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Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on

surface and groundwater quality in rural and urban
areas
a a
Nitasha Khatri & Sanjiv Tyagi
a
Gujarat Environment Management Institute, Department of Forest and Environment,
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Published online: 02 Sep 2014.
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To cite this article: Nitasha Khatri & Sanjiv Tyagi (2015) Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on surface and
groundwater quality in rural and urban areas, Frontiers in Life Science, 8:1, 23-39, DOI: 10.1080/21553769.2014.933716
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Frontiers in Life Science, 2015
Vol. 8, No. 1, 23–39, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2014.933716
Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on surface and groundwater quality in rural
and urban areas
Nitasha Khatri∗ and Sanjiv Tyagi
Gujarat Environment Management Institute, Department of Forest and Environment, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
(Received 25 April 2014; accepted 9 June 2014 )
Although water constitutes 71% of the earth’s surface, only 0.3% of it is available as fresh water for human use. Moreover,
the quality of fresh water in ground and surface systems is of great concern, as potable water needs to have appropriate
mineral content. Ground and surface water quality in rural and urban environments is affected by both natural processes and
anthropogenic influences. Because of this, water is becoming scarcer as the population increases across the world. Natural
processes leading to changes in water quality include weathering of rocks, evapotranspiration, depositions due to wind,
leaching from soil, run-off due to hydrological factors, and biological processes in the aquatic environment. These natural
processes cause changes in the pH and alkalinity of the water, and also phosphorus loading, increase in fluoride content
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 05:55 13 March 2015
and high concentrations of sulphates. Anthropogenic factors affecting water quality include impacts due to agriculture, use
of fertilizers, manures and pesticides, animal husbandry activities, inefficient irrigation practices, deforestation of woods,
aquaculture, pollution due to industrial effluents and domestic sewage, mining, and recreational activities. These anthro-
pogenic influences cause elevated concentrations of heavy metals, mercury, coliforms and nutrient loads. This paper studies
the effects of natural processes and human influences in rural and urban aquatic systems. Pollution due to environmental
parameters such as heavy metal pollution, heavy metals and bacterial and pathogenic contamination of both urban and rural
areas is discussed in detail.
Keywords: rural; urban; anthropogenic; water quality; fluoride
1. Introduction water shortages (Kulshreshtha 1998). A report published in

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface (CIA The world November 2009 (Mckinsey 2009) indicates that by 2030
fact book) and thus is vital for life (Annan 2005). It is water demand in certain developing countries is likely to
estimated that 96.5% of the water is in seas and oceans, exceed supply by over 50% (Mckinsey 2010). Water has
1.7% is groundwater, and 1.7% is fixed in glaciers and ice a role in the global economy; it has uses as a solvent in
caps in the Arctic and Antarctic circles. A large proportion a wide range of chemical preparations, in cooling towers,
of water exists in water bodies, and a much smaller frac- transportation and industry. It is estimated that around 70%
tion (0.001%) is suspended in the air as vapours, clouds, of fresh water is used in agriculture (Baroni et al. 2007).
etc., which falls as precipitation. Thus, only 2.5% of the Water is becoming scarcer as the human popula-
Earth’s water is fresh water, and 98.8% of this is held tion continues to grow and demand high quality water
as ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of fresh water is for domestic purposes and economic activities. Precipi-
contained in rivers, lakes and the atmosphere, while an tation has become unpredictable due to climate change
even lower amount (0.003%) is in biological bodies and (Trenberth et al. 2003; Giorgi et al. 2004; Raisanen et al.
in manufactured products. 2004). Water quality is important for human health as well
Safe drinking water is a necessity for humans as well as the quantity and quality of grain crops as it has an effect
as other organisms, although it does not contain any calo- on soils, crops and environment (Kirda 1997; Hoek et al.
ries or organic nutrients. Globally, the availability of safe 2001).
drinking water has improved in the last few decades. How- Water quality, measured by assessing the physicochem-
ever, approximately one billion people still do not have ical and biological properties of water against a set of
access to safe drinking water, while another 2.5 billion standards, is used to determine whether water is suitable
do not have adequate sanitation. There is a clear corre- for consumption or safe for the environment.
lation between access to safe water and GDP per capita Some uses of water, e.g. for domestic purposes, agri-
expenditure incurred on goods and services including com- cultural production, industrial production, mining, power
pensations of employees. However, it is estimated that by generation and forestry practices, cause deterioration in
2025 over half the world’s population will be vulnerable to water quality and quantity. This impacts the aquatic
∗ Corresponding author. Email: nitashakhatri@rediffmail.com

c 2014 Taylor & Francis
24 N. Khatri and S. Tyagi
Sources of water pollution
Natural causes Anthropogenic causes
Same in Rural & Urban areas Rural areas Urban areas
• Geology of rocks • Agricultural activities • Industrial

• Climate change • Run-off from croplands discharge
• Natural disasters • Barnyards & feedlots • Channelization
(floods, droughts, • Wasteland application • Municipal
earthquakes etc.) & storage facilities discharges
• Atmospheric • Construction sites • Land fill sites

deposition • Mining operations • Domestic effluent
• Weathering of • Sewage discharge • Septic system &
rocks • Washing clothes, livestock waste in
vehicles, bathing of residential areas
animals in water body • Land use/land
• Timber harvesting cover change
• Pasture land (poultry
farms)
Figure 1. Flowchart showing natural and anthropogenic sources of water pollution in rural and urban areas.
ecosystem, and also access to safe drinking water for by wind; natural leaching of organic matter and nutrients
human consumption. Water quality and quantity are thus from soil; hydrological factors leading to run-off; and bio-
linked, although they are not often measured simultane- logical processes in the aquatic environment that may bring
ously. Water quantity is measured by hydrological monitor- about changes in the physical and chemical composition of
ing stations that record water level, discharge and velocity. water. Thus, water in the natural environment may contain
Water quality is determined by analysis of water samples dissolved substance as well as non-dissolved particulate
collected periodically by these monitoring stations. The matter. Minerals and dissolved salts are necessary com-
results of water quality monitoring are important in deter- ponents of good quality water as they help maintain the
mining the spatial and temporal trends in surface water and health and vitality of organisms that rely on this ecosystem
groundwater. service (Stark et al. 2000) (Figure 1).
Local, regional and global assessments of water quality Water quality is affected by both point and nonpoint
monitoring data help to illustrate key features of aquatic sources of pollution in rural and urban areas. Some of these
environments, while explaining the positive and negative sources include sewage discharge, industrial discharge and
impact of human activities. Clear and concise background agricultural run-off. Water quality is also affected by floods
knowledge on water quality can help in other water assess- and droughts, as well as lack of awareness among end
ments. users – aspects including hygiene, environment sanita-
tion, storage and disposal need to be considered for the
maintenance of water resources.
1.1. Water quality
The groundwater or surface water quality is a function
of natural influences and human activities either severally 1.2. Sources of water pollution
or collectively. Without human influences, water quality (1) Rural run-off loads:
would be influenced only by the natural processes such • agricultural lands, including pastures and grass-
as weathering of bedrock minerals; atmospheric processes lands;
involving evapotranspiration; deposition of dust and salt • forest watersheds;
Frontiers in Life Science 25
• barnyards and feedlots; For example, in many shallow European lakes, the
• wasteland and storage facilities in form of seep- gradual enrichment of surface water with plant nutrients
ages or discharges; and has resulted in shifts from systems that once were domi-
• construction sites. nated by aquatic plants to systems that are now dominated
(2) Atmospheric deposition (wet/dry deposition). by algae suspended in the water column (Scheffer et al.
(3) Common sources of water quality impairment: 2001).
• channelization; Direct relationships exist among water, sanitation,
• animal husbandry; nutrition and health. Lack of availability of good quality
• industrial wastewater; drinking water, use of contaminated water, lack of per-
• increased flows due to harvesting of trees; sonal hygiene, consumption of contaminated food and
• seepages from municipal solid waste disposal incorrect disposal of solid and liquid waste have been
sites; major causes of diseases in most nations. Many govern-
• seepages/leachates from landfill sites; mental programs such as “Health for All” (World Health
• domestic wastewater/sewage; Organization 2003) and total sanitation programs have
• flow from pasture land; focused on personal hygiene. Good personal hygiene can
• silviculture and pasture management; reduce water pollution. Better coordination between min-
• stream bank modification; istries of health and rural development may solve problems
• stream bank and shore line erosion; and related to drinking-water hygiene and health.
• oil and gas production.

2. Natural factors affecting water quality in rural
Water can also contain substances that may be harmful to and urban areas
human health, e.g. metals such as mercury, lead and cad-
The quality of both surface water and groundwater is
mium; organics such as pesticides and toxins; and even
affected by natural and anthropogenic factors. The natural
certain radioactive materials. Water that comes from nat-
factors that affect water quality in rural and urban areas are
ural sources generally contains organisms that are a part
similar (Table 1). The composition of surface water and
of the biogeochemical cycles of aquatic systems. How-
groundwater is dependent on e.g. geological, topograph-
ever, certain bacteria, protists, parasitic worms, fungi and
ical, meteorological, hydrological and biological factors
viruses may be harmful to human life if contained in
(Table 2). It varies with seasonal differences in weather
drinking water. The availability of water and its physical,
conditions, run-off volumes and water levels.
chemical and biological properties have an impact on the
Geological factors are due to the contribution of the
health of ecosystems, as well as on adequate supply of
geosphere to groundwater composition, mainly through
clean, usable water, which is a basic human requirement.
the effect of chemical water–rock interactions in aquifers
Uses for water include, but are not limited to:
(Pönkka 1981; Rönkä 1983). The main factors affecting
water quality in wells drilled into bedrock seem to be the
• human consumption and domestic water supply; rock type (Rönkä 1983) and the mode of weathering of the
• irrigation and aquaculture; particulate minerals (Rönkä et al. 1981).
• industrial use; The composition of the bedrock influences not only
• electricity generation; and the chemical composition of the groundwater in the fis-
• recreational use. sures and fractures, but also that of the groundwater in
Quaternary deposits (Banks et al. 1998).
The required water quality varies with the use, and the When there are no human influences, changes in water
criteria used to assess water quality also vary. Water qual- quality occur due to factors such as weathering of bedrock
ity is a function of natural background conditions and is evapotranspiration and the deposition of dust and salt by
necessary for maintaining the health of ecosystems; how- wind. Furthermore natural processes such as leaching of
ever some aquatic ecosystems can tolerate vast changes organic matter and nutrients from soil, hydrological fac-
in water quality without the composition and function of tors leading to run-off and biological processes within the
the ecosystem being affected. In contrast many ecosys- aquatic environment bring about changes in physical and
tems are sensitive to small changes in the physical and chemical composition of water. Thus due to these natural
chemical composition of the water body, resulting in degra- processes, water in the natural environment may contain
dation of the ecosystem including loss of biodiversity. The dissolved as well as undissolved solids. Dissolved salts and
degradation in physical and chemical water quality due to minerals are necessary components of good quality water
anthropogenic reasons is mostly slow and gradual. Further- as they help maintain the health and vitality of organisms
more, subtle adaptations by the aquatic ecosystems to such that rely on this ecosystem service (Stark et al. 2000).
degradation are not readily detected unless a notable shift Natural water bodies such as lakes, rivers, streams
takes place in the ecosystem. and groundwater need to contain water of good quality
Table 1. Aspects of water pollution due to natural causes.
Rural as well as urban areas
1 Water–rock interaction is the primary source of Ca+ , Mg+ , HCO3 in groundwater

2 Atmospheric deposition of nitrate (minor source)
3 Sodium (Na) in groundwater from plagioclase in granite rocks
4 Potassium (K+ ) from orthoclase and muscovite minerals present in granite
5 Chloride from natural sources such as rainfall, dissolution of fluid inclusions and chloride-bearing minerals.
6 Disturbance of riparian vegetation results in increased sedimentation of rivers.
7 Fluoride occurs naturally as a result of run-off from weathering of fluoride-containing rocks and soils and
leaching from soils into groundwater
Table 2. Aspects of water pollution due to anthropogenic causes.
Rural areas Urban areas
Nitrate and sulphate as a result of fertilizers used Chemical pollution

in agriculture and sewage effluents. Waste gas, waste water and waste residues cause increases in pollutants
Sodium (Na+ ) and potassium (K+ ) in such as nitrogen, phosphate, chloride, sulphate, organic solvents and
groundwater from chemical fertilizers. heavy metals.

Chloride from fertilizers and septic tanks
Application of fertilizers, waste water discharges Causes high level of chloride, nitrate, sulphate, sodium and potassium in
and concrete from constructions, etc., are the the groundwater in construction and cultivated areas.
contributing factors for high calcium
Discharge of sewage run-off directly into water Sodium (Na+ ) in groundwater from plagioclase in granite rocks,
bodies. chemical fertilizers, domestic effluents, etc.
Disposal of solid waste into rivers and other Potassium from pollution sources such as chemical fertilizers and
water bodies. domestic effluents.
Chloride from industrial effluent and domestic fertilizers and septic tanks.
Sulphate sources include rainfall run-off, fertilizers, sewage effluents, and
dissolution of sulphide minerals present in granite.
Nitrate and sulphate enter groundwater from effluents from septic
systems and livestock waste in residential areas.
High sulphate content can be found in river water in areas where soil is
formed from limestone, marble and gypsum.
In snowy regions, de-icing agents such as rock salts, primarily consisting
of sodium chloride (NaCl), can leach into water courses. Other agents
used include ferrocyanide, used as an anti-clumping agent, and
impurities consisting of trace elements (phosphorous, sulphur,
nitrogen, copper and zinc).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Point sources of dissolved CFC contamination in groundwater include
sewage effluent discharge, localized septic system, landfills and
manufacturing leachate.
Nonpoint sources of CFC include agricultural practices and urban run-off
sewage effluent.
Volatile organic compounds and CFCs Landfill and manufacturing plants
have been identified as anthropogenic point sources of CFCs and other
VOCs associated with disposal of aerosols, paint removers, dry
cleaning agents, foam blowing agents and refrigerants.
Heavy metal pollution
Run-off from industrial and residential areas has been shown to contain
Pb, Cu, Zn, and Ni.
Miscellaneous
Wastewater is one of the major sources of nutrients in coastal areas
where no treatment exists.
Intensive land use activities affect hydrological, biological, chemical and
geomorphic aspects of aquatic systems.
Land use and land cover changes are major anthropogenic activities that
influence water flow and quality of rivers in particular.
Industrial, agricultural and other anthropogenic activities often lead to
increased inputs of metals in soils and water.
because they are the only natural water sources on which There are many methods available for defluoridation
life depends (Mann and Williamson 1986). However, nat- of water, e.g. precipitation/coagulation, adsorption, ion
ural waters contain a variety of contaminants arising from exchange, reverse osmosis and electro-dialysis. Of these,
erosion, leaching and weathering processes; such con- precipitation/coagulation and adsorption are convenient
taminants can only have their concentrations reduced by methods and widely used, especially in the rural areas of
normal water and wastewater treatment processes, so their developing countries.
presence in a particular water source may limit its use Low-intensity rainfall mobilizes less nutrient laden
(Nemerow 1985; Tebbutt 1992) sediment than high-intensity storm events, although soil
Floods and droughts may bring about changes in moisture and permeability also contribute to sediment
water quality through dilution or concentration of dis- movement (Basnyat et al. 2000). Run-off sediment trans-
solved substances. Where there are low river flow rates, port capacity is dictated by the shear stress relationship that
the main effect on water quality is when there is a tem- develops between the dominant flow shear of the soil and
perature increase, increased concentration of dissolved the critical stress from rainfall events (Leon et al. 2001).
substances and decreased concentration of dissolved oxy- Groundwater with high concentrations of SO−2 4 in
gen (Prathumratana et al. 2008; Van Vliet and Zwolsman coastal areas often indicates seawater intrusion (Kim et al.
2008). 2003; Wang and Jiao 2012). As shown by Lahermo et al.
Drought–rewetting cycles may impact water quality (1990) and later by Karro (1999), relict seawater trapped
as they enhance decomposition and flushing of organic in bedrock fissures and fractures and saline pore water
matter into streams (Evans et al. 2005). Droughts may in marine clay and silt sediments can be detected from
have impacts on river water quality (Zwolsman and van increased concentrations of dissolved components in the
Bokhoven 2007; Van Vliet and Zwolsman 2008), that groundwater, particularly SO4 , Cl and Na.
depend on the properties of compound, which could be as In some regions, natural geology or soils contain high
well either negative or positive. background concentrations of phosphorus (e.g. Tualatin
An increase in water temperature also has an impact River in Oregon, USA; Boeder and Chang 2008) and
on chemical processes in lakes, with an increase in pH arsenic (e.g. India and Bangladesh; Spallholz et al. 2004),
(Psenner and Schmidt 1992). Seasonal variations in sur- that endanger human and ecosystem health.
face run-off, precipitation, interflow, groundwater flow and A proportion of the chlorides, nitrates, potassium,
pumped inflows and outflows have a strong effect on sodium and sulphate in groundwater and surface water may
river discharge and subsequently on the concentration of be connected with precipitation (Lahermo et al. 1990).
pollutants in river water (Vega et al. 1998).
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) affects the function- 3. Anthropogenic factors affecting water quality in
ing of aquatic ecosystems through its influence on acidity, rural areas
trace metal transport, light absorbance and photochemistry,
Most contaminants affecting water quality in rural areas
and energy and nutrient supply (Evans et al. 2005). The
comprise simple inorganic ions, more complex organic
main source of DOM in surface waters is soil leaching
molecules or particulates. These can derive from vari-
(Hejzlar et al. 2003). P loading exportation, which is gov-
ous sources, including soils and decomposing vegetation,
erned by discharges following heavy rainfall, will tend to
but also from animal manure (Goss et al. 2000). Agricul-
increase with climate change and consequently have an
tural run-off is one of the nonpoint sources of pollution
impact on lakes (Mooij et al. 2005)
that affect water quality. Agricultural activities that can
Many rocks and minerals in the Earth’s crust, e.g.
cause pollution include poor animal husbandry practices;
fluorospar, cyyolite and fluorapatite (Jagtap et al. 2012),
overgrazed grasslands; over and excessive use including
contain fluoride (Murray 1986; Loganathan et al. 2003)
untimely application of pesticides, ploughing over irrigated
which can be leached out by natural weathering and
fields and application of fertilizers.
rainwater, causing contamination of surface water and
There is considerable agreement in recent studies that
groundwater, and thus public water systems (Mandinic
amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in surface waters are
et al. 2010; Gandhi et al. 2012; Chen et al. 2010 [and ref-
significantly influenced by anthropogenic inputs associated
erences therein]; Rafique et al. 2013). For example, Choi
with land cover, land use and point sources (e.g. Castillo
and Chen (1979) reported extremely high fluoride con-
et al. 2000; Ferrier et al. 2001; Valiela and Bowen 2002).
centration (> 1000 mg l−1 ) in surface water in areas with
Pollutants that result from farming and cattle breeding
fluoride-rich volcanic rocks.
are comprised of nutrients, sediments, pathogens, pesti-
One method of reducing excessive concentrations of
cides, metals and salts.
fluoride in water is to blend water with a high fluo-
ride concentration with water that has a low fluoride
concentration from an alternative source. If such a 3.1. Sedimentation
source is not available, defluoridation is the only means The most common agricultural water pollution is loss of
remaining to prevent fluorosis (Fawell et al. 2006). top soil that is washed from fields. Rainwater carries soil
particles or sediments and deposits them in lakes or streams depending upon the location of the farm. Inappropriate irri-
nearby, thus affecting water quality. Other pollutants such gation can cause water quality problems. In arid/dry areas,
as fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals that stick to for example, rainwater does not carry the minerals deep
the soil particles are also washed into the water bodies. into the soil, leading to evaporation of irrigation water
These pollutants cause algal blooms and deplete oxygen, and overconcentration of salts in soils. Over-irrigating a
threatening aquatic life. Turbidity, a measure of the light- field may lead to soil erosion, and transportation of nutri-
scattering effects of suspended particulate material (SPM) ents, pesticides and heavy metals. It may reduce the natural
in water, increases with suspended sediment concentra- surface flow in streams and rivers.
tions and loading rates. It also depends upon characteristics
such as particle size distribution and refractive index and
3.5. Pesticides
colour of water. The suspended solid concentration in
streams is often higher in the spring and autumn than in Insecticides, herbicides and fungicides are used to kill agri-
the summer (e.g. Braskerud et al. 2000, 2001). cultural pests. They may enter water due to run-off from
the fields or atmospheric deposition, or even due to direct
application. Water may become polluted with a range of
3.2. Nutrients contaminants due to the use of land for agriculture (e.g.
Nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) loading in waters Hooda et al. 2000; Lovell and Sullivan 2006). Of these
through point and nonpoint sources is an ecological con- pollutants, dissolved organic carbon (Freeman et al. 2001;
cern and affects water quality in surface water bodies Holden 2005; Wallage et al. 2006), nutrients (nitrogen and
(Smith et al. 1999). Nutrients are essential to the survival phosphorus) (Heathwaite et al. 1996; Haygarth and Jarvis
of aquatic organisms, but excess nutrient loading to water 2002; Dorioz et al. 2006) and pesticides (Environment
bodies can impact the designated uses of water (Bricker Agency 1999; Blanchoud et al. 2007; Garrod et al. 2007)
et al. 2007; FDEP 2009; Freeman et al. 2009). Nitrates can are the most important issues for some land-owning UK
be leached or transported in run-off (Blanchard and Lerch water utilities due to the need to remove them from raw
2000). Nitrates are strongly associated with agricultural water to meet regulatory standards.
land and grasslands (Ferrier et al. 2001), and concentra- Pesticide occurrence in water supplies is a concern for
tions are highest in spring and in conjunction with high water-quality assessment, since a huge number of pesti-
run-off events. The antecedent conditions – topography, cides are widely used in agriculture (Nagafuchi et al. 1994;
soil type, farming practice and crop type – influence the Kimbrough and Litke 1996). Pesticides are a group of
movement of water as well as pesticide dispersal. All hazardous materials with potential risk to human health
such factors are more significant than the physicochemi- (Ayranci and Hoda 2005). Herbicides are the most widely
cal parameters of the ingredients in determining the run-off used pesticides, constituting more than 40% of total use,
potential of the compound (Larson et al. 1995). while insecticides account for approximately 30% and
Ammonium and phosphate sorption onto sediments, fungicides for some 20% (WHO 1992). Pesticides play
sedimentation of nitrogen and phosphorus in particulate an important role in harvest quality and food protection,
forms and phosphate co-precipitation with calcite enhance providing enormous benefits in increasing production, as
sediment storage (Withers and Jarvie 2008). Conversely, pests and diseases damage up to a third of crops (Tadeo
sediments can become a nutrient source through the release 2008). As a result of massive global consumption (Sabik
of dissolved species under well-defined pH and redox con- et al. 2000), pesticides as well as their degraded products
ditions (Gomez et al. 1999). Phosphorus is given special spread through the environment and can contaminate water
attention, because it is often the limiting nutrient for algal resources (M Filho et al. 2010).
growth in freshwaters (Berge et al. 1997; Correll 1999). Pesticide residues from agricultural fields contami-
nate water sources through nonpoint and point pollution
sources, e.g. due to leaching or run-off directly from fields,
3.3. Livestock grazing or by dumping or washing of used containers. The extent
Overgrazing by livestock leads to exposure of soil and of pollution of surface water and groundwater by pesti-
increased erosion. This can result in ecosystem regression, cides depends on the physicochemical characteristics of
encouraging invasion of unwanted species, destruction of the compounds. These characteristics include water solu-
stream banks, flood plain vegetation and fish habitats. It bility, retention by soil components, degradation rate, the
thus not only affects water quality filtration but also the properties of the medium in which they are applied, their
habitat of flora and fauna. abiotic and biotic degradation (B Caracciolo et al. 2010)
and factors external to them, such as locally occurring pre-
cipitation and patterns of wind or the topology of the area
3.4. Irrigation (C Martínez et al. 2000; Arias-Estévez et al. 2008).
The objective of irrigation is to supplement the natural pre- Surface water contamination may have eco-
cipitation and to protect crops against freezing or wilting, toxicological effects on aquatic flora and fauna, and on
human health if used for public consumption (Forney and in particular. Changes in landscape pattern induced by
Davis 1981; Leonard and Knisel 1988; Miyamoto et al. human activities have major impacts on river conditions
1990; Mulla et al. 1981). It is usually dependent on the (Allan 2004; Bhat et al. 2006; Hopkins 2009). Land use
agricultural season and it does not last long, while ground- and land cover change is strongly correlated with water
water contamination has a strong inertia, which may cause chemistry parameters (Hunsaker and Levine 1995; Tran
continuous human exposure (Funari et al. 1995). Ground- et al. 2010), the species diversity of freshwater fish and
water represents the most important source of drinking macro-invertebrates (Hopkins 2009; Weijters et al. 2009),
water supply in many countries (Bachmat et al. 1994; and sediment metal concentrations (Hollister et al. 2008).
Mandl et al. 1994). Highly fragmented urban land uses, with a large propor-
Poorly managed agricultural operations can lead to con- tion of impervious surfaces, tend to increase river flow and
tamination of surface water and groundwater by nutrients negatively affect water quality (Sliva and Williams 2001;
and pesticides (Spalding and Exner 1993; Pereira et al. Brabec 2009; Lee et al. 2009). The problem of soil erosion
1996; Kolpin et al. 1998; Novotny 1999; Gunningham and is severe in some areas because of rapid urban development
Sinclair 2005). Periodic use of these products in agricul- in recent decades (Ho and Hui 2001). Dodds and Oakes
ture will cause dispersion within the environment by means (2008) found that riparian zone and land use/land cover
of drift, run-off and drainage (Kolpin et al. 1998; Guzzella close to streams were more important to water quality than
et al. 2006; Papastergiou and Papadopoulou-M 2001). This the landscape pattern of the entire catchment. Ferrier et al.
may result in residues being encountered in groundwater (2001) found that urban catchments were highly correlated
(Lacorte and Barcelo 1996), river waters (Irace-Guigand with ammonium ions, reactive phosphates and suspended
et al. 2004; Claver et al. 2006), and in coastal waters and solids.
lakes (Konstantinou et al. 2006), which suggests that mobi-
lization may occur and that residues can be found far away
from the point of application. 4.1. Stream channelization
Livestock farming can be an important source of Stream channelization aims to move, widen, narrow,
phosphorus and nitrogen in streams, thus contributing to straighten, shorten, cut off, divert, line or fill a natural or
eutrophication of surface water resources (Haygarth et al. altered stream channel. Stream channelization can lead to
1998; Withers and Lord 2002). Nonpoint source pollution changes in the amount and speed of the water flowing
such as fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide run-off and soil through the channel. Channelization may be done by lin-
erosion due to land use and cover change is more difficult ing the channels with concrete, excavating sand and gravel
and expensive to control than point source pollution (Baker from the stream bed and sloping it back along the banks, or
1992). constructing culverts. Channelization may affect the water
quality in the following ways:
4. Anthropogenic sources affecting water quality in
urban areas • Drinking water quantity: an increase in the velocity
Urbanization is a pervasive form of land cover/land use of water may result in less recharge of groundwa-
alteration that is rapidly growing (Paul and Meyer 2001). ter. The impact would be more profound in areas
This involves conversion of croplands, forests, grasslands, where groundwater is an important source of drink-
pastures, wetlands and other cover types to residential, ing water and its replenishment is slow.
transportation, commercial and industrial uses, thereby • Increased nutrients: Increased accumulation of nutri-
increasing the areas of impervious surfaces (Tsegaye et al. ents in streams may lead to algal blooms, which
2006) (Table 3). Impervious surfaces are quantifiable indi- would affect human health as well as animals such
cators that correlate very closely with increases in nonpoint as livestock.
(diffuse) sources of polluted run-off which degrades the • Pollution in streams: Streams channelization can
quality of aquatic resources (Arnold and Gibbons 1996). lead to floods, wherein huge water run-off picks
Urban areas are more polluted than rural ones due up pollutants such as phosphorous, nitrogen, pes-
to industrialization, sewage discharge and other domestic ticides, sediments and heavy metals. This affects
activities. Human activities such as discharge of industrial the stream water quality, and the cost of drink-
and domestic effluents, the use of agricultural chemicals, ing water treatment also increases. Removal of
land use and cover changes are the major factors that influ- trees and vegetation along the stream bank may
ence surface water quality (Peters and Meybeck 2000; further increase the pollutants in streams, including
Buck et al. 2004; Alam et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2007; nitrogen, phosphorous, Escherichia coli, pesticides
Hussain et al. 2008). and sediment. There may be an increase in water
Change in land use and land cover is one of the temperature and consequently the dissolved oxygen
major anthropogenic influences on ecosystems (Dale et al. in water may decrease. As temperature is critical to
2000), and affects the water flow and quality of rivers many aquatic species, death of fish may result.
4.2. Anthropogenic impacts on water quality activities lead to increases in water consumption. Natural
The quality of surface waters is a sensitive issue as far processes, e.g. changes in precipitation, erosion and weath-
as health is concerned. Urban, industrial and agricultural ering of crustal materials, degrade the surface water. This
Table 3. Impacts on water quality due to primary sector activities.
Impacts
Agricultural activity Surface water Groundwater
1 Tillage/ploughing Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry No impact is generally observed.

phosphorus and pesticides that are
adsorbed by the sediment particles;
siltation in the beds of river and habitat
loss, etc.
2 Fertilization Run-off of nutrients, especially phosphorus, Leaching of nitrate in the groundwater;
leads to eutrophication; this causes excessive use of fertilizer may endanger
changes in taste and odour in public water human health.
supplies. Excessive algae growth leads to
de-oxygenation of water, and death of
fish.
3 Use of manure Manure is used as a fertilizer. It may contain Contamination of groundwater may occur
pathogens, metals, phosphorus and especially by nitrogen.
nitrogen depending upon its source. May
cause eutrophication and contamination of
water.
4 Pesticides Pesticide run-off causes contamination of Some pesticides may leach into
surface water and biota; top predators may groundwater, causing problems to
be lost due to growth inhibition and human health from the contaminated
reproductive failure; human health may be wells.
affected due to consumption of
contaminated fish. The entire ecosystem
becomes dysfunctional. Wind can act as a
carrier for pesticides, transporting them
over great distances, which may be
thousands of kilometres, thus
contaminating aquatic systems. The
presence of pesticides in subtropical
Arctic mammals is an example of
leaching of certain pesticides into may
contaminate wells affecting human health.
5 Feedlots/animal corrals Surface water contamination by pathogens Potential nitrogen and metal leaching into
such as bacteria and viruses. This can lead the groundwater.
to chronic or acute human health
problems. Also, contamination may be
due to metals contained in urine and
faeces.
6 Irrigation Salts in run-off from salinization of surface Enrichment of groundwater due to salts,
waters; fertilizer run-off into surface nutrients (may be nitrate). There can be
waters leads to ecological disturbance, and a problem of contamination of
bioaccumulation of metals and organics groundwater with nitrates and
especially in edible fish species. High phosphates.
amounts of trace elements, e.g. selenium,
in water can cause serious ecological
damage and can impact human health.
7 Clear cutting of forests Erosion of soil, leading to turbidity in rivers The regime is disrupted, which is often
and vegetation and siltation taking place in downstream coupled with increased surface run-off
habitats, etc. Disruption and change in and decreased groundwater recharge;
hydrological regime of the river, resulting alternatively decreased surface flow,
in a seasonal instead of perennial stream; during the lean season leading to high
this causes health problems due to less concentration of nutrients and
availability of potable water. contaminants in such waters and
consequently in recharge water.
(Continued)
Table 3. Continued
Impacts
Agricultural activity Surface water Groundwater
8 Silviculture Generally results are positive, if

afforestation or reforestation is done.
Harvesting of trees may result in
increased contamination of surface
water and fish, if pesticides are used;
deforestation may cause problems such
as erosion and sedimentation.
9 Aquaculture Release of pesticides such as tributyltin,
and high levels of nutrients in surface
water as well as groundwater due to
feeds and faeces, causing extreme
eutrophication.
impairs its use for drinking, industrial, agricultural, recre- salts that are transported to streams in surface run-off
ation or other purposes (Carpenter et al. 1998; Jarvie et al. (Kelly et al. 2008). In the snow-belt of the USA de-
1998). icing agents are necessary to remove traffic obstructions
in the winter. The primary agent used for this purpose is
rock salt, consisting mainly of sodium chloride (NaCl).
4.2.1. Surface water pollution in urban areas Other agents in the road salt mixture, such as ferro-
Surface waters are prone to pollution, as they are used for cyanide, which is used as an anti-clumping agent, and
wastewater disposal in most countries. Both natural pro- impurities consisting of trace elements (phosphorus, sul-
cesses and anthropogenic influences together determine the phur, nitrogen, copper and zinc), can represent up to 5%
quality of surface water in a region (Carpenter et al. 1998; of the salt weight (Marsalek 2003). Other de-icing agents
Jarvie et al. 1998). are also available (e.g. calcium, magnesium chloride and
Seasonal variations in precipitation, surface run-off, potassium acetate), but because of a large difference in
interflow, groundwater flow and pumped inflows and out- cost, sodium chloride is applied most frequently (Novotny
flows have a strong effect on river discharge and subse- 1999).
quently on the concentration of pollutants in river water
(Vega et al. 1998).
Urbanization-related activities have been found to 4.2.2. Groundwater pollution in urban areas
increase nitrogen, phosphorus, alkalinity, and the total dis- Hydrogeological and hydrochemical conditions of urban
solved solids in surface waters (Johnson et al. 1997; Boyer groundwater can be disturbed by human activities (Lerner
et al. 2002; Gergel 2005). Degraded streams and rivers and Barrett 1996; Yang et al. 1997; Barrett et al. 1999;
that drain urbanized landscapes often have higher nutrient Lawrence et al. 2000; Jeong 2001; Zilberbrand et al.
loads and contaminant concentrations, as well as altered 2001; Foppen 2002; Lerner 2002; Cronin et al. 2003;
stream morphology and reduced biodiversity (Meyer et al. Powell et al. 2003; Eiswirth et al. 2004; Vázquez-Suñé
2005). et al. 2005; Ellis and Rivett 2007). Groundwater qual-
Generally, heavy metal pollution is considered to be ity in a region is largely determined by natural processes
point source pollution, and is primarily discharged from such as lithology, groundwater speed, quality of reloaded
smelting and heavy industrial enterprises (Zhang et al. water, interaction of water with soil components and rock,
2009); however, nutrient and organic pollution includes and interaction with other types of aquifers. It is also
point source and nonpoint source pollution, such as domes- affected by anthropogenic activities such as agriculture,
tic wastewater, effluent from wastewater treatment plants industry, urban development, and increasing exploitation
and agricultural run-off (Shrestha and Kazama 2007). of water resources and atmospheric input (Helena et al.
Industrial, agricultural and other anthropogenic activities 2000; Chan 2001) (Table 4). Potassium ions in ground-
often lead to an increased input of metals in soils and water often come from orthoclase and muscovite minerals
natural waters (Cundy et al. 2003). present in granite, and from pollution sources such as
Higher nutrient concentrations of dissolved inorganic chemical fertilizer and domestic effluents. Chloride (Cl− )
forms were observed in rural and urban streams in rela- may be derived from pollution sources such as industrial
tion to those areas under natural cover (Silva et al. and domestic effluents, fertilizers and septic tanks (Bohlke
2011). Further, chloride, a robust indicator of urban impact and Horan 2000; Edmunds et al. 2003; Negrel and Pauwels
(Riva-Murray et al. 2010), has been linked to road de-icing 2003; Petelet-Giraud et al. 2003; Widory et al. 2004;
Table 4. Classes of nonpoint sources of water pollution.
Agriculture activities Impact Contaminant/pollutant
1 Animal feedlots, cultivation, Agricultural run-off causes pollution in Metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, sediment,
irrigation, dairy, pastures, surface water and groundwater. In pesticides, salts, BOD (biochemical
farming, orchards, aquaculture northern climates, a major problem is oxygen demand), trace elements (e.g.
encountered due to run-off from frozen selenium) and pathogens.
grounds, especially in areas where
manure is used in the winters. Washing
of vegetables in polluted surface waters
in many developing countries
contributes to contamination of food
supplies. Growth of aquaculture is
becoming a major polluting activity in
certain countries. Irrigation return flows
to surface waters carry salts, nutrients
and pesticides. Tile drainage promptly
carries leachates such as nitrogen to
surface waters.
2 Forestry Increasing run-off from deforested land. Sediment, pesticides
Clear felling for urbanization is the most
degrading activity.
3 Liquid waste disposal from Scattered industrial effluents and sludge, Metals, Organic compounds, Pathogens,
scattered areas waste-water from domestic septic tanks;
legal or illegal disposal in water courses.
4 Residential, commercial and Urban surface run-off from scattered Greases and oils, fertilizers, faecal matter
industrial areas parking lots, streets, roofs, etc., that do and pathogens, organic contaminants,
not drain into the sewer or a sewage e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
treatment plant. Polluted run-off from (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls
various area sources, which enters (PCBs), heavy metals, pesticides,
receiving waters directly; cleaning of nutrients, sediment, salts, BOD
streets; salting of ice also causes surface (biochemical oxygen demand), COD
and groundwater pollution. (chemical oxygen demand), etc.
5 Rural sewage system Overloading and malfunction in septic Phosphorus, nitrogen, pathogens (faecal
tanks causing surface run-off and/or matter)
infiltration into groundwater.
6 Transportation Expressways, highways, roads, railways, Nutrients, sediment, metals, organic
pipelines, waterways, etc. not connected contaminants, pesticides , herbicides
to appropriate pipeline systems
7 Mineral extraction Surface run-off from mines; mine dumps Sediment, metals, oils, acids, organic
and mine wastes; quarries, well sites contaminants, salts (brine)
8 Recreational land use E.g. ski resorts, marinas and boating, Nutrients, pesticides, sediment, pathogens,
campgrounds, parks waste and pollution heavy metals
due to grey water from recreational
boats, especially in small lakes and
rivers. Hunting that may cause lead
pollution in waterfowl.
9 Solid waste disposal Leachate which contaminates the surface Nutrients, metals, pathogens, organic
water and groundwater. contaminants. Air pollutant gases.
10 Dredging of rivers, harbours, etc. Dispersion of contaminated sediments Organic contaminants, metals
from dredged soil, leakage happening in
containment areas.
11 Atmospheric deposition Long-range transport of atmospheric Nutrients, metals, organic contaminants
pollutants (LRTAP) and their deposition
on land and water surfaces. This
includes pesticides (from agriculture,
etc.), nutrients, metals, etc., deposition
in areas, move so in pristine systems.
Valdes et al. 2007), and from natural sources such as is domestic wastewater discharge, animal husbandry waste
rainfall, the dissolution of fluid inclusions and chloride- and agricultural run-off from farms that consume large
bearing minerals (Negrel and Roy 1998; Negrel 1999). quantities of fertilizers (Ministry of Environment of
Groundwater contamination due to nitrate has been a Japan). Urban groundwater may be significantly con-
concern for some time. The reason for such contamination taminated with organic matter, nitrogen compounds,
pathogenic microbes, and heavy metals when sewage- et al. 2005). E. coli and enterococci are not well
contaminated water or wastewater infiltrate the aquifer correlated with pathogenic Salmonella spp. (Lemarchand
(Barret et al. 1999; Zilberbrand et al. 2001; Cronin et al. and Lebaron 2003), Campylobacter spp. (Lund 1996;
2003; Powell et al. 2003). Bonadonna et al. 2002; Lemarchand and Lebaron 2003;
Elevated concentrations of mercury (Hg) in groundwa- Horman et al. 2004), Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp.
ter have been linked to industrial contamination or mining (Lund 1996; Bonadonna et al. 2002; Lemarchand and
activities (e.g. Somasundaram et al. 1993; Srinkanth et al. Lebaron 2003; Horman et al. 2004; Harwood et al. 2005),
1993; Rytuba et al. 2000) and, rarely, to natural sources human enteroviruses (Geldenhuys and Pretorius 1989;
(e.g. Barber and Steele 1980; Sidle 1993). The methyla- Lemarchand and Lebaron 2003; Horman et al. 2004;
tion of mercury by sulphate-reducing bacteria in various Harwood et al. 2005; Pusch et al. 2005) including ade-
environmental settings can be inhibited by high concentra- noviruses (Noble and Fuhrman 2001) and coliphages
tions of DOM and sulphide, or promoted by sulphate inputs (Jiang et al. 2001). Elevated levels of both nutrients
(Gilmour et al. 1992; Barkay et al. 1997; Benoit et al. 1999; and dissolved and suspended inorganic and organic mat-
Jay et al. 2000; H Schmidt and Fitzgerald 2004) Waste gas, ter, which are mainly generated from uneaten feed, fish
wastewater and waste residues produced in the processes excretion, and faecal production, might induce eutroph-
of industrialization and urbanization cause an increase ication in coastal zones (Holby and Hall 1991; Hall
of pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphate, chloride, sul- et al. 1992; Wu 1995; Lee et al. 2003).
phate, heavy metals and organic solvents (Andres et al.
1999; Wakida and Lerner 2006). Wastewater contaminates

coastal areas leading to high nutrient load, particularly in
urbanized estuaries. Where no treatment plants exist, nutri-
5. Effect on water quality by anthropogenic and
ent load from this source is directly proportional to the
natural sources
population and the amount of water used per inhabitant
(Smith et al., 1997), since nitrogen and phosphorus con- Both natural and anthropogenic sources contribute to nutri-
centrations in wastewater vary within a narrow range (IC ent enrichment in surface water bodies. Nutrient loading in
Consultants, 2001). water bodies depends on a number of factors, e.g. source
output and location, speciation and concentration, seasonal
variation, mode of loading (continuous versus sporadic)
and bioavailability (Withers and Jarvie 2008). Across the
4.3. Pollution due to sewage in urban areas various areas, fertilizers and septic leachate are the pri-
Sewage is the most important source of coliform bac- mary sources of nitrate concentrations that are higher than
teria, which are present in human faeces. An adequate drinking water thresholds in groundwater used for pub-
faecal indicator does not reproduce outside the animal lic supply (Dubrovsky et al. 2010). Potential effects of
host. E. coli and enterococci grow, survive and establish eutrophication in water bodies are: increased biomass of
their populations in natural environments such as freshwa- phytoplankton and macrophyte vegetation, growth of ben-
ter lakes and streams (Byappanahalli et al. 2003; Power thic and epiphytic algae, increased blooms of gelatinous
et al. 2005), algal wrack (Olapade et al. 2006; Whitman zooplankton (marine environment), increased toxins from
and Nevers 2003), beach sand (Byappanahalli, Whitman, bloom-forming algal species, reduced carbon availabil-
Shively, Ting, et al. 2006; Whitman et al. 2005), soils ity to food webs, loss of commercial and sport fisheries,
and sediments (Anderson et al. 2005; Byappanahalli and reduced diversity of habitats, loss of coral reef communi-
Fujioka 2004; Byappanahalli, Whitman, Shively, Sad- ties, increased taste and odour problems due to an increase
owsky, et al. 2006; Fujioka et al. 1999; Ishii et al. 2006; in mineral contents, dissolved oxygen depletion, increased
Solo-Gabriele et al. 2000; Whitman et al. 2005), and plant treatment costs prior to human use, and decreased aes-
cavities (Whitman et al. 2005). thetic value of the water body (US EPA 1990; Smith and
Escherichia coli was found to be a good indicator of Schindler 2009).
faecal pollution and its concentration showed a strong rela- Groundwater with high concentrations of SO2− 4 in
tionship with the incidence rate of swimming-associated coastal areas often indicates seawater intrusion (Kim et al.
illnesses such as skin and gastrointestinal illnesses 2003; Wang and Jiao 2012). The inflow of seawater
(Cheung et al. 1990). A variety of animals, both and river water provides high levels of nutrients to the
warm- and cold-blooded, contain faecal indicator bacte- water column and sediments, making estuaries one of the
ria in their faeces (Harwood et al. 1999; Souza et al. most productive natural habitats worldwide (McLusky and
1999; Gordon and Cowling 2003). Humans and ani- Elliott 2004). Floods and droughts can also modify water
mal species contain different numbers and different ratios quality by diluting or concentrating dissolved substances.
of E. coli and enterococci in their faeces, although For low river flow rates, the main effect on water qual-
data are contradictory (Geldreich 1978; Alderisio and ity is due to increases of temperature and concentration of
DeLuca 1999; Fogarty et al. 2003; Field 2004; Weaver dissolved substances in water, but a decrease of dissolved
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This article was downloaded by: [RMIT University]

On: 13 March 2015, At: 05:55

Frontiers in Life Science

Influences of natural and anthropogenic factors on

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To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2014.933716

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1. Introduction water shortages (Kulshreshtha 1998). A report published in

∗ Corresponding author. Email: nitashakhatri@rediﬀmail.com

Sources of water pollution

Natural causes Anthropogenic causes

Same in Rural & Urban areas Rural areas Urban areas

• Geology of rocks • Agricultural activities • Industrial

• Atmospheric • Construction sites • Land fill sites

• oil and gas production.

Table 1. Aspects of water pollution due to natural causes.

Rural as well as urban areas

1 Water–rock interaction is the primary source of Ca+ , Mg+ , HCO3 in groundwater

Table 2. Aspects of water pollution due to anthropogenic causes.

Rural areas Urban areas

Nitrate and sulphate as a result of fertilizers used Chemical pollution

groundwater from chemical fertilizers. heavy metals.

Table 3. Impacts on water quality due to primary sector activities.

1 Tillage/ploughing Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry No impact is generally observed.

8 Silviculture Generally results are positive, if

Table 4. Classes of nonpoint sources of water pollution.

Agriculture activities Impact Contaminant/pollutant

1999; Wakida and Lerner 2006). Wastewater contaminates

Barber L, Steele KF. 1980. Mercury content of waters in the

changes. Water Air Soil Pollut. 174:161–179. Organization.

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