT

ASMITA SINHA
PROF:-PRATIVA
RANJAN DE
Linear Algebra is the branch of mathematics that focuses on the study of
vectors, vector spaces, and linear transformations. It deals with linear
equations, linear functions, and their representations through matrices and
determinants. It has a wide range of applications in Physics and
Mathematics. It is the basic concept for machine learning and data science.
We have explained the Linear Algebra and types of Linear Algebra.

What is Linear Algebra?

Linear Algebra is a branch of Mathematics that deals with matrices, vectors,
finite and infinite spaces. It is the study of vector spaces, linear equations,
linear functions, and matrices.

Linear Algebra Equations

The general linear equation is represented as u1x1 + u2x2+…..unxn= v

Where,
• u’s – represents the coefficients
• x’s – represents the unknowns
• v – represents the constant
There is a collection of equations called a System of linear algebraic
equations. It obeys the linear function such as –
(x1,……..xn) → u1x1+……….+unxn

Linear Algebra Topics

Below is the list of important topics in Linear Algebra.
• Matrix inverses and determinants
• Linear transformations
• Singular value decomposition
• Orthogonal matrices
• Mathematical operations with matrices (i.e. addition, multiplication)
• Projections
• Solving systems of equations with matrices
• Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
• Euclidean vector spaces
• Positive-definite matrices
• Linear dependence and independence
 • The foundational concepts essential for understanding linear algebra,
detailed here, include:
• Linear Functions
• Vector spaces
• Matrix
These foundational ideas are interconnected, allowing for the mathematical
representation of a system of linear equations. Generally, vectors are entities
that can be combined, and linear functions refer to vector operations that
encompass vector combination.

Branches of Linear Algebra

Linear Algebra is divided into different branches based on the difficulty
level of topics, which are,
• Elementary Linear Algebra
• Advanced Linear Algebra
• Applied Linear Algebra
Elementary Linear Algebra
Elementary Linear algebra covers the topics of basic linear algebra such as
Scalars and Vectors, Matrix and matrix operation, etc.

Linear Equations

Linear equations form the basis of linear algebra and are equations of the
first order. These equations represent straight lines in geometry and are
characterized by constants and variables without exponents or products
of variables. Solving systems of linear equations involves finding the values
of the variables that satisfy all equations simultaneously.
A linear equation is the simplest form of equation in algebra,
representing a straight line when plotted on a graph.
Example: 2x + 3x = 6 is a linear equation. If you have two such equations,
like 2x + 3y = 6, and 4x + 6y =12, solving them together would give you
the point where the two lines intersect.

Advanced Linear Algebra

Advanced linear algebra mostly covers all the advanced topics related to
linear algebra such as Linear function, Linear transformation,
Eigenvectors, and Eigenvalues, etc.
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Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are fundamental concepts in linear algebra.

It offers deep insights into the properties of linear transformations. An
eigenvector of a square matrix is a non-zero vector that, when the matrix
multiplies it, results in a scalar multiple of itself. This scalar is known as the
eigenvalue associated with the eigenvector. They are essential in various
applications, including stability analysis, quantum mechanics, and the study
of dynamical systems.
Consider a transformation that changes the direction or length of vectors,
except for some special vectors that only get stretched or shrunk. These
special vectors are eigenvectors, and the factor by which they are stretched
or shrunk is the eigenvalue.
Example: For the matrix A = [2, 0, 0, 3], the vector v = 1,0 is an
eigenvector because Av = 2v, and 2 is the eigenvalue.

Singular Value Decomposition

Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) is a powerful mathematical technique

used in signal processing, statistics, and machine learning. It decomposes
a matrix into three other matrices, where one represents the rotation,
another the scaling, and the third the final rotation. It’s essential for
identifying the intrinsic geometric structure of data.

Vector Space in Linear Algebra

A vector space (or linear space) is a collection of vectors, which may be
added together and multiplied (“scaled”) by numbers, called scalars.
Scalars are often real numbers, but can also be complex numbers. Vector
spaces are central to the study of linear algebra and are used in various
scientific fields.
• Basic vectors in Linear Algebra

Linear Map

A linear map (or linear transformation) is a mapping between two vector

spaces that preserves the operations of vector addition and scalar

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multiplication. The concept is central to linear algebra and has significant
implications in geometry and abstract algebra.
A linear map is a way of moving vectors around in a space that keeps the
grid lines parallel and evenly spaced.

Example: Scaling objects in a video game world without changing

their basic shape is like applying a linear map.

Positive Definite Matrices

A positive definite matrix is a symmetric matrix where all its eigenvalues

are positive. These matrices are significant in optimisation problems, as
they ensure the existence of a unique minimum in quadratic forms.
Example: The matrix A = [2, 0, 0, 2] is positive definite because it always
produces positive values for any non-zero vector.

Matrix Exponential

The matrix exponential is a function on square matrices analogous to the

exponential function for real numbers. It is used in solving systems of
linear differential equations, among other applications in physics and
engineering.
Matrix exponentials stretch or compress spaces in ways that depend
smoothly on time, much like how interest grows continuously in a bank
account.
Example: The exponential of the matrix A = [0, −1, 1, 0] represents
rotations, where the amount of rotation depends on the “time”
parameter.

Linear Computations

Linear computations involve numerical methods for solving linear

algebra problems, including systems of linear equations, eigenvalues,
and eigenvectors calculations. These computations are essential in
computer simulations, optimisations, and modelling.

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These are techniques for crunching numbers in linear algebra problems,
like finding the best-fit line through a set of points or solving systems of
equations quickly and accurately.

Linear Independence

A set of vectors is linearly independent if no vector in the set is a linear

combination of the others. The concept of linear independence is central
to the study of vector spaces, as it helps define bases and dimension.
Vectors are linearly independent if none of them can be made by
combining the others. It’s like saying each vector brings something unique
to the table that the others don’t.
Example: 1,0 and 0,1 are linearly independent in 2D space because you
can’t create one of these vectors by scaling or adding the other.

Linear Subspace

A linear subspace (or simply subspace) is a subset of a vector space that

is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication. A subspace is a
smaller space that lies within a larger vector space, following the same
rules of vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Example: The set of all vectors of the form a, 0 in 2D space is a
subspace, representing all points along the x-axis.

Applied Linear Algebra

In Applied Linear Algebra, the topics covered are generally the practical
implications of Elementary and advanced linear Algebra topics such as the
Complement of a matrix, matrix factorization and norm of vectors, etc.

Linear Programming

Linear programming is a method to achieve the best outcome in a

mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear
relationships. It is widely used in business and economics to maximize
profit or minimize cost while considering constraints.

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This is a technique for optimizing (maximizing or minimizing) a linear
objective function, subject to linear equality and inequality constraints. It’s
like planning the best outcome under given restrictions.
Example: Maximizing profit in a business while considering constraints like
budget, material costs, and labor.

Linear Equation Systems

Systems of linear equations involve multiple linear equations that share the
same set of variables. The solution to these systems is the set of values
that satisfy all equations simultaneously, which can be found using various
methods, including substitution, elimination, and matrix operations.
Example: Finding the intersection point of two lines represented by two
equations.

Gaussian Elimination

Gaussian elimination is a systematic method for solving systems of linear

equations. It involves applying a series of operations to transform the
system’s matrix into its row echelon form or reduced row echelon form,
making it easier to solve for the variables. It is a step-by-step procedure to
simplify a system of linear equations into a form that’s easier to solve.
Example: Systematically eliminating variables in a system of equations
until each equation has only one variable left to solve for.

Vectors in Linear Algebra

In linear algebra, vectors are fundamental mathematical objects that
represent quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
• Vectors operations like addition and scalar multiplication are mainly
used concepts in linear algebra. They can be used to solve systems
of linear equations and represent linear transformation, and
perform matrix operations such as multiplication and inverse
matrices.
• The representation of many physical processes’ magnitude and
direction using vectors, a fundamental component of linear algebra, is
essential.

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 • In linear algebra, vectors are elements of a vector space that can be
scaled and added. Essentially, they are arrows with a length and
direction.
Linear Function
A formal definition of a linear function is provided below:
f(ax) = af(x), and f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y)
where a is a scalar, f(x) and f(y) are vectors in the range of f, and x and y are
vectors in the domain of f.
A linear function is a type of function that maintains the properties of vector
addition and scalar multiplication when mapping between two vector
spaces. Specifically a function T: V ->W is considered linear if it satisfies two
key properties:

Property Description Equation

Additive A linear transformation’s ability to preserve T(u+v)=T(u)

Property vector addition. +T(v)

Homogeneous A linear transformation’s ability to preserve

T(cu)=cT(u)
Property scalar multiplication.

• V and W: Vector spaces

• u and v: Vectors in vector space V
• c: Scalar
• T: Linear transformation from V to W
• The additional property requires that the function T preserves the
vector addition operation, meaning that the image of the sum of two
vectors is equal to the sum of two images of each individual vector.
For example, we have a linear transformation T that takes a two-
dimensional vector (x, y) as input and outputs a new two-dimensional vector
(u, v) according to the following rule:
T(x, y) = (2x + y, 3x – 4y)
To verify that T is a linear transformation, we need to show that it satisfies
two properties:
• Additivity: T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v)
• Homogeneity: T(cu) = cT(u)
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Let’s take two input vectors (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) and compute their images
under T:
• T(x1, y1) = (2x1 + y1, 3x1 – 4y1)
• T(x2, y2) = (2x2 + y2, 3x2 – 4y2)
Now let’s compute the image of their sum:
T(x1 + x2, y1 + y2) = (2(x1 + x2) + (y1 + y2), 3(x1 + x2) – 4(y1 + y2)) = (2x1 + y1 + 2x2
+ y2, 3x1 + 3x2 – 4y1 – 4y2) = (2x1 + y1, 3x1 – 4y1) + (2x2 + y2, 3x2 – 4y2) = T(x1, y1)
+ T(x2, y2)
So T satisfies the additivity property.
Now let’s check the homogeneity property. Let c be a scalar and (x, y) be a
vector:
T(cx, cy) = (2(cx) + cy, 3(cx) – 4(cy)) = (c(2x) + c(y), c(3x) – c(4y)) = c(2x + y,
3x – 4y) = cT(x, y)
So T also satisfies the homogeneity property. Therefore, T is a linear
transformation.

Linear Algebra Matrix

• A linear matrix in algebra is a rectangular array of integers
organized in rows and columns in linear algebra. The letters a, b, c,
and other similar letters are commonly used to represent the integers
that make up a matrix’s entries.
• Matrices are often used to represent linear transformation, such as
scaling, rotation, and reflection.
• Its size is determined by the rows and columns that are present.
• A matrix has three rows and two columns, for instance. A matrix is
referred to as be 3×2 matrix, for instance, if it contains three rows
and two columns.
• Matrix basically works on operations including addition, subtraction,
and multiplication.
• The appropriate elements are simply added or removed when
matrices are added or subtracted.
• Scalar multiplication involves multiplying every entry in the matrix by
a scalar(a number).
• Matrix multiplication is a more complex operation that involves
multiplying and adding certain entries in the matrices.

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 • The number of columns and rows in the matrix determines its size.
For instance, a matrix with 4 rows and 2 columns is known as a 4×2
matrix. The entries in the matrix are integers, and they are frequently
represented by letters like u, v, and w.
For example: Let’s consider a simple example to understand more,
suppose we have two vectors, v 1, and v2 in a two-dimensional space. We
can represent these vectors as a column matrix, such as:
v1 = [12] [12 ] , v2 = [34] [34 ]
Now we will apply a linear transformation that doubles the value of the first
component and subtracts the value of the second component. Now we can
represent this transformation as a 2×2 linear matrix A
A = [2amp;−10amp;−1][20 amp;−1amp;−1 ]
To apply this to vector v1, simply multiply the matrix A with vector v1
Av1 = [2amp;−10amp;−1][12]=[0−2][20 amp;−1amp;−1 ][12 ]=[0−2 ]
The resulting vector, [0,-2] is the transformed version of v1. Similarly, we
can apply the same transformation to v2
Av2 = [2amp;−10amp;−1][34]=[3−4][20 amp;−1amp;−1 ][34 ]=[3−4 ]
The resulting vector, [3,-4] is the transformed version of v2.

Numerical Linear Algebra

Numerical linear algebra, also called applied linear algebra, explores how
matrix operations can solve real-world problems using computers. It
focuses on creating efficient algorithms for continuous mathematics tasks.
These algorithms are vital for solving problems like least-square
optimization, finding Eigenvalues, and solving systems of linear equations.
In numerical linear algebra, various matrix decomposition methods such as
Eigen decomposition, Single value decomposition, and QR factorization are
utilized to tackle these challenges.

Linear Algebra Applications

Linear algebra is ubiquitous in science and engineering, providing the
tools for modelling natural phenomena, optimising processes, and
solving complex calculations in computer science, physics, economics, and
beyond.

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Linear algebra, with its concepts of vectors, matrices, and linear
transformations, serves as a foundational tool in numerous fields, enabling
the solving of complex problems across science, engineering, computer
science, economics, and more. Following are some specific applications of
linear algebra in real-world.

1. Computer Graphics and Animation

Linear algebra is indispensable in computer graphics, gaming, and

animation. It helps in transforming the shapes of objects and their positions
in scenes through rotations, translations, scaling, and more. For instance,
when animating a character, linear transformations are used to rotate
limbs, scale objects, or shift positions within the virtual world.

2. Machine Learning and Data Science

In machine learning, linear algebra is at the heart of algorithms used for

classifying information, making predictions, and understanding the
structures within data. It’s crucial for operations in high-dimensional data
spaces, optimizing algorithms, and even in the training of neural networks
where matrix and tensor operations define the efficiency and effectiveness
of learning.

3. Quantum Mechanics

The state of quantum systems is described using vectors in a complex

vector space. Linear algebra enables the manipulation and prediction of
these states through operations such as unitary transformations (evolution
of quantum states) and eigenvalue problems (energy levels of quantum
systems).

4. Cryptography

Linear algebraic concepts are used in cryptography for encoding messages

and ensuring secure communication. Public key cryptosystems, such as
RSA, rely on operations that are easy to perform but extremely difficult to
reverse without the key, many of which involve linear algebraic
computations.
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5. Control Systems

In engineering, linear algebra is used to model and design control systems.

The behavior of systems, from simple home heating systems to complex
flight control mechanisms, can be modeled using matrices that describe the
relationships between inputs, outputs, and the system’s state.

6. Network Analysis

Linear algebra is used to analyze and optimize networks, including internet

traffic, social networks, and logistical networks. Google’s PageRank
algorithm, which ranks web pages based on their links to and from other
sites, is a famous example that uses the eigenvectors of a large matrix
representing the web.

7. Image and Signal Processing

Techniques from linear algebra are used to compress, enhance, and

reconstruct images and signals. Singular value decomposition (SVD), for
example, is a method to compress images by identifying and eliminating
redundant information, significantly reducing the size of image files without
substantially reducing quality.

8. Economics and Finance

Linear algebra models economic phenomena, optimizes financial portfolios,

and evaluates risk. Matrices are used to represent and solve systems of
linear equations that model supply and demand, investment portfolios, and
market equilibrium.

9. Structural Engineering

In structural engineering, linear algebra is used to model structures,

analyze their stability, and simulate how forces and loads are distributed
throughout a structure. This helps engineers design buildings, bridges, and
other structures that can withstand various stresses and strains.

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10. Robotics

Robots are designed using linear algebra to control their movements and
perform tasks with precision. Kinematics, which involves the movement of
parts in space, relies on linear transformations to calculate the positions,
rotations, and scaling of robot parts.

Solved Examples
Example 1: Find the sum of the two vectors A→ A = 2i + 3j + 5k and B→ B
= -i + 2j + k
Solution:
A→+B→ A+B = (2-1)i + (2 + 3)j + (5 + 1)k = i + 5j + 6k

Example 2: Find the dot product of P→ P = -2i + j + 3k and Q→ Q = i – 2j +

k
Solution:
P→.Q→ P.Q = -2i(i – 2j + k) + j(i – 2j + k) + 3k(i – 2j + k)

= -2i -2j + 3k
Example 3: Find the solution of x + 2y = 3 and 3x + y = 5
Solution:
From x + 2y = 3 we get x = 3 – 2y
Putting this value of x in the second equation we get
3(3 – 2y) + y = 5
⇒ 9 – 6y + y = 5
⇒ 9 – 5y = 5
⇒ -5y = -4
⇒ y = 4/5
Putting this value of y in 1st equation we get
x + 2(4/5) = 3
⇒ x = 3 – 8/5

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⇒ x = 7/5
Example 4: Matrix Multiplication, Find the product of the matrices:
A=(1234), B=(5678)A=(13 24 ), B=(57 68 )
Solution:
AB=(1∙5+2∙71∙6+2∙83∙5+4∙73∙6+4∙8)=(5+146+1615+2818+32)=(19224350) AB=(1∙
5+2∙73∙5+4∙7 1∙6+2∙83∙6+4∙8 )=(5+1415+28 6+1618+32 )=(1943 2250 )
Example 5: Eigenvalues of a Matrix, Find the eigenvalues of the matrix:
A=(3806)A=(30 86 )
Solution:
1. Write the characteristic equation:
A − λIA − λI
2. Find the determinant (det) of characteristic equation:
∣A–λI∣=∣3−λ806−λ∣=(3−λ)(6−λ)−8∙0=(3−λ)(6−λ) ∣A–λI∣= 3−λ0 86−λ
=(3−λ)(6−λ)−8∙0=(3−λ)(6−λ)
3. Equate the determinant with Zero “0”:
(3−λ)(6−λ)=0⇒λ=3,6(3−λ)(6−λ)=0⇒λ=3,6
Therefore, the eigenvalues are 3, 6.

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