isko yaad kane ka

trick tho ap ko pata

hi hoga.....
He Lina Na Ki RaB se
FaRiyaad...and so on

Salient Features of the Modern Periodic Table:

(a) It contains 7 horizontal rows like that of Mendeleev series called periods and 18
vertical columns called groups.
(b) Elements with similar valence shell configuration are arranged in the vertical
columns referred to as families or groups.
(c) Each period corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the
elements in the period. The first period contains 2 elements. The subsequent periods
consist of 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 and 32 elements respectively.
(d) Fourteen elements of both sixth and seventh periods / i.e., lanthanoids and actinoids
respectively are placed in separate panels at the bottom.

Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number below 100

Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number above 100

Division of Elements into Blocks

Elements are divided into blocks based on the type of subshell that their
valence electrons occupy. There are four blocks in the periodic table: s, p, d,
and f.

S-block

The elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 2

(alkaline earth metals) which have ns¹ and ns2
outermost electronic configuration belong to the s-
Block Elements.
They are all reactive metals with low ionization
enthalpies. They lose the outermost electron(s) readily
to form 1+ ion (in the case of alkali metals) or 2+ ion
(in the case of alkaline earth metals).
The metallic character and the reactivity increase as
we go down the group. Because of high reactivity they
are never found pure in nature.
The compounds of the s-block elements, with the
exception of those of lithium and beryllium are
predominantly ionic.
P-block

The p-block elements are those in which the valence electrons occupy the p subshell. The
p-Block Elements comprise those belonging to Group 13 to 18 and these together with
the s-Block Elements are called the Representative Elements or Main Group Elements.
The outermost electronic configuration varies from ns 2 np 1 to ns 2 np6 in each period.
At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns 2 np6
configuration. All the orbitals in the valence shell of the noble gases are completely
filled by electrons and it is very difficult to alter this stable arrangement by the
addition or removal of electrons. The noble gases thus exhibit very low chemical
reactivity.
Preceding the noble gas family are two chemically important groups of non-metals.
They are the halogens (Group 17) and the chalcogens (Group 16)
These two groups of elements have highly negative electron gain enthalpies and readily
add one or two electrons respectively to attain the stable noble gas configuration.
The non-metallic character increases as we move from left to right across a period and
metallic character increases as we go down the group.

Characteristics of p-Block elements

The compounds of p-block elements are generally covalent although their
ionic character increases down the group.

From left to right 13 to 18, reducing character decreases.

The p-block elements generally show more than one oxidation state.

The reactivity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.

*isme se kuch elements yaad

kr lena Ans likhte time dikha
dena
D-block
These elements are characterised by the filling of innerd orbitals by electrons and are
therefore referred to as d-blockelements.
1-10
These elements have the general outer electronic configuration (n-1)d ns0-2. They are
all metals.
They are all metals and form colored ions. They mostly exhibit variable valency
(oxidation states).
They are paramagnetic in nature and are used as catalysts.
However, Zn, Cd and Hg which have the electronic configuration (n-1)dns do not show
most of the properties of transition elements.
Transition elements act as a bridge between the chemically active metals of s-block
elements and the less active elements of Groups 13 and 14 and thus take their familiar
name "Transition Elements".
They have high melting and boiling points.

D-Block Elements

f-block

f-block elements are those in which the last electron enters any of the f-orbitals of
their atoms. They are also called inner transition elements.
f-block elements are divided into two series.
Lanthanides (or Lanthanoids): Elements with atomic numbers 57 to 71 (La to Lu).
Actinides (or Actinoids): Elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 (Ac to Lr).
 Lanthanides
Electronic Configuration : General configuration (n-2)f (1-14) (n-1)d (0-1)ns2
Characteristics
Shiny and silvery-white metal
High melting points
Gradual contraction : Lanthanide contraction is observed due to poor shielding by f-
electrons, leading to a decrease in atomic and ionic sizes.
Oxidation States : +3 is the most common oxidation state, though +2 and +4 for some
elements.
Chemical Reactivity : Reactivity decreases with an increase in atomic number.
Applications : in alloys, catalysts, phosphors, and other industrial applications.
Actinides
The actinide series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series,
with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium.
Characteristics :
All actinides are radioactive.
Show a greater variety of oxidation states, ranging from +3 to +7.
Actinide Contraction : Similar to lanthanide contraction, resulting in a decrease in
atomic and ionic sizes across the series.
Highly Electropositive : Actinides are highly electropositive and reactive, especially when
finely divided.
Applications : Used as fuel in nuclear reactors and in the production of nuclear weapons.

General Properties Of f-block

Actinide elements are radioactive. Many of the actinoid elements have been made only in
nanogram quantities or even less by nuclear reactions, and their chemistry is not fully
studied.
The elements after uranium are called Transuranium Elements.
Position in Periodic Table : Placed separately at the bottom of the periodic table to
maintain its structure and readability.
Magnetic Properties : Many f-block elements have unpaired f-electrons.
Complex Formation : Ability to form complexes with various ligands, often due to the
availability of vacant f-orbitals.
Important Trends
Atomic and Ionic Sizes : Sizes decrease across the series (lanthanide and actinide
contraction).
Ionization Enthalpies : Generally low and increase across the series.
Electronegativity : Generally low, reflecting the metallic character of these elements.
Metals
Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the
left side of the Periodic Table.
Metals are solids at room temperature.
Metal usually have high melting and boiling points. ye sari properties ap log
pehle se padhe hue ho
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
bus ek nazar dek lena
They are malleable and ductile.

Non-metals
Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
Non-metals are usually solids or gases at low temperature with low melting and
boiling points.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
The non-metallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the
Periodic
Table.
Most non-metallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.

Metalloids
The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium)
show the characteristic, of both metals and non-metals. These elements
are also called semimetal.

Noble Gases
These are the elements present in group 18.
Eash period ends with noble gas element.
All the members are of gaseous nature and because of the presence of all
the occupied filled orbitals, they have very little tendency to take part in
chemical combination.
These are also called inert gases.

Transition Elements
The transition elements include, all the d-block elements and they are present in
the centre of the periodic table between s and p-block elements.
 Atomic Radii

Atom is considered to be a very small spherical entity. So, in simple terms atomic radii can
be defined as the distance of the outermost shell of an atom from the centre of its nucleus.
Being very small, it is usually expressed in nm.
Atomic radius is taken as the effective size which is the distance of closest approach of one
atom to the another atom in a given bonded situation.
Various names had been proposed for the atomic radii depending upon their experimental
determinations and nature of atom. These are:
(i) Covalent radias
(ii) lonic radius
(iii) Metallic radius
(iv) Van der Waals radius
(i) Covalent radius : Covalent bond is normally formed between the non-metals hence this
term, covalent radius is used for them. It is defined as half of the internuclear distance
between two successively covalently bonded atoms in a molecule.
Atomic radii can be measured by X-ray or other spectroscopic methods. Covalent radius- d2
Covalent radius can be of either homo diatomic molecules like that of H., Cl, Br, etc or
hetero diatomic molecules like that of HCl, HBr, etc.
Atom A Atom E

d
Where d is the internuclear distance between two covalently bonded atoms A and B For
example, if we consider a covalently bonded chlorine molecule (Cl), the bond distance in it is
198 pm. The half of the distance (99 pm) is taken as the atomic radius of chlorine atom.
The atomic radii of few elements are given below which gives an inference about two trends
in the terms of nuclear charge and energy level.
 Atomic Radii across the period

Atomic Radii down the group

If we observe the trend in atomic radii across the period and down the group, we find that
the atomic size generally decreases across the period whereas there is an increase in the size
down the group. The reason which can be attributed to this variation is the nuclear charge.

(a) Variation of atomic radius across with atomic number across the second period
 (b) Variation of atomic radius with atomic number for alkali metals and halogens

In a period, as the atomic number increases, the increasing number of electrons are added
to the same valence shell. This increases the effective nuclear charge; consequently, the
force of attraction of the electrons to the nucleus goes on increasing. The gradual increase
in the effective nuclear charge results in the decrease of the atomic size.
(ii) Metallic radius : Metallic radius is taken as half of the distance between two successive
nuclei of two adjacent metal atoms. For example, the distance between two adjacent
copper atoms in solid copper is 256 pm; hence, the metallic radius of copper is assigned a
value of 128 pm.
(iii) Ionic radius : The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a
cation, whereas the gain of an electron leads to the formation of an anion.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity of an element is the tendency of an atom to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself. It is a qualitative measure, because unlike ionization
enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy which are related to atoms in the isolated
gaseous state, it is in the bonded state and hence not a measurable quantity. A
lthough a number of numerical scales of electronegativity such as Pauling scale,
Mulliken-Jaffe scale, Allred Rochow scale have been developed. Yet the Pauling scale
is most widely used.
 Electronegativity values (on Pauling scale) Across the periods

Electronegativity values (on Pauling scale) down the periods

The electronegativity of any given element is not constant, it varies depending on the
element to which it is bonded. Even though it is a qualitative quantity, it helps in the
prediction of the type of bond which exists between two bonded atoms.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

Electron Affinity Δ e.gΗ°:

The amount of energy released or absorbed when electron is added to the valence shell of an
isolated gaseous atom known as Electron affinity.
-
X + e- X + Electron Affinity
Mostly energy is released in the process of first Electron affinity.
-
X + e- X + 1st Electron Affinity
If 1st Electron affinity is exothermic
Δ e.gΗ (electron gain enthalpy) = - ve
1st Electron affinity is mostly positive
Electron affinity of neutral atom is equal to ionisation potential of its anion.
{Energy evolved in Electron affinity to convert neutral atom to anion} = {Energy absorbed to
remove e from anion}
 Electron Affinity
e.g X + e- X- + Energy
Ionisation Potential

-
On adding 2nd electron in anion X
-2
X + e- X + IInd Electron Affinity
or
-
X + e- +
-2
IInd Electron affinity X + Δ e.g Η IInd Electron Gain Enthalpy --> +ve
IInd Electron affinity is endothermic process, i.e. energy has to given to introduce 2nd
electron in an anion, because of repulsion between negative charge on anion (X) and 2
electron.II Electron Affinity is always negative.

Periodic Properties

Periodic properties refer to the regular trends in properties of elements in the

periodic table based on their position.

These properties are largely influenced by the electronic structure of the atoms
of the elements.
Some of the important periodic properties are:

Atomic radius:
The atomic radius of an element refers to the distance between the nucleus and the
outermost electron in the atom. The atomic radius increases from top to bottom
within a group and decreases from left to right across a period.

Ionic Radius:The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between
cations and anions in ionic crystals. In general, the ionic radii of elements exhibit
the same trend as the atomic radii.
Cation: The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a
cation. The radius of cation is always smaller than that of the atom.

Anion: Gain of an electron leads to an anion. The radius of the anion is always
larger than that ‘ of the atom.
Ionization Energy : Ionization energy tends to decrease down a group. This is because the
valence electrons are increasingly farther from the nucleus, which reduces the energy
required to remove them from the atom. As a result, elements within a group are more
likely to lose their valence electrons and form cations.

Atomic radius : Atomic radius generally increases down a group. This is because the
valence electrons are increasingly farther from the nucleus, and are shielded by inner
electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus. As a result, the electrons are held less
tightly, and the atomic radius increases.

Metallic character : The metallic character of elements generally increases down a group.
This is because the valence electrons are increasingly farther from the nucleus, and are
held less tightly. This makes the atoms more likely to lose electrons and form cations,
which are characteristic of metallic behavior.
 Important Question

Ques:How would you react to the statement that the electronegativity of N on

the Pauling scale is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds?

Electronegativity of an element is a variable property. It is different in different

compounds. Hence, the statement which says that the electronegativity of N on the
Pauling scale is 3.0 in all nitrogen compounds is incorrect. For example, the
electronegativity of N is different in NH3 and NO2

Ques:Describe the theory associated with the radius of an atom as it

(a) gains an electron
(b) loses an electron

(a) By gaining an electron, an anion is formed.

𝐴+𝑒−⟶𝐴−

When an atom gains an electron, its size increases. When an electron is added, the
number of electrons goes up by one. This results in an increase in repulsion among the
electrons. However, the number of protons remains the same. As a result, the effective
nuclear charge of the atom decreases and the radius of the atom increases.

(b) By the loss of an electron, a cation is formed

𝐵⟶𝐵++𝑒−

When an atom loses an electron, the number of electrons decreases by one while the
nuclear charge remains the same. Therefore, the interelectronic repulsions in the
atom decreases. As a result, the effective nuclear charge increases. Hence, the radius
of the atom decreases.
 Ques:Would you expect the first ionization enthalpies for two isotopes of the same
element to be the same or different? Justify your answer

The ionization enthalpy of an atom depends on the number of electrons and

protons (nuclear charge) of that atom. Now, the isotopes of an element have the
same number of protons and electrons. Therefore, the first ionization enthalpy
for two isotopes of the same element should be the same

Ques:Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having metal, non‐metal, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature.

(a) The element has 5 electrons in its outermost subshell means that the electronic
configuration should be ns 2np 5 . This represents the electronic configuration of
the halogen group. Thus, the element can be F, Cl, Br, I, or At.

(b) An element that has two valence electrons will tend to lose two
electrons easily to attain the nearest stable noble gas configuration. The
general electronic configuration of such an element thus will be ns 2 . This
represents the electronic configuration of group 2 elements. Therefore the
element can be Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, or Ba

(c) An element tends to gain two electrons if it needs only two electrons to attain
the nearest stable noble gas configuration. The general electronic configuration of
such an element should be ns 2np 4 . This represents the electronic configuration
of the oxygen family. Therefore the element can be O, S, Se, Te, or Po.

(d) The group having metal, non‐metal, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature is group 17.
 Ques:The increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb
whereas that among group 17 elements is CI > Br > I. Explain.

The Group 1 elements have only one valence electron, which they tend to lose.
Whereas, Group 17 elements need only one electron to attain the nearest noble gas
configuration. On moving down group 1, the ionisation enthalpies decrease which
means that the energy required to lose the valence electron decreases. Thus,
reactivity increases on moving down a group. Thus, the increasing order of
reactivity among group 1 elements is as follows:

Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs

In group 17, on moving down the group from Cl to I, the electron gain enthalpy
becomes less negative. Thus, the tendency to gain electrons decreases down group
17. So, reactivity decreases down a group. Thus, F is the most reactive halogen. The
decreasing order of reactivity among group 17 elements is as follows:

F > Cl > Br > I

group 17 me electron gain

enthalpy or negative ho jati hai

Assign the position of the element having the outer electronic configuration
(i) ns 2np 4 for n = 3
(ii) (n − 1)d 2ns 2 for n = 4, and
(iii) (n − 2)f 7 (n − 1)d 1ns 2 for n = 6, in the periodic table.
 (i) n = 3 means that the element belongs to the 3rd period. It is a p-block element
because the last electron occupies the p‐ orbital.
There are four electrons in the p‐orbital. So, the corresponding group of the
element = Number of s‐block groups + the number of d ‐block groups + the number
of p‐electrons = 2 + 10 + 4 = 16.

Hence, the element belongs to the 3rd period and the 16th group of the periodic
table. Therefore, the element is Sulphur.

(ii) The element belongs to the 4th period since n = 4. It is a d-block element as d
− orbitals are not completely filled.
There are 2 electrons in the d- orbital. So, the corresponding group of the element
= Number of s‐block groups + the number of d‐block groups = 2 + 2 = 4. ` Hence, the
element belongs to the 4th period and the 4th group.

(iii) The element belongs to the 6th period since n = 6. It is an f‐ block element as the
last electron occupies the f‐ orbital. It belongs to group 3 of the periodic table
because all f‐block elements belong to group 3. Its electronic configuration is [Xe] 4f
75d 16s 2 . Thus, its atomic number is 54 + 7 + 1 + 2 = 64 . Therefore, the element is
Gadolinium.

Ques: The first ionization enthalpy ( ᵢ H) values of the third period elements, Na, Mg
and Si are respectively 496, 737 and 786 kJ mol⁻¹. Predict whether the first ᵢ, H value
for Al will be more close to 575 or 760 kJ
mol⁻¹? Justify your answer.
 Solution

It will be more close to 575 kJ mol⁻¹.

The value for Al should be lower than that of Mg because of

effective shielding of 3p electrons from the nucleus by 3s-

electrons.

Ques: Which of the following will have the most negative electron gain enthalpy

and which the least negative?

P, S, Cl, F.

Explain your answer.

Solution

Electron gain enthalpy generally becomes more negative across a period as we

move from left to right.

Within a group, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down a group.

However, adding an electron to the 2p-orbital leads to greater repulsion than

adding an electron to the larger 3p-orbital. Hence the element with most

negative electron gain enthalpy is chlorine; the one with the least negative

electron gain enthalpy is phosphorus.