Chapter 4. Solar thermal energy.

Objectives: Methods of solar capture and thermal conversion. Radiative properties and
characteristics of materials. Types of solar collectors and characteristics. Fundamental
Applications. Thermal Energy Storage and Transport. Solar Heating Systems. Calculation of
solar water heating loads and systems. Methods of Modeling and designing solar heating
systems. Solar Water Distillation. Simulation of Thermal Solar Systems.
Introduction
Solar Thermal Energy (STE) refers to heat generated by solar radiation. This energy is used
in industrial, commercial and residential applications through different technologies,
including steam production, heating systems, cooling systems and even electricity generation.
It can produce temperatures ranging from 45°C to more than 300°C, making it potentially
useful for a wide range of sectors such as mining, food and beverage, as well as textile
manufacturing, chemical production and pulp and paper manufacturing.
At the end of 2010, the global capacity of installed solar thermal energy systems was
approximately 195GWth1 (occupying a total installed area of 279 million m 2 in front) at 282
GWe2 wind, 10.7 GWe of geothermal energy and 40 GWe of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
Today most solar thermal energy (STE) installations provide energy to homes to heat water.
However, the current capacity of installed systems accounts for only 0.4% of global demand
for hot water in the residential sector. In terms of the industrial sector, the use of STE
accounts for less than 100MWth3 of global capacity, meaning that the growth potential for
STE is important in both sectors.
The growth potential for STE seems even more considerable when considering the attempt to
increase the sustainability and use of renewable energy in the energy matrix, both globally
and in each country. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), by 2050 the STE
could provide the industrial sector with 3 to 4 percent of its total heat demand (Figure 1) and
up to 20 percent globally of total industrial demand for low-temperature heat (Fig. 2). The
potential use of STE around the world is considerable, especially in Latin America (Fig. 3).
Better places to implement solar thermal projects
Horizontal Global Irradiance (HGI) is the total amount of short-wave radiation received from
the sun on a surface that is horizontal to the ground. Photovoltaic modules and flat collectors
for heat production can take advantage of the HGI received in its entirety. HGI includes both
normal direct radiation (Direct Normal Irradiance, DNI), which is a type of solar radiation
that arrives in a straight line from the direction of the sun and its position at the moment;
diffuse radiation, on the other hand (Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DFI), is solar radiation
that reaches from all directions when spread across molecules and other particles in the
atmosphere.

As in the case of any renewable energy source, the availability of the natural resource (in this
case, solar radiation) is of paramount importance in determining whether it is a viable
solution. As evidenced by the maps, in the Latin American and Caribbean region (LAC), the
Atacama desert in Chile and its surroundings (e.g., the Plateau of the Altiplano/Puna de
Atacama in Argentina and Chile, the Chico Norte in Chile and the Sechura Desert in Peru),
western Brazil and northern Mexico (the states of Baja California, Durango, Chihuahua and
Sonora) are ideal for the use of this technology.
Solutions offered by technology
The use of STE in industrial processes significantly reduces direct consumption of primary
energy sources.
It also provides energy at a predictable and stable price as most installation costs are included
in the initial investment. For other sources, cost depends on variables, and sometimes volatile
fuel and electricity prices. In addition, the environmental impact and CO 2 emissions of STE
are extremely low, which contributes to the increase in sustainable energy production and
also mitigates the effect of climate change.

Methods of solar capture and thermal conversion. Solar radiation

The Sun's energy reaches Earth in the form of electromagnetic waves that propagate in all
directions. Electromagnetic waves are characterized by the frequency [f] at which the wave is
completely repeated per unit of time. The frequency is measured in hertz and the higher this
or the greater the number of oscillations, the greater the amount of energy carried by the
wave.

The wavelength is the ratio between the speed of light (c = 3 x 10 8 m/s) and the frequency.
This way, the smaller the wavelength the greater the frequency and the more energy it will
carry.

The solar constant is the intensity of the solar radiation flow that affects a unit of surface in a
plane tangent to the imaginary sphere formed by the outer layer of the atmosphere. The value
of the solar constant is 1,367 W/m 2. It is not a fixed value as it undergoes slight variations
throughout the year (approximately ± 7 W/m2) because the Earth's orbit is not circular but
elliptical.

Components of solar radiation

Not all solar radiation that impacts the atmosphere reaches the surface of our planet. The
sun's rays when it come into contact and pass through the obstacle posed by the atmosphere
suffer a series of physical phenomena among which we highlight:

 Reflection. A portion of the radiation is reflected at the top of the clouds (like in a
mirror).
 Dissemination. Sunlight collides with gas molecules and dust particles spreading in all
directions, so that a part returns to space.
 Absorption. Some of the radiation is absorbed by molecules present in the atmosphere.

For example, at about 25 km high ozone predominates over other molecules mainly
absorbing radiations between 0.2 and 0.32 mm corresponding to ultraviolet rays.

Due to previous physical phenomena, an object located on the Earth's surface will receive the
following types of radiation:

 Direct radiation. Those rays that reach the Earth's surface without being diverted. This
radiation on cloudy days is very small and causes shadows.
 Diffuse Radiation. The one that reaches the Earth's surface after having changed direction
several times as it crosses the atmosphere. The more cloudiness the more important
diffuse radiation is.
 Reflected Radiation. The part of radiation reflected by the terrain and other elements of
the Earth's surface and which can be reabsorbed by other objects. The ratio between
reflected radiation and the incident on the Earth's surface is called albedo.
The sum of the three types of radiation received is called total radiation.
On clear days direct radiation will be much larger than diffuse radiation. Diffuse radiation
can reach 10-15% on clear days and up to 95% on cloudy days. Throughout the year diffuse
radiation accounts for about one third of the total radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
The following magnitudes are used to define the solar energy reaching a surface:
 Irradiance (I): Incident solar power per unit surface on a given plane. Expressed in W/m2.
 Irradiation (E): Incident energy per unit of surface on a given plane, obtained by
integrating irradiance over a given time interval, usually one hour or one day. Expressed
in MJ/m2 or kWh/m2.

The word radiation is used for the generic concept.

The amount of direct radiation a surface receives depends on the angle formed between it and
the incident sunlight. If the surface is perpendicular to the sun's rays the direct radiation will
be maximum, decreasing as the angle of the rays increases with the normal to the plane in
which they affect.

Solar movement
The goal of any solar installation is to capture maximum solar radiation. In this sense, the
inclination and orientation of the solar collector, as well as the possible shadows that can be
projected on the panels are key factors that will determine the proper functioning of the
facilities.

Every day the Earth performs a complete rotation on itself giving rise to the days, although it
is usually said that the Sun rises from the East and hides from the West as if it were the Sun
making the movement. For practical purposes we will continue in this chapter with this
traditional nomenclature.

Two coordinates, solar azimuth [γ] and solar height [h], are used to correctly define the
position of the Sun at each moment relative to a point on Earth.

The azimuth is the Angle of Rotation of the Sun with respect to the geographic south
measured on the horizontal plane. A value of 0o of the azimuth will occur when the Sun is
exactly above the geographic South and will coincide with solar noon.

Solar height is the angle that solar rays form on the horizontal. This value varies throughout
the day and year. The sun rises from the horizontal to reach its maximum height at solar noon
and then decreases until it is set in the West. In addition, each day of the year the Sun reaches
a different height achieving the maximum height during the summer solstice (June 21 in the
Northern Hemisphere) and the minimum height during the winter solstice (December 21 in
the Northern Hemisphere).
El azimut y la altura solar, así como las horas de sol diarias y la radiación solar, varían con la
posición que se ocupe en la Tierra. Para determinar la posición de un objeto en la Tierra
recurrimos a los siguientes parámetros:
• Latitud [β]. Ángulo que forma la vertical de un punto de la superficie de la tierra y el plano
del ecuador. Se considera positiva en el hemisferio norte y negativa en el hemisferio sur.
• Longitud [l]. Arco del ecuador comprendido entre el meridiano de un lugar y un meridiano
de referencia, el meridiano de Greenwich.

Azimuth and solar height

Longitude and latitude

SOLAR ENERGY PERFORMANCE

In general, two systems for the use of solar energy can be distinguished: thermal exploitation
systems and solar photovoltaic systems. Solar thermal energy systems are those that take
advantage of solar radiation as a heating system.

Within thermal systems we can distinguish passive and active systems. In the first case, solar
radiation is used for the air conditioning of homes through architectural design. Bioclimatic
housing would be a clear example of passive use of solar energy.

Active solar thermal energy systems are systems that are capable of capturing the energy of
solar radiation through a sensor or collector through which a fluid circulates and transferring
it to a system for later use. Electrical or photovoltaic systems, on the other hand, capture solar
radiation for the production of electrical energy.

There is great confusion between the different systems for harnessing solar energy although
the differences are noticeable. It should be noted that the technologies are very divergent,
active thermal systems are used to obtain a hot fluid with high yields of between 30 and 70%,
while photovoltaic solar systems are used for the production of electricity and in these
systems, unlike thermal systems, there is an energy conversion with a yield of around 12-
14%.
Characteristic elements of an installation
Solar thermal installations are those installations that take advantage of the energy coming
from the sun to heat a fluid that will be responsible for transmitting this heat to the rest of the
installation until the final consumption.

In solar thermal installations, the following subsystems are identified:

• Heat collection subsystem, responsible for receiving energy from the sun and transmitting it
to the heat transfer fluid.
• Subsystem of heat accumulation and exchange, where the heat provided by the collection
system is transmitted and stored.
• Support subsystem, responsible for maintaining the heat input during periods where not
enough solar heat is produced.
• Auxiliary elements, for the correct functioning of the collection circuit and thermal
distribution.

Heat collection system

It is the part of the installation in charge of capturing the energy coming from the sun and
transmitting it to the heat transfer fluid. It is the most important component of a solar thermal
energy installation and is the differentiating element with respect to a conventional heat
production installation. The overall performance of the installation and its proper functioning
will depend on the correct sizing of the collection system.

Heat collection system

There are different types of solar collectors, with different yields and costs, so you have to
look for the most appropriate type for each application.

In general, three types of solar collectors are distinguished: flat, without cover and vacuum.
Below are the characteristics of each of them and their different applications. The most
commonly used type, both for acs production and for industrial uses, is the flat solar
collector, of which there are many variants.

Flat solar collector

It is a device designed to absorb solar energy and transmit it to a carrier fluid, usually liquid,
that circulates inside. The most used is the flat solar collector with glass cover and its most
widespread use is the production of hot water. In general, unless otherwise indicated, the
references to the collector that are made in this guide, will be understood to be applicable to
the flat solar collector with glass cover, for heating liquids, although much of what is exposed
here would also be valid for other fluids, such as air, or even other types of collector such as
vacuum tubes.

The solar capture system is based on the principle of the greenhouse effect, which is that
solar radiation, of short wavelength, passes through the transparent cover and affects the
absorber increasing its temperature. In this way the absorber when heated emits long wave
(IR) radiation which is retained by the cover that is opaque to this type of radiation. In this
way there is an accumulation of heat that is transferred to the heat transfer fluid.
Flat solar collector

Set of flat solar collectors

In a flat solar collector the following elements are distinguished:

• Transparent cover. It is responsible for retaining heat and isolating the collector from
outdoor environmental conditions. The material that makes up the cover has to meet the
following characteristics:
- Good solar transmission in the shortwave radiation band and opacity to longwave thermal
radiation to avoid heat losses.
- Stability over time.
- Low coefficient of thermal conductivity to decrease thermal losses.
- Low adhesion to dirt.
- Low coefficient of expansion in the range of working temperatures of the collector.

That is why glass is used in the cover instead of plastic. The glass must also be tempered so
that it acquires greater resistance.
• Absorber. It is the element where the conversion of solar radiation into thermal energy
occurs. It is formed by a flat surface adhered to a hydraulic circuit through which the heat
transport fluid circulates.

The optical characteristics of the absorber are defined both by the type, shape and materials
of the absorber and by the external treatment. This type of treatment can be black or selective.
In the black treatment black paints are used that seek to increase the absorbance of the
absorber and with the selective treatment, based on spraying processes, it is intended to
decrease the emissivity of the absorber in long wavelengths.

• Housing. It is the element, together with the cover, that constitute the container of the rest of
the components of the collector. In the design of the housing, the mechanical strength
necessary for the conditions of use and assembly must be taken into account.
• Aislamiento. Tiene la misión de reducir las pérdidas térmicas del equipo. Está formado
normalmente por espumas sintéticas (poliuretano, fibra de vidrio...). El aislamiento térmico se
coloca en las caras laterales y en el fondo de la carcasa disminuyendo así las pérdidas de
calor por conducción.

The following figure depicts the various components of a flat grid solar collector.
 Diagram of the components of a flat solar collector
Collectors without cover
The main feature of these systems is that their only component is the absorber, which affects
their low price and ease of assembly compared to other collectors. As a result of not being
isolated the absorber, these systems have an overall lower performance than flat solar
collectors, so they need a larger available surface area.

These systems provide small thermal jumps so their most widespread use is the heating of
outdoor pools. They are normally made of polypropylene, being more moldable when it
comes to adapting them to the covers.

Solar collectors without cover

Solar vacuum collectors

These systems are formed by a series of glass tubes in which each of them has an absorber
element inside. Between the tube and the absorber the air vacuum has been performed. This
vacuum causes that the losses by convection can be considered zero when the pressure inside
the collectors is less than 10-2 bar.

Radiation losses, on the other hand, do not decrease as they do not depend on a physical
medium for their propagation. The vacuum tubes are normally connected to each other in
parallel.
 Solar vacuum collectors

Vacuum collectors have an optical coefficient normally between 0.6 and 0.8 and a loss
coefficient generally less than 1.5 W/m 2.K. This loss coefficient is lower than that of flat
collectors, so these collectors have higher yields than flat collectors for high working
temperatures.

That is why they are the most used when important thermal jumps are needed, in the case of
heating, industrial applications and for the generation of cold by absorption.

Another advantage over flat solar collectors is that they can be installed in a horizontal
position on a flat roof, because the sheets that constitute the absorber element can be oriented,
which entails less space and fewer anchoring elements. Its main disadvantage lies in its
higher economic cost in relation to flat solar collectors.

Performance of solar collectors

The instantaneous efficiency of a collector is defined as the ratio between the useful power
extracted from the absorber and the solar radiation intercepted by the collector.

Where A (m2) is the surface of the collector and I (W/m2) is the solar irradiance.

At any given instant, the useful energy extracted from the collector is the difference between
the energy absorbed by the absorbent plate and the energy lost. It can be expressed as
follows:

Fr: Exchange efficiency factor between absorber and carrier fluid

τ: Solar transmittance of the transparent cover
α: Solar absorbance of the absorber plate
UL: Overall coefficient of collector losses (W/ (m2•ºC))
Te: Temperature of entry of the fluid to the collector (ºC)
Ta: Ambient temperature (ºC)

Energy balance of a solar collector

Combining the two equations above can express the instantaneous performance of the getter
as follows:

,
in which Fr, (τα) and UL are characteristic parameters of each collector that can be considered
constant in the normal working temperature range of the collector.

The parameter (Te – Ta)/I is called a reduced temperature increment and is usually
represented by Tin*.

The above equation can be expressed as follows:

Where ho: is the optical coefficient and represents the maximum efficiency of the collector,
a1: is the coefficient of losses. The higher it is, the faster the efficiency of the collector
decreases as the temperature of the input fluid to the collector increases.

The following figure graphically shows the instantaneous efficiency of three different
collectors whose analytical expressions appear in it and which are extracted empirically from
laboratory tests. Logically, in order for the results to be comparable, the tests must be
homologable or meet the same standard.

The instantaneous efficiency of the collector will normally be represented by a second-order

equation as a function of the reduced temperature as follows:

where
Tm*= (Tm –Ta)/I
Tm= (Ts + Te)/2 representing the average temperature of the collector.
Ts: Temperature of the collector output fluid
Te: Temperature of the input fluid in the collector

In addition, it should be indicated whether this efficiency refers to the opening area or the
absorber area of the collector. Its graphical representation must be made at least for an
irradiance of 800 W/m2.
The results of the efficiency test can also be expressed linearly by a line of the type:
or of the type:

where
Tin*= (Te –Ta)/I, and the parameters ho and a1 have the same meaning as above, although they
are slightly lower (from 2.5% to 3.0%) to the corresponding optical coefficient h o and
coefficient of losses a1 ́ that appear in the expression of efficiency in function Tm*.

Comparison of different collectors' efficiency

The figure graphically shows the instantaneous efficiency of three collectors A, B and C as a
function of the reduced input temperature (T*) and the value that each of them reaches for
typical ACS characteristics:

Te: temperature of entry to the collector 50ºC

Ta: ambient temperature 10ºC
I: irradiance 800 W/m2
T*: Reduced temperature 0.05

The following conclusions can be drawn from the figure:

a) Increasing the reduced temperature (T*) decreases efficiency, the more the higher the loss
coefficient, which is equivalent to saying:
• Efficiency decreases as the temperature of the inlet water increases
• The same happens when irradiance decreases

(b) The relative behaviour of two collectors depends on the operating conditions.
The figure shows the obvious advantage of catchers A and B over C.
This relative advantage decreases with decreasing T*. It can also be seen how for T* < 0.03
becomes more efficient the collector B with respect to the collector A.

It should be emphasized that what has been said so far regarding the efficiency of the
collectors refers to the instantaneous efficiency in stationary conditions and that the actual
operation of the solar installation will move in a wide environment of the design conditions,
with lower irradiances and higher water temperatures which implies, in both cases, lower
efficiencies.

Applications of solar thermal energy

Production of domestic hot water
It is the main application of solar thermal energy, due to the low preparation temperatures and
the homogeneity of its consumption throughout the year, which makes solar thermal energy
installations present good yields for the production of domestic hot water and that it is also
interesting at an economic level when it comes to reducing the energy costs of an installation.
This is also valid for other activities that present a regular consumption throughout the year
of hot water at low temperature, such as a laundry, where the washing machines can be fed
with hot water from the solar installation instead of performing all the heating in the washing
machines themselves, and also in kitchens , where there is a demand for hot water in
dishwashers.
In installations intended for hotels, restaurants or hospitals, the rules relating to disease
prevention must be taken into account when designing the installation. This indicates that the
temperature of the water in the cold water circuit must be less than 20ºC and in the hot water
circuit above 50ºC, this circuit can withstand temperatures of up to 70ºC.
Pool water heating
It is one of the most interesting applications of solar thermal energy, because high
temperatures are not necessary for hot water, which makes the collectors work with high
yields. The temperatures to be reached in the pool glass range between 24 and 26 °C:
A distinction must be made between indoor pools and outdoor pools, as their needs for use
are very different.
Heating
The use of solar energy for heating has in the first place the disadvantage that there is only
demand for heating during a few months of the year since in the summer period there is
usually no demand for heating and, therefore, a lower use of the installation is obtained. In
addition, the heating season coincides with the months of lower solar radiation, which also
detracts from the performance of these facilities.

On the other hand, heating installations have conventional radiators as their heat emitting
element. This type of installation is in principle unsuitable for use with solar energy because
it works with high temperature levels, at 70-90 ºC, where the flat collectors have very low
yields.

That is why you must resort to special systems for the transmission of heat to the interior of
the house, which operate at lower temperatures, preferably below 60ºC. The most commonly
used systems are underfloor heating and fan-coils. Underfloor heating consists of circulating
water at low temperature under the floor of the room to be heated. The water temperature
range for underfloor heating is usually 30-40ºC, which makes it very appropriate for solar
energy installations.

Underfloor heating: distribution pipes.

The fan-coil system is based on a series of tubes with fins through which hot water circulates.
A stream of air passes between the tubes, which heat this air stream before being introduced
into the room. The water temperature for a fan-coil system is usually 45ºC, which makes it
also very appropriate for solar energy installations.

Another option for the use of solar energy installations for heating is the use of collectors
with good performance at high temperatures, such as vacuum collectors. The disadvantage of
this system is that the cost of installation becomes significantly more expensive.

Solar air conditioning

The air conditioning of buildings by solar energy offers a good possibility of application of
solar energy due to the coincidence of the periods of demand with the months of greater solar
radiation. In addition, solar energy can also be used in these installations to support heating
during months when there is no demand for cold.
In solar air conditioning, thermal energy is used as a driving force for the production of cold.
It is the so-called solar cold, being generally the technology used for the production of cold
that of absorption machines. In absorption machines for the cooling of buildings, water is
generally used as a coolant and lithium bromide as an absorbent. Contrary to what happens
with solar collectors, the performance of absorption machines increases with increasing
working temperature, requiring temperatures (80-90ºC for simple-effect absorption machines)
that are difficult to reach by flat solar collectors. That is why you have to resort to high
efficiency collectors or vacuum tubes.
Another aspect to take into account is that in the cycle of an absorption machine there are
residual heats that have to be evacuated. This condensation heat is normally evacuated by a
cooling tower or by an air condenser (for small power absorption machines).
 Solar installation scheme with absorption machine.

Although at present work equipment is mainly used in large installations such as the
industrial or tertiary sector, there are currently small power (5–10 kW) domestic absorption
equipment on the market suitable for domestic applications. It is expected that in the future
this technology will multiply the possibilities of cold production in homes.

Solar energy for industrial processes

Low-temperature solar power systems can supply a significant part of industrial heat demand.
The large scale of industrial facilities leads to low-cost systems, the most interesting
applications being those where there is a continuous demand for heat throughout the year.

Especially appropriate processes are, for example, the heating of bathrooms for washing
cycles, dyeing processes where a large amount of hot water is demanded, air heating for
drying processes, chemical treatments, etc. Some of these applications are detailed below:

• Brine preheating. The brine used in water distillation processes for use in the industrial
process can be brought to the temperature of use by means of solar panels.
• Laundry and supply of ACS in changing rooms. In industrial sectors where there is a high
load of human resources and high hygiene needs, as is the case in the food sector, solar
thermal energy can be used to produce ACS in showers or to wash work clothes
• Air heating. In the malt brewing industry, the main heat consumption in the manufacture of
malt is for the drying of sprouted malt. For this purpose, preheated air up to 80ºC is used. The
consumption of heat at low temperatures is very high, so the solar contribution that can be
achieved is high. It can help heat inlet air.

The system will have circulation pumps and valves that will direct the flow. With this solar
heat the inlet air is preheated up to 25 – 50ºC before reaching the conventional exchanger,
which achieves an important level of energy savings. This application is feasible in sectors
such as plastic molding, dairy, meat in the drying of parts or structural ceramics.
• Solar thermal energy as a complement to cogeneration. In many industries it is more
advantageous to use cogeneration as a source for producing heat and electricity. However, the
contribution by solar energy can serve as a complement in those processes parallel to the
production in which the heat requirement is of low or medium temperature. Let's not forget
however that the best way almost always to meet the demand for heat at low temperature
(<50 °C) in industrial processes is through heat recovery.
• Water preheating for industrial processes (conventional boiler, steam boiler). The required
thermal energy is usually generated in saturated steam boilers that burn fuel or natural gas. If
a percentage of these heat needs are produced by means of renewable energies, we will
achieve a reduction in costs as well as a reduction in harmful emissions into the atmosphere.

Scheme installation of use to produce hot air

• Cleaning of facilities. The cleaning of the facilities is necessary to be done with press on
water at a certain temperature, around 70ºC. For this purpose, solar energy can be used to
heat this water.
• Water treatment for pasteurization. This thread is used in the dairy sector, canning and in
the oil production industry.
• Heating of the water for the setting. It is carried out around 35 ºC in the dairy sector.
• Maintenance of water temperature in fish farms. Here the water temperature has to remain
constant between 20 and 26 °C, temperatures that favor the maximum use of the heat
produced by solar panels.

The production of cold by absorption machines is another interesting application of solar

energy in industry, where the same considerations that have been made for domestic
refrigeration are valid.
REFERENCIAS

AVEN 2005: Guía práctica de Energía Solar Térmica. Agencia Valenciana de la Energía
Calle Colón, 1, 4ª planta 46004 Valencia.
http://energia.ivace.es/attachments/guia_solar_termica_2009.pdf
Bohorquez, Ángel 2010: La Energía Solar Térmica.
https://publications.iadb.org/bitstream/handle/11319/4252/
Solar_Thermal_Energy_SPA_final.pdf?sequence=2
Guevara, Sixto 2003: DISEÑO DEL SISTEMA DE CALENTAMIENTO SOLAR DE
AGUA. Centro Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente. Área de
Desarrollo Sostenible y Salud Ambiental. Lima, Perú, 2003.
http://www.bvsde.ops-oms.org/tecapro/documentos/miscela/iDisenocalenta.pdf