ETSJ 15(1) JUNE 2024

Exploring the Perspective of Lean Construction Techniques on the Performance of Construction Projects in
Nigeria
*
Yaro S.A., Adamu A.D., Saidu I. & Anifowose M.O.
Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Minna
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Received: 17/04/2024 Revised: 28/04/2024 Accepted: 15/05/2024

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
The continuous poor performance of construction projects in Nigeria has given the Nigerian construction industry a
source of concern, and the inability of the industry to promptly apply innovative strategies that will mitigate these
concerns. Improving construction project performance, the concept of lean construction has emerged as a promising
approach to addressing the industry's numerous challenges while also significantly increasing project efficiency. Lean
construction, founded on the principle of maximising value while minimising waste, is closely aligned with today's
global emphasis on sustainability and efficient resource utilisation. Hence, the purpose of this study is to investigate
the perspective of lean construction techniques on project performance in some selected states in Nigeria. A
quantitative approach was used to collect data from 294 participants. To analyse the collected data, the study used a
descriptive-analytical method, specifically the Mean Item Score (MIS). The study also adopted the Kruskal-Walli’s
test to determine the variation in the opinions of the respondents according to their location. The findings of this study
revealed that root cause analysis ranked first with an MIS of 3.92. The study also revealed a shared perception among
the respondents regarding the severity of the influence of lean construction techniques on the performance of
construction projects in Nigeria. The findings of this study presented the perspectives of industry practitioners on the
efficacy of lean construction techniques in improving project performance and also contributed to filling a significant
gap in the current understanding of the lean approach.
Keywords: Cost, Construction, Lean, Performance, Project, Techniques
https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/etsj.v15i1.12

INTRODUCTION (Antunes & Gonzalez, 2015). As a result, projects

The construction industry plays an important role in the experience frequent delays and budgetary escalations,
global economy, driving GDP growth and creating job eroding stakeholder trust and jeopardising project
opportunities (Cherian, 2020; Ofori, 2015). According outcomes (Taye, 2016). Furthermore, cost overruns are
to recent World Bank statistics, the construction industry a common issue in construction, with projects routinely
contributes significantly to the GDP of every nation, exceeding budgetary limits due to inaccurate estimates,
both developed and developing. Furthermore, it unforeseen expenses, and scope changes (Shane et al.,
accounts for roughly 10% of global GDP, with variations 2009).
observed across regions and economic contexts Cost overruns are common in construction projects
(Oyewobi et al., 2023). Nonetheless, despite its around the world (Le-Hoai et al., 2008), with studies
importance as a driver of economic growth, the indicating that more than 90% of projects exceed their
construction industry faces numerous challenges that original budgets (Anigbogu et al., 2019). These
limit its capacity for impact and effectiveness overruns not only strain project finances, but also erode
(Okanlawon et al., 2023). These hurdles result from stakeholder trust and tarnish the industry's reputation for
inefficiencies, cost overruns, delays, and quality dependability and accountability (Le-Hoai et al., 2008).
problems (El-Wafa & Mosly, 2024). Furthermore, they As a result, various strategies and methodologies have
present serious difficulties for project stakeholders and emerged in recent years to address these issues and
compromise the performance of the sector as a whole transform the construction industry (Koc et al., 2020).
(El-Wafa & Mosly, 2024; Patanakul, 2014). These approaches include lean construction and
Bolland (2018) stated that one of the most significant Integrated Project Delivery (IPD). However, lean
challenges confronting the construction industry is construction stands out as a particularly promising
inefficiency, which stems from outdated methodologies, strategy (Forbes & Ahmed, 2010).
fragmented workflows (Pidgeon & Dawood, 2023), and In recent years, the concept of lean construction has
insufficient collaboration among project stakeholders emerged as a promising approach to overcoming these
(Bajpai & Misra, 2022). The conventional construction challenges of poor project performance and mitigating
model frequently relies on sequential procedures and them (Pan & Pan, 2023). It is based on the principles of
isolated decision-making, resulting in inefficient lean manufacturing, which were first developed by
resource allocation and productivity constraints Toyota's Production System (Čiarnienė &

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Vienažindienė, 2012). It aims to streamline the LITERATURE REVIEW

construction process by reducing waste, increasing Concept of Lean Construction
value, and encouraging continuous improvement Lean Construction is a philosophy based on the concepts
throughout the project's lifecycle (Barth & Formoso, of lean manufacturing adopted from the Japanese Toyota
2021). Furthermore, lean construction emphasises Manufacturing system (Gao & Low, 2014). Lean
collaboration, efficiency, and the elimination of non- thinking also became a generic term to describe
value-added activities to increase productivity, reduce universal applications beyond manufacturing (Haque &
costs, and improve project outcomes (Demirkesen et al., James-Moore, 2004; Moyano‐Fuentes & Sacristán‐
2022). Hence, countries such as the United Kingdom, Díaz, 2012). The term “lean” was coined by the research
the United States of America, and Germany have team working on international auto production to reflect
successfully used the lean construction approach (the both the waste and reduction nature of the Toyota
process of using lean construction techniques, tools, and production system and contrast it with craft and mass
methods in the construction processes) to address forms of production. However, the International Group
underperformance issues, reduce cost overruns in for Lean Construction (IGLC) introduced the term "lean
construction projects, and accelerate project delivery construction" at its first meeting in 1993 (Bertelsen,
beyond initial projections. However, research has been 2004). This designation was intended to represent the
carried out on lean construction in the Nigerian integration of lean principles into the construction
construction industry. For instance, Fadeke et al. (2016) industry (Mellado & Lou, 2020). Since then, the
assessed lean construction practices (which are practices organisation has been dedicated to promoting lean
designed to eliminate waste and improve process thinking and developing methodologies for its global
efficiency and productivity; tools, and techniques) implementation through a variety of channels, including
within the construction landscape, and it was concluded seminars, workshops, book and journal publications,
that most construction professionals are aware of lean and online resources. Its main goal is to improve the
construction and its approaches. Furthermore, Babalola building process by reducing waste, increasing value,
et al. (2019a) also researched lean construction from a and encouraging continuous improvement at all stages
sustainability perspective. Also, Adamu and of a project's lifecycle. Nikakhtar et al. (2015) stated that
Abdulhamid (2016) reported a 16.67% reduction in the the concepts and principles of lean construction revolve
project schedule with an average productivity increase around streamlining the construction process by
of 17.24% in the Nigeria housing project in Yobe State. eliminating waste, which is defined as any activity that
The project was completed in ten months instead of adds no value to the finished product or service.
twelve; other projects executed using the conventional Furthermore, the goal is to maintain a constant flow of
approach had time overruns. work, minimising interruptions, and delays while
Despite the abundance of research on lean techniques increasing efficiency and value creation at each stage of
(the different features or practices adopted in applying a the project (Mellado & Lou, 2020).
lean construction tool such as the last planner system, According to Abdelhamid et al. (2008), lean
visual management, and just-in-time, among others) and construction is guided by five fundamental principles
their obvious benefits such as streamlined processes and that are critical for achieving market acceptance and
waste reduction, Amade et al. (2019) opined that the operational excellence. The identified five principles of
application of lean techniques is still in its infancy stage leans are; precisely specifying a value from the customer
in Nigeria. It is also the result of the inadequacy of the perspective; understanding (mapping) the value stream;
focus on understanding how lean practices affect the achieving flow within the work process; achieving
overall performance of construction projects in Nigeria, customer pull at the right time; and striving for
particularly in Abuja, Lagos, and Kaduna states (Paul et perfection and continuous improvement (Cullen et al.,
al., 2019; Umar et al., 2022). The Nigerian construction 2005; Hook & Stehn, 2008; Suresh et al., 2012;
industry has also been criticised for its sluggishness in Fewings, 2013). Hence, these principles are drivers for
adopting innovative means and techniques for continuous improvement. The benefits of lean
eliminating waste, such as lean techniques (Amade et construction can only be achieved through their holistic
al., 2019). As a result, this attention gap is notable, given implementation (Dulaimi & Tanamas, 2005).
the significant potential for lean construction techniques
to improve construction project performance. Therefore, Construction Project Performance
the purpose of this study is to assess the perspective of According to Koelmans (2004) and Beleiu et al. (2015),
lean construction techniques on project performance in project success is defined as meeting the objectives
some selected states (Abuja FCT, Lagos and Kaduna outlined in the project plan. Thus, project success is
States) in Nigeria in terms of cost, time, quality, health determined by meeting technical requirements, sticking
and safety, and stakeholders’ satisfaction. to a schedule, and staying within budget (Beleiu et al.,
2015; Merrow, 2011). As a result, cost, quality, safety,

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stakeholders’ satisfaction and timeliness are all critical variations, incorrect initial assessments, delays caused
components of project success that must meet client by working extra hours, extra tasks, fraudulent actions,
expectations (Alzahrani & Emsley, 2013). However, it illegal payments, and the use of faster construction
is widely acknowledged that project delays frequently methods. The presence of insufficient contract
result in increased costs, a phenomenon observed management practices, in addition to difficulties
worldwide (Kaliba et al., 2009). associated with subcontractors and designated suppliers,
Several researchers have proposed alternative is highlighted by Kaliba et al. (2009). Furthermore,
frameworks for assessing project success. For example, complexities within the financial procedures of client
Simon-Eigbe et al. (2022) proposed evaluating process organisations can result in payment delays, creating
implementation, project perceived value, and customer financial difficulties for contractors and disrupting
satisfaction. Furthermore, a comprehensive framework project timelines (Ithana, 2020).
for assessing project performance was also proposed,
advocating for evaluation against both short-term and Time performance
long-term goals. This framework includes efficiency Time performance is another pivotal factor in evaluating
(completing projects on time and within budget), the triumph of construction projects. As emphasised by
customer satisfaction with the finished product, business Assaf and Al-Hejji (2006), time extension refers to the
success, and future plans (including market surpassing of predetermined project completion dates
opportunities). specified in the contract or agreed upon by the parties
involved (Simon-Eigbe et al., 2022). This extension can
Cost performance include delays that go beyond the deadlines specified in
Cost is a critical factor that influences project outcomes the contract or the project delivery dates that have been
and has a significant impact on the entire project agreed upon by both parties (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002).
management process (Belassi & Tukel, 1996; Tam et al., The presence of time overruns presents substantial
2020). It is regarded as an important factor in obstacles to the implementation of project development
determining the success of a project (Tam et al., 2020). plans, resulting in a range of negative consequences. The
Cost performance analysis is a tool used to determine consequences encompass conflicts between project
whether a project is adhering to its budget or aligning owners and contractors, increased project expenses,
with its actual expenditures (Pienkowski et al., 2021). reduced productivity and revenue, and the possibility of
This analysis is based on four key cost-related metrics: contract terminations (Tumi et al., 2009).
total budget cost (TBC), cumulative budget cost (CBC), Simon-Eigbe et al. (2022) emphasised that the five most
cumulative actual cost (CAC), and cumulative earned important factors influencing time management within
value (CEV) (Osamudiamen et al., 2022). the construction sector include material shortages,
Simon-Eigbe et al. (2022) stated that cost overruns rework, equipment, delays in supervision, absenteeism,
occur when the ultimate expenditures of a project and interfaces. However, one of the basic requirements
exceed the initially projected costs. Furthermore, for a successful construction project is that the project
academics have stressed that cost overruns are a major must be completed within the contract period (Clough et
obstacle in the construction industry (Nuako et al., al., 2015). Hence, good planning and good customer
2024). As a result, they have emphasised that errors in payments are the basic remedies to avoid time-outs
the initial cost estimation process are the primary causes (Simon-Eigbe et al., 2022; Tumi et al., 2009).
of these budget overruns (Amini et al., 2023).
Furthermore, inflation within projects leads to rising Quality performance
costs, with differences observed in material, equipment, Quality in construction is typically defined as the strict
and labour costs in various geographical areas (Musarat adherence to predetermined requirements, which outline
et al., 2021). Hence, contracts with subcontractors may the expected characteristics of the product, process, or
include provisions to reduce the impact of inflation service as specified in contracts (Simon-Eigbe et al.,
risks, which are mutually agreed upon with clients. 2022). The essence of "quality" is the consistent delivery
Furthermore, the presence of deficiencies in project of outcomes that meet or surpass predefined standards
planning and a lack of managerial expertise have been for a specific purpose. Therefore, "performance" can be
identified as contributing factors to errors in the use of defined as the attainment of established benchmarks for
technical data (El Khatib et al., 2020). Hence, cost quality (Arah et al., 2003). To convert the requirements
concerns are further intensified by market-related and expectations of customers into specific and
factors, such as the high expenses associated with measurable criteria for construction projects, it is crucial
machinery. to establish a thorough comprehension of the project
Mansfield et al. (1994) opined that it has a significant specifications (Bamisile, 2004). Performance metrics
impact on both the financial and time aspects of that focus on quality are centred on assessing factors
construction projects. The factors include price such as the number of defects and the expenses related

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to upholding quality standards (Simon-Eigbe et al., State as focal points because Abuja, being the capital
2022). The focus on measuring performance based on city of Nigeria, represents a hub of significant
quality highlights the importance of following specific construction activity, often involving large-scale
requirements and achieving outcomes that satisfy the projects that could benefit from lean construction
expectations of stakeholders in the construction sector. methodologies to enhance efficiency. Furthermore,
Hence, the effectiveness of a project is evaluated based Lagos and Kaduna are currently experiencing immense
on its ability to be completed within the expected urban development and infrastructure construction,
timeframe, meet established standards of quality, and making it an ideal location to assess the applicability and
effectively manage costs (Costello & Garrett, 2008). impact of lean construction practices in a bustling
metropolitan environment. In addition, an exhaustive
Effect of Lean on Construction Project Performance examination of extant scholarly works was undertaken
The incorporation of lean principles into construction to ascertain the impact of lean construction
practices has sparked widespread interest because of its methodologies on cost-effectiveness. Following this, the
potential to improve project performance (Aziz & results obtained from this comprehensive analysis were
Hafez, 2013). A thorough review of the existing consolidated to develop a survey tool, which was
literature reveals compelling evidence of the benefits of subsequently disseminated to pertinent industry
lean construction on various aspects of project stakeholders.
execution. Studies such as Negrão et al. (2017), Zimina Participants were requested to indicate their degree of
et al. (2012) and Aziz and Hafez (2013) have also concurrence or dissent with respect to the identified
demonstrated the impact of lean practices on project cost influences in terms of cost, time, quality, health and
management. The findings consistently show that lean safety and stakeholders’ satisfaction with five-point
implementation reduces costs by minimising rework, Likert scale. However, to determine the internal
reducing material waste, and optimising resource consistency and reliability of the questionnaire, the
utilisation (Aziz & Hafez, 2013). Moreover, lean study employed the Cronbach Alpha Reliability Test
techniques, such as pull planning and just-in-time (CART) using the equation 1. The test returned a value
delivery, help to improve schedule adherence and reduce of 0.982, which is more than the acceptable threshold of
project duration (Wu et al., 2019). Furthermore, studies 0.70 as postulated by Oyewobi et al. (2023) and
have shown that lean construction improves project Okanlawon et al. (2023).
quality and safety performance (Oladiran, 2017; Wu et To overcome the challenges associated with accurately
al., 2019). Also, improved stakeholder collaboration, defining the research population, researchers have
error prevention, and communication lead to higher employed a variety of non-probability sampling
quality outcomes, while promoting risk awareness and methods, including snowball sampling, quota sampling,
proactive hazard mitigation improves workplace safety. and purposeful sampling, to choose participants
Hwang et al. (2014) and Goshime et al. (2019) indicated (Mweshi & Sakyi, 2020). Therefore, this study utilised
that lean practices have been linked to increased levels purposive sampling, intentionally choosing participants
of satisfaction among stakeholders, including clients, who possessed specific characteristics that were in line
contractors, and subcontractors. Furthermore, long-term with the research objectives. Purposive sampling, also
relationships and collaborative partnerships among known as purposive sampling, is a qualitative research
stakeholders are nurtured through the timely, cost- methodology that does not rely on probability for the
effective, and quality-compliant completion of projects. selection of participants (Douglas, 2022). It involves
There are no readily available studies carried out deliberately choosing participants or cases that have
specifically in Nigeria for construction project specific characteristics or qualities that are relevant to
performance improvement taking into cognisance the the research goals (Cash et al., 2022). The choice of this
perspective of the industry practitioners on cost, time, method was made because it can accurately identify
quality, health and safety, and stakeholders' satisfaction individuals who have relevant knowledge, expertise, or
as project performance parameters which are essential in experiences related to the research topic.
determining project performance (Nwaki & Eze, 2020; A total of 350 questionnaires were electronically
Unegbu et al., 2023). disseminated to the designated professionals through the
utilisation of Google Forms. However, only 294
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY responses were fully completed by the participants,
This study utilised a quantitative methodology, verified, and considered suitable for further statistical
specifically a questionnaire-based survey, to investigate analysis. The collected data was analysed using the
the impact of lean construction techniques on the Mean Item Score (MIS) as a measure of descriptive
performance of construction projects in Nigeria, with a statistics. The study also employed the Kruskal-Wallis
specific focus on Abuja, Lagos, and Kaduna State. This test to determine the variation in the opinion of the
study strategically selected Abuja, Lagos, and Kaduna respondents based on their location using Equation 3.

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The analysis was conducted using Statistical Package indicates a preference for individuals who can
for Social Science (SPSS) version 26 and Microsoft proficiently manage enquiries, implying a higher level
Excel. of comprehension of lean concepts among them.
𝜂
∝= (1 −
Σ𝑖𝑉𝑖
) Equation (1) Furthermore, the survey revealed that 58% of
1 𝑉𝑡
participants possess either an HND or BSc degree, while
Where:
33% have achieved a Master degree. This indicates that
n = the number of items
the respondents have the necessary academic
Vt = the variance of the total scores
qualifications to understand and answer the survey
Vi = the variance of the item scores
12 𝑅2
questions. Furthermore, the table shows that the
𝐻= ∑𝑘𝑗=𝑖 − 3(𝑛 + 1) Equation (2) participants' professional backgrounds are well-suited to
𝑁(𝑁+1) 𝑛𝑗
Where: the research, with 38% being Quantity Surveyors, 26%
N = total number observations across group being Engineers, 18% being Builders, and 14% being
K = number of groups Architects. The presence of this diversity indicates that
Rj = sum of ranks for group j the respondents have the necessary expertise that can be
ni = number of observations in group j applied to the study. In addition, the employment sectors
exhibit diversity, with 37% of individuals employed in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION building, 14% in civil engineering projects, 3% in large-
Demographic Information scale engineering projects, 30% involved in both
Table 1 presents the demographic information of the construction and civil works, and 16% engaged across
respondents. The demographic breakdown reveals that all sectors. The distribution of the results highlights the
43% of participants hold positions as project managers, participants' thorough grasp of the lean approach,
while 27% are in roles as site managers. The sample confirming the reliability of their answers. Furthermore,
consists of 16% quality assurance managers, 8% a significant 52% of participants assert that they have
equipment managers, and 6% safety managers. The worked in their field for ten years or longer, which
distribution of project managers within organisations emphasises the dependability and precision of the
study's data.

Table 1: Demographic Information

Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage
Position in the organisation
Project Manager 126 43
Site Manager 79 27
Quality Assurance Manager 47 16
Safety Manager 18 6
Equipment manager 24 8
Academic Qualification
OND 21 7
HND/BSC 171 58
Master 97 33
PhD 5 2
Years of Experience
1 – 3years 35 12
4 – 6years 62 21
7 – 9years 44 15
10years and above 153 52
Location of Respondents
Abuja 95 32.31
Lagos 123 41.84
Kaduna 76 25.85
Total 294 100

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Descriptive Statistics for the Influence of Lean Bottleneck Analysis, Poka-Yoke (Error Proofing) and
Construction Techniques on the Performance of Heijunka (Level Scheduling) ranked fourth, fifth, sixth,
Construction Projects seventh and eighth with a mean item score of 3.89, 3.88,
Table 2 presents the results of the descriptive statistics 3.88, and 3.88, respectively. These findings suggest that
results using Mean Item Score (MIS). It also presents the lean construction techniques have a notable impact on
results of the opinion variations of the respondents on construction project performance in Nigeria, although
the influence of lean construction techniques on the their importance is slightly lower than that of root cause
performance of construction projects in Nigeria. The analysis and Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). The
table revealed that root cause analysis which is a finding of this research is in line with the study of Kong
methodical approach used to identify the underlying et al. (2018), which stated that to achieve long-term
causes of problems or issues (Okes, 2019). It is success in the construction industry, it is essential to
particularly effective in improving project performance incorporate Just-in-Time (JIT) delivery practices into
by addressing the fundamental issues at their source customer service. JIT delivery entails supplying
(Chuang & Howley, 2013) and is the topmost-ranked materials, equipment, and resources exactly when they
lean construction technique that influences the are required during the construction process, resulting in
performance of construction projects in Nigeria with an waste reduction, decreased inventory costs, and
MIS of 3.92. TPM helps in preventing equipment improved efficiency (Akintoye, 1995; Singh et al.,
breakdowns that will affect completion time in delayed 2013). Hence, by implementing JIT delivery in customer
projects (Xiang & Feng, 2021). service, construction companies can enhance client
Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is regarded as the satisfaction by ensuring projects are completed on time,
systematic utilisation of machinery, equipment, minimising delays, and optimising resource usage
personnel, and supporting procedures to uphold and (Babalola et al., 2019b; Forbes & Ahmed, 2010). This
enhance the reliability of production and the excellence approach not only benefits the company financially but
of systems (Jain et al., 2014) which is ranked second also promotes sustainability by minimising
with an MIS value of 3.91. These implies that TPM has environmental impact and fostering positive client
a significant impact on the performance of construction relationships.
projects in Nigeria, ranking just below root cause The study also revealed that the average ranked lean
analysis in terms of importance. This finding is in line construction technique that influences construction
with the study of Zolkafli et al. (2021), Chaurey et al. performance is continuous flow with a mean item score
(2023), and Au-Yong et al. (2022). The table also of 3.85. The study further revealed that fail-safe for
showed that 5S (Sort, Straighten, Shine, Standardise, quality, Kanban (Pull System), and kaizen are ranked
and Sustain) ranked third with a mean item score of 3.89. lowest with an MIS of 3.79, 3.84, and 3.80, respectively.
This suggests that implementing 5S principles results in This suggests that, while continuous flow is moderately
significant improvements in cost management, resource influential, these techniques may have a less significant
utilisation, and overall project efficiency (Cash et al., impact on construction project performance in Nigeria.
2022). Furthermore, the widespread adoption of 5S Nonetheless, they help to improve overall efficiency and
demonstrates its practicality and adaptability to a variety quality management in construction projects, albeit to a
of construction contexts, cementing its position as a lesser extent than other lean construction techniques
preferred lean technique among industry professionals. identified in the study. This finding is in line with the
This finding is in line with the study of Al-Aomar study of Damij and Damij (2021).
(2011). It also highlights the importance of systematic Based on the results of the Kruskal Wallis presented in
organisation, cleanliness, and standardisation in the table, it was revealed that the significant value of all
improving cost performance and operational excellence the variables is higher than 0.005 indicating a shared
in Nigerian construction projects. The finding also perception among the respondents regarding the severity
resonates with the conclusion of Enshassi et al. (2019) of the influence of lean construction techniques on the
and Gómez-Cabrera et al. (2020). The study also performance of construction projects in the study area.
revealed that team preparation, Just-in-Time (JIT),

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Table 2: Descriptive Statistics Results and the Variation in the Opinion of Respondents Based on their location
LCT Cost Time Quality H&S Satisfaction Overall
Lean Construction Techniques/Tools KW
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
5S (Sort, Straighten, Shine, Standardise,
LCT1 and Sustain) 4.02 1 3.85 9 3.98 2 3.85 7 3.73 18 3.89 3 0.111
LCT2 Concurrent Engineering 3.98 3 3.84 10 3.91 9 3.85 7 3.82 7 3.88 10 0.413
LCT3 Construction Process Analysis 3.95 5 3.86 8 3.94 6 3.86 6 3.75 16 3.87 12 0.325
LCT4 Check Sheet 3.85 15 3.83 11 3.97 3 3.85 7 3.73 18 3.85 18 0.751
LCT5 Six Sigma 3.96 4 3.8 13 3.91 9 3.84 8 3.73 18 3.85 19 0.074
LCT6 Pareto Analysis 3.93 6 3.8 13 3.96 4 3.88 4 3.71 19 3.86 17 0.219
LCT7 Check Points and Control Points 3.83 17 3.82 12 3.88 11 3.81 11 3.76 15 3.82 35 0.816
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
LCT8 (FMEA) 3.89 10 3.77 15 3.94 6 3.83 9 3.76 15 3.84 30 0.337
LCT9 Continuous Flow 3.85 15 3.89 6 3.95 5 3.75 15 3.8 9 3.85 20 0.224
LCT10 FIFO line (First In, First Out) 3.86 14 3.87 7 3.97 3 3.80 12 3.77 14 3.85 21 0.146
LCT11 Jidoka/Automation 3.84 16 3.83 11 3.91 9 3.82 10 3.78 12 3.84 29 0.199
LCT12 Kanban (Pull System) 3.80 20 3.79 14 3.85 14 3.8 12 3.73 18 3.79 38 0.215
LCT13 Kaizen 3.80 20 3.73 17 3.84 15 3.84 8 3.81 8 3.80 37 0.791
LCT14 The Last Planner 3.84 16 3.85 9 3.99 1 3.90 2 3.84 5 3.88 9 0.235
LCT15 Heijunka (Level Scheduling) 3.77 21 3.93 2 3.98 2 3.9 2 3.81 8 3.88 8 0.149
LCT16 Poka-Yoke (Error Proofing) 3.92 7 3.85 9 3.93 7 3.86 6 3.82 7 3.88 7 0.963
LCT17 First Run Studies 3.85 15 3.85 9 3.85 14 3.82 10 3.83 6 3.84 28 0.253
LCT18 Time and Motion Study 3.85 15 3.91 4 3.85 14 3.80 12 3.78 13 3.84 27 0.745
LCT19 Bottleneck Analysis 3.87 13 3.9 5 3.94 6 3.87 5 3.83 6 3.88 6 0.334
LCT20 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) 3.99 2 3.96 1 3.87 12 3.87 5 3.86 3 3.91 2 0.106
LCT21 Visual Management 3.86 14 3.8 13 3.86 13 3.84 8 3.85 4 3.84 26 0.122
LCT22 Synchronize/Line Balancing 3.88 11 3.86 8 3.87 12 3.83 9 3.84 5 3.86 16 0.350
LCT23 Work Structuring 3.92 7 3.86 8 3.88 11 3.83 9 3.88 2 3.87 11 0.578
LCT24 Multi-Process Handling 3.81 19 3.92 3 3.86 13 3.79 13 3.77 14 3.83 31 0.806
LCT25 5 Whys (Why, what, where, who, when) 3.85 15 3.87 7 3.93 7 3.77 14 3.77 14 3.84 25 0.034
LCT26 Fail-Safe for Quality 3.8 20 3.9 5 3.79 18 3.79 13 3.68 20 3.79 39 0.262
LCT27 Daily Huddle Meetings 3.82 18 3.93 2 3.79 18 3.81 11 3.73 18 3.82 34 0.149

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LCT28 Preventive Maintenance 3.9 9 3.85 9 3.86 13 3.82 10 3.8 9 3.85 22 0.718
LCT29 Quality Function Development (QFD) 3.83 17 3.9 5 3.82 17 3.82 10 3.78 13 3.83 32 0.946
LCT30 SMART Goals 3.9 9 3.9 5 3.87 12 3.83 9 3.82 7 3.86 16 0.174
LCT31 PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) 3.91 8 3.89 6 3.88 11 3.81 11 3.79 10 3.86 15 0.990
LCT32 Setup Reduction 3.87 12 3.84 10 3.83 16 3.89 3 3.74 17 3.83 33 0.873
LCT33 Work Standardisation 3.93 6 3.82 12 3.89 10 3.82 10 3.73 18 3.84 24 0.884
LCT34 Suggestion schemes 3.89 10 3.87 7 3.88 11 3.85 7 3.79 10 3.86 14 0.107
LCT35 Statistical Process Control 3.87 12 3.85 9 3.89 10 3.9 2 3.79 10 3.86 13 0.767
LCT36 Just-in-Time (JIT) 3.9 9 3.9 5 3.93 7 3.87 5 3.78 11 3.88 5 0.650
LCT37 Team Preparation 3.99 2 3.83 11 3.93 7 3.9 2 3.81 8 3.89 4 0.586
LCT38 Muda Walk 3.89 10 3.76 16 3.83 16 3.77 14 3.76 15 3.80 36 0.182
LCT39 Value Stream Mapping 3.88 11 3.79 14 3.91 9 3.83 9 3.8 9 3.84 23 0.458
LCT40 Root Cause Analysis 3.96 4 3.89 6 3.92 8 3.92 1 3.89 1 3.92 1 0.224
KW = Kruskal Wallis Sig Value

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CONCLUSION Aibinu, A. & Jagboro, G. (2002). The effects of

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