The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES)

|| Volume || 10 || Issue || 4 || Series I || Pages || PP 09-12|| 2021 ||

ISSN (e): 2319-1813 ISSN (p): 20-24-1805

Paternity Testing In Nigeria: Evolutionary Trends, Current

Status and Challenges in a Low Resource Economy
1
Patrick Olanrewaju Osho, 2Adesoa Ojo Matilda, 3 Joseph Oluyemi Adesoji,
4
Osho Evelyn Salewa, 5Oni Oluwatosin Idowu, 6 Okunuga Ndidi Aisha,
7
Oluwole Matthew Temitope.
1,2
Department of Hematology and Blood transfusion, University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital, Ondo
city, Ondo state, Nigeria.
3
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Nelson Mandela University, Port-Elizabeth, South-Africa
4.
Department of Radiology, University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital, Ondo city, Ondo state, Nigeria.
5
Department of Haematology and Virology, University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital, Akure, Ondo
State.
6
Department of Radiology (Oncology Unit), University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital, Ondo city,
Ondo state, Nigeria..
7
Department of Haematology and Virology, University of Medical Sciences Teaching Hospital, Akure, Ondo
State.
Corresponding author: Dr. Osho Patrick.

--------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------
Paternity testing in Nigeria is not a new phenomenon. Over the years, there have been controversies
surrounding the paternity of children in our society which has further substantiated the need for accurate
testing to establish the paternity of children in many circumstances. This study examined paternity testing in
Nigeria, its evolutionary trends, current status and challenges. The study was a reviewed literature in which
data was sourced from reputable publications related to the study. The study explored the evolutionary trend of
paternity testing in Nigeria prior to the advent of the current DNA testing such as the blood group antigen and
the serological testing. Some of the challenges identified in the study confronting paternity testing in Nigeria
include lack of human capacity, poor funding and ill-equipped laboratories that can only offer ABO/genotype
screening services which may result to inaccurate paternity results among others. As a result, this has led to
various discrepancies in paternity results.
Keywords: Paternity, DNA testing, ABO genotype, Serological testing
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Date of Submission: 27-03-2021 Date of Acceptance: 10-04-2021
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I. INTRODUCTION
Paternity testing can be defined as an assessment of possible paternity based on a comparison of the
genetic markers of the offspring and those of the putative father. Paternity testing can also be defined as the use
of genetic fingerprinting to decide the biological parent-child relationship between two individuals [1]
Human identification has not always been conclusive. Prior to the advent of the use of
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) for paternity testing, the scientific community used other biological techniques
for identification of people and to determine biological relationships. In the 1920s and 30s, people become
fascinated with the idea that paternity was a biological truth science could uncover However, many of the
earliest paternity test seems outrageous today. A device known as oscillophore was invented by Albert Abrams
which is used to determine paternity by measuring vibrations of the blood .Others related shape of ears or even
disinterred dead bodies to establish a correlation. Also, in 1940s, Brazilian dentist Luiz Silva analyzed teeth, jaw
and facial features to determine paternity. However, since the 1990s, the more common approach has been to
consider the presence of particular genotypic markers when attempting to establish fatherhood (and in a handful
of cases, motherhood) [2]
Most of the questions relating to paternity are not so easy to answer. For decades, they have posed a
major challenge to scientists and potential parents. There are cases which concrete and scientific evidence of
parentage are demanded for. Paternity test may be demanded by either the physician or a court order,
immigration authorities, government child support agencies or welfare benefits.

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PURPOSE OF PATERNITY TESTING
Paternity testing is done for various purposes which includes;
1. To obtain child support
2. To foster peace of mind for all involved parties
3. To determine the biological father or the biological mother
4. It is an important tool in proving immigration status in cases of family reunification
5. To establish accurate medical history of the child.

THE EVOLUTION OF PATERNITY TESTING TECHNIQUES

Over the past decades, several techniques have evolved for paternity testing. This has led to improvement in the
accuracy of results for the test. Techniques used for testing includes;
 BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN (ABO TYPING)
 SEROLOGICAL TESTING
 DNA TESTING

BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN

The most common method used for paternity test before the invention of DNA testing was the use of
blood group antigen. This technique was presented to paternity investigation after the invention of Mendelian
inheritance of the ABO blood group system by von Dungern and Hirschfeld in 1910 [3,4]. In 1920, the first
ABO testing for paternity testing was done in Europe and states like New York and Wisconsin adopted the
technique in 1935 [5]
This test is based on the inheritance of blood types from one generation to another and its majorly used
to disprove paternity [6]. The scientific basis for blood testing in disputed paternity cases lies on the principles
of Mendelian genetics. Large number of distinguishable genetic markers are present in the blood which have
specific inheritance patterns. These genetic markers are inherited by the children in pairs one from each parent
[7]. The blood group antigen system that are of greatest importance includes ABO, Rh, MNSs, Kell, Duffy and
Kidd. Each of the system produces a high level of exclusion in relation to cost of analysis. The antisera required
for testing are reliable and readily available [8].
The ABO gene is located on the long arm of human chromosome 9 and consist of 7 exons [9]. The A
and B are co-dominant while the O is recessive. Two A alleles or one A allele and one O allele has been known
to be inherited by someone with blood group A, also a person with blood group B inherited either two B alleles
or one B allele and one O allele and a person with blood group AB will inherit one A allele and one B allele.
This knowledge has been used for exclusion of a man from being a child’s father in which a man with blood
group AB would only pass to his offspring either the A or the B allele and not the O allele [10]
Steps that are involved in the use of blood group antigen for paternity testing includes;
 Identification of the people concern and recording of their ethnic origin
 Ensure that samples are taken from the people in the paternity suit
 Correct investigation should be carried out on blood samples and results checked
 Analysis of data
 Present either proof of exclusion a probability of paternity
 Reports should be presented to lawyers which shows the importance of the laboratory results [11]

SEROLOGICAL TESTING
In the mid-1970s, scientists focused on tissue typing and discovered the Human Leukocyte Antigen
(HLA), a protein present in the body except for the red cells. White cells found in blood were determined to
have a high concentration of HLA. There are four types of HLAs: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C and HLA-D [12].
The different types of HLA varied between people who were not biologically related. Because of the high
variability of HLA types among people, HLA was used to answer about biological relationships. The power for
exclusion for HLA testing is 80%. When coupled with ABO and serological testing, it’s about 90% [13]. The
HLA helps in provision of evidence of tissue compatibility typing of tissue recipients and donors. It also aids in
genetic counselling and in paternity testing. It also plays an important role in the body’s immune response.
Because the HLAs are essential to immunity, identification aids in determination of the degree of tissue
compatibility between transplant recipients and donors [12].
HLA types can be shared with close relatives which is majorly seen in cases of organ transplant like
kidney where a donor with the same HLA type mostly a close relative will be needed for the transplant [6]. This
will pose a difficulty in ruling out father of two or more brothers with same HLA type as it cannot differentiate
between related alleged fathers. The HLA testing in paternity determination is to identify specific leukocyte
antigens, HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C and HLA-D [14].

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DNA TESTING
Alec Jeffreys, a professor of Genetics at University of Leciester developed the process of DNA
fingerprinting in 1984 and it was later adopted as use for paternity testing in 1988 [15,16]
Nowadays, DNA testing is the most common testing done to determine paternity. The process of DNA
testing for paternity involves five steps which includes sample collection, DNA extraction, quantification,
amplification and STR analysis. DNA is extracted from biological source in the sample collection stage which is
measured to analyse the amount of DNA recovered in quantitation step. Amplification stage involves the target
and copying of specific regions of DNA with polymerase chain reaction. Use of commercial kits to enable
simultaneous PCR of 13 to 16 STR markers occur in the final step which is the Short Tandem Repeat (STR)
analysis step [17].

DNA QUANTITATION USING RT-PCR

This technique is required mainly to ensure that DNA recovered from extraction is from human rather
from other source such as bacteria [18]. Isolation of DNA sample ensures the assessment of its quantity and
quality [19]. The main aim of DNA quantitation in paternity cases is to detect the suitable quantity of DNA
template to use in PCR amplification of short tandem repeat loci to avoid off scale data and related objects [20].
Overblown electropherograms which affects interpretation of results occurs in PCR amplification of too much
DNA results whereas too little DNA result can lead to loss of alleles due to random amplification and failure for
equal sampling of the STR alleles present in the sample [21]. The various DNA quantitation tests are used in
approaches such as yield gels, Pico Green, end-point PCR, real-time quantitative PCR, UV absorbance, and slot
blot. The most common method used to determine DNA harvest and clarity is UV absorbance. Two major
approaches are used in DNA quantitation which are the fluorogenic 5’ nuclease assay known as TaqMan or
intercalating dye such as SYBER Green [21].

PCR AMPLIFICATION
Polymerase chain reaction, an enzymatic process which involves the replication of specific region of
DNA repeatedly to produce many copies of a particular sequence which are defined by oligonucleotide primers
complementary to the 39-ends of the sequence of interest. Inhibition of PCR or poor primer annealing could
contribute to reduction in amplification efficiency leading to low PCR products [22].
The use of PCR technology has improved DNA testing, some of which includes the amplification of
small quantity of DNA to increase the amount of DNA up to a billon copies of same DNA used for analysis.
Also, use of PCR technology ensures easy and fast performance of several DNA relationship tests. Buccal swab
specimens are used in a standard DNA parternity test today and are usually collected from the tested party in a
non-invasive manner although paternity can be determined before the child is born via the use of amniotic fluid
which contains the embryo’s DNA [17].
Various precautions should be carried out during this test to ensure accuracy of results, they include the
use of aerosol-resistant pipette tips to prevent cross contamination during liquid transfers, laminar flow hood
should be used for reactions to prevent contamination, use of disposable gloves should be encouraged,
equipment such as pipettes and reagents for sitting up PCR should be kept separate from other equipment in the
laboratory, PCR amplification reactions should be carried out in a separate containment cabinet [17].

DNA TESTING WITH RLFP

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) which was introduced in 1980 is a technique used
to exploit variations in homologous DNA sequences known as polymorphism in order to distinguish individuals
or for location of genes within a sequence [23].
In this test, DNA is cut into specific fragments with the use of restriction enzymes. Use of special gel
with an electric charge separates these fragments by sizes which the longer ones are removed due to inability to
move fast through the gel as short fragments. The short fragments are usually compared to check for similarities
in their patterns. Half of the mother’s DNA fragments and half of father’s DNA fragments will match the child’s
DNA fragments. Accuracy of this test was placed at 99.99% [24,25].

CHALLENGES
Nigeria as a whole cannot be excluded from prevailing global paternity dispute or fraud. However, the
laboratories in the country are poorly equipped and may only provide ABO/genotype screening services which
are prone to inconclusive paternity results. The analysis of DNA polymorphism which gives a closely accurate
result is not commonly practiced in tertiary hospital in Nigeria including University of Medical Sciences
Teaching Hospital, Ondo due to various challenges which includes lack of human resources, lack of financial
support, lack of facilities, and low expertise in the country. This leads to the majority of the private diagnostic

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centres in the country sending samples out of the country for processing which will take a longer period before
the results are sent back to the country.
Also in Nigeria, no law has been made on the accreditation of the paternity testing laboratories.
Accreditation will ensure legitimacy and reliability of the individual’s paternity test and lack of this has a major
side effects on the result of the test parties and the few paternity testing laboratories in the country serves as
collection centres for accredited laboratories in developed countries. [26]
Paternity testing practices in the country are still unregulated and the only practice carried out involves
collection of DNA samples using test kits and sending outside the country for laboratory analysis [27].
Unavailability of accrediting agencies to oversee this process may sometime lead to quality assurance issues.

II. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, various factors contribute to paternity discrepancy in the nation, with this influencing the outlook
of the general society on paternity test as a reliable test.
However, this situation can be arrested by improving accuracy of results gotten during paternity testing.
Therefore, we recommend the following actions:
1. Training of staffs on the procedures for the paternity testing will help improve result accuracy as well
as provide more manpower in the country.
2. Financial support should be provided by the Nigerian government through the Central Bank of Nigeria
(CBN) by reducing the interest rates on loans to single digits to further encourage all health institutions in
carrying out this test within Nigeria.
3. More Infrastructures for carrying out this analysis should be provided by the Government and private
institutions in all geo-political zones in the country.
4. More Institutional collaborations with centers outside the country should be encouraged.
5. All higher Institutions should be encouraged and supported by either governmental, or private entities
to have a molecular and diagnostic laboratory of high standard to improve the health industry.
6. Tested parties must be properly identified and specimens should be collected by a third party
professional with no relationship with tested parties and no interest in outcome of the test

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