Dear Students,

In your lab manual you have 2 pages : (i) Plain Page (ii) Lining Page

To write the experiments in your manual, follow these instructions:

1. On PLAIN page, you have to write (WITH PENCIL) following things:

(i) Theory Diagram

(ii) Observation Table

(iii) Calculations

(iv) Graph (if any) (it should be pasted opposite to the result)

2. On LINING page, you have to write (WITH PEN) following things:

(i) Aim

(ii) Apparatus Required

(iii) Theory

(iv) Result

(v) Precautions

(vi) Source of error

3. Do not forget to write the unit of the physical quantities.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 1

 Experiment No. – 1
Aim: To determine the resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus
current.

Apparatus Required:

1. Two resistance wires

2. A voltmeter
3. An ammeter
4. A rheostat
5. A battery
6. A plug Key
7. Connecting wires
8. A piece of sand paper
9. A Screw Gauge
10. A meter scale

Theory:

According to Ohm’s law, the current 𝐼 flowing a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference 𝑉 applied across its ends provided tthe physical conditions of the conductor remain unchanged.
𝑉
𝑉∝𝐼 or 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 or 𝑅=𝐼
where 𝑅 is the resistance of the conductor.
But the resistance 𝑅 of a wire of length 𝑙, area of cross-section 𝐴 and specific resistance (resistivity) 𝜌 is
𝑙 𝑙 4𝜌𝑙
given by 𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌 2 = 2
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
2
where 𝑑 is mean diameter of the wire.
×
Hence, the resistivity 𝜌 of the conductor is given by 𝜌=

Observations:

1. Determination of resistance of wires A and B

Range of voltmeter = 0 − 3 𝑉
Range of ammeter = 0 − 3 𝐴
Least count of voltmeter = 0.05 𝑉
Least count of ammeter = 0.05 𝐴 𝐴.
Zero error for voltmeter, 𝑒 = 0 𝑉
Zero correction for voltmeter, 𝑐 = −𝑒 = 0 𝑉
Zero error for ammeter, 𝑒 = 0 𝑚𝐴

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT

PGT Physics
Physics) Page 2
 Zero correction for ammeter, 𝑐 = −𝑒 = 0 mA
Least count of meter scale = 1 𝑚𝑚
Length of the resistance wire A, 𝑙 = 49.2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.492 𝑚
Length of the resistance wire A, 𝑙 = 51.4 𝑐𝑚 = 0.514 𝑚
Table for voltmeter and milli-ammeter readings
Voltmeter Readings V (in V) Ammeter Readings 𝑰 (in mA) Resistance of the wire
Wire S.
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected 𝑹 = 𝑽/𝑰
used No.
𝑽𝟎 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒄𝟏 𝑰𝟎 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 + 𝒄𝟐 (in 𝛀)
1. 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.05 3
2. 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.10 3
Wire
3. 0.45 0.45 0.15 0.15 3
A
4. 0.60 0.60 0.20 0.20 3
5. 0.75 0.75 0.25 0.25 3
1. 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 1.5
2. 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.20 1.5
Wire B 3. 0.45 0.45 0.30 0.30 1.5
4. 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 1.5
5. 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 1.5

2. Determination of radius of a conductor

Pitch of screw gauge = 1 𝑚𝑚
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
pitch 1
Least count of screw gauge = Number of divisions on circular scale = 100 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
Zero error of screw gauge, 𝑒 = 0 𝑚𝑚
Zero correction of screw gauge, 𝑐 = −𝑒 = 0 𝑚𝑚
Table for diameter of resistance wires
Reading along one direction Reading along perpendicular direction
Measured
(𝒅𝒂 ) (𝒅𝒃 )
diameter
Wire S. Diameter
M.S.R Diameter 𝒅𝒂 + 𝒅𝒃
used No. C.S.D. 𝒅𝒂 = 𝑵 + M.S.R C.S.D. 𝒅=
𝑵
𝒏 𝒏 × 𝑳. 𝑪. 𝑵 (mm) 𝒏
𝒅𝒂 = 𝑵 + 𝒏 × 𝑳. 𝑪. 𝟐
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
1. 0 48 0.48 0. 50 0.50 0.49
Wire
2. 0 47 0.47 0 49 0.49 0.48
A
3. 0 49 0.49 0 47 0.47 0.48
1. 0 51 0.51 0 49 0.49 0.50
Wire
2. 0 49 0.49 0 51 0.51 0.50
B
3. 0 50 0.50 0 48 0.48 0.49

Calculations:

1. Calculations for the Resistances of Wire A and B

𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐴 +𝑅𝐴 3+3+3+3+3+3
1 2 3 4 5
Mean resistance of wire A by observation table, 𝑅 = 5
= 5
=3Ω
𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐵 1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5+1.5
Mean resistance of wire A by observation table, 𝑅 = 1 2
5
3 4 5
= 5
= 1.5 Ω
Δ𝑉 . . .
Resistance of wire A by graph 𝑉 versus 𝐼, 𝑅 = cot 𝜃 = Δ𝐼 = = =3Ω
. . .
Δ𝑉 . . .
Resistance of wire B by graph 𝑉 versus 𝐼, 𝑅 = cot 𝜃 = Δ𝐼 = = = 1.5 Ω
. . .
2. Calculations for the Diameters of Wire A and B

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 3

 𝑑𝐴 +𝑑𝐴 +𝑑𝐴 0.49+0.48+0.48 1.45
1 2 3
Mean diameter of wire A, 𝑑 = 3
= 3
= 3 = 0.48 𝑚𝑚 = 0.48 × 10 𝑚
𝑑𝐵1 +𝑑𝐵2 +𝑑𝐵3 0.50+0.50+0.49 1.49
Mean diameter of wire B, 𝑑𝐵 = = = 3 = 0.50 𝑚𝑚 = 0.5 × 10 𝑚
3 3
3. Calculations for the Resistivity of Wires A and B
2 × . × . × . ×
𝑅𝐴 ×𝜋𝑑𝐴
Resistivity of wire A, 𝜌 = 4𝑙𝐴
= = 1.10 × 10 Ω𝑚
× .
2
𝑅𝐵 ×𝜋𝑑𝐵 1.5×3.14×0.5×0.5×10−6
Resistivity of wire B, 𝜌 = 4𝑙𝐵
= 4×0.514
= 0.57 × 10 Ω𝑚 = 5.7 × 10 Ω𝑚

Result:
1. The current through the given wire varies linearly with potential difference across its ends.
2. Resistivity of wire A, 𝜌 = 1.10 × 10 Ω𝑚
3. Resistivity of wire B, 𝜌 = 5.7 × 10 Ω𝑚

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. The plug in key 𝐾 should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
4. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies outside the
binding terminals.
Source of error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
4. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 4

 Experiment No. – 2
Aim: To find the resistance
sistance of a given wire using Meter Bridge.

Apparatus Required:

1. A Meter Bridge
2. A battery eliminator
3. A galvanometer,
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one way key
7. A resistance wire
8. A metre scale
9. A set square
10. Connecting wires
11. A piece of sand paper.

Theory:

The Meter Bridge works

rks on the principle of Wheatstone
Wheatstone’s bridge. Wheatstone
tone’s bridge gets balanced
when
=
𝑙
For the Meter Bridge,
ridge, adjoining circuit shown
shown, this takes in the form =
100−−𝑙

Hence, the unknown resistance 𝑆 is given by ( – )

S= ×𝑅

Where, 𝑅 is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resis
resistance 𝑆 in the right gap of Meter
Bridge, 𝑙 is the length of Meter Bridge
ridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

Observations:

Table for unknown resistance ((𝑺)

Unknown resistance
Resistance from the Length
Length 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒍 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 – 𝒍)
S. No. resistance box 𝑹 𝑩𝑪 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎 – 𝒍) 𝑺= ×𝑹
(in cm) 𝒍
(in ohm) (in cm)
(in Ω)
1. 1 21 79 3.76
Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT
PGT Physics
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 2. 2 33.7 66.3 3.93
3. 3 44 56 3.81
4. 4 51.2 48.8 3.81
5. 5 56.5 43.5 3.84
Mean = 3.83
Calculations:
( )
From first observation, 𝑆 = ×𝑅 = × 1 = 3.76Ω
( ) .
From second observation, 𝑆 = ×𝑅 = × 2 = 3.93Ω
.
( )
From third observation, 𝑆 = ×𝑅 = × 3 = 3.81Ω
( ) .
From fourth observation, 𝑆 = ×𝑅 = × 4 = 3.81Ω
.
( ) .
From fourth observation, 𝑆 = ×𝑅 = × 5 = 3.84Ω
.

Mean value of unknown resistance (𝑆) =

. . . . . .
= = = 3.83 Ω
Result:
The value of unknown resistance (𝑆) is 3.83Ω.

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key 𝐾 should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
Source of error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 6

 Experiment No. – 3
Aim: To verify the laws of series combination of resistances using a Meter Bridge.
Apparatus Required:
1. A Meter Bridge
2. A battery
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one way key
7. Two resistance wires
8. A metre scale
9. A set square
10. Connecting wires
11. A piece of sand paper.
Theory:
( – )
1) The resistance (𝑟)) of a unknown resistances wire or coil is given by 𝑟 = ×𝑅

where, 𝑅 is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance 𝑟 in the right gap of Meter
Bridge, 𝑙 is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
2) When two resistances 𝑟 and 𝑟 are connected in series, then there equivalent resistances is given by
𝑅 =𝑟 +𝑟

Observations:
Table for balancing point and unknown resistance ((𝒓)
Unknown
Resistance from the Length Length 𝑩𝑪 resistance
Resistance S. Mean resistance
resistance box 𝑹 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒍 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎– 𝒍) (𝟏𝟎𝟎 – 𝒍))
No. 𝒓= ×𝑹 ( in ohm)
(in ohm) (in cm) (in cm) 𝒍
(in Ω)
𝑟 1. 6 45.6 54.6 7.18
2. 7 48.8 51.2 7.34 7.24
3. 8 52.6 47.4 7.20
𝑟 1. 4 43.5 56.5 5.19
2. 5 47.9 52.1 5.43 5.31
3. 6 53.1 46.9 5.29
𝑟 and 𝑟 1. 11 46.3 53.7 12.75
in series 2. 12 48 52 13 12.88
3. 13 50.2 49.8 12.89
Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT
PGT Physics
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 Calculations:
1. Calculations for resistance 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 , and 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒓𝟐 in series :
a) When only 𝑟 is connected,
( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 7.18 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From second observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 7.34 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From third observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 7.20 Ω
.
𝑟11 𝑟21 𝑟31 . . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑟 ) = = = 7.24 Ω

b) When only 𝑟 is connected,

( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 5.19 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From second observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 5.43 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From third observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 5.30 Ω
.
𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟32 . . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑟 ) = = = 5.31 Ω

c) When both 𝑟 and 𝑟 are connected in series,

( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 12.75 Ω
.
( ) ×
From second observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 13 Ω
( ) . ×
From third observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 12.89 Ω
.
𝑅1𝑠 𝑅2𝑠 𝑅3𝑠 . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑅 ) = = = 12.88 Ω

2. Calculation for verification of laws:

Experimental value of 𝑅 = 12.88 Ω
Theoretical value of 𝑅 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 7.23 + 5.30 = 12.53 Ω
Result:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of 𝑅 are approximately same.
Hence, law of resistances in series is verified.
Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key 𝐾 should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 8

 Experiment No. –4
Aim: To verify the laws of parallel combination of resistances using a Meter Bridge.
ridge.
Apparatus Required:
1. A Meter Bridge
2. A battery eliminator
3. A galvanometer
4. A resistance box
5. A jockey
6. A one way key
7. Two resistance wires
8. A metre scale
9. A set square
10. Connecting wires
11. A piece of sand paper.
Theory:
( – )
1) The resistance (𝑟)) of a unknown resistances wire or coil is given by 𝑟= ×𝑅

where, 𝑅 is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance 𝑟 in the right gap of Meter
Bridge, 𝑙 is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
2) When two resistances 𝑟 and 𝑟 are connected in parallel, then their equivalent resistances is given
by
𝑅𝑝 =

Observations:
Table for balancing point and unknown resistance ((𝒓)
Unknown
resistance
Resistance from the Length Length 𝑩𝑪 =
Resistance S. (𝟏𝟎𝟎 – 𝒍) Mean resistance
resistance box 𝑹 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒍 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 – 𝒍) 𝒓= ×
No. 𝒍 ( in ohm)
(in ohm) (in cm) (in cm)
𝑹
(in Ω)
𝑟 1. 3 42.5 57.5 4.05
2. 4 49.9 50.1 4.01 4.07
3. 5 54.5 45.5 4.17

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PGT Physics
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 𝑟 1. 4 41.8 58.2 5.56
2. 5 47.2 52.8 5.59 5.65
3. 6 50.8 49.2 5.81
𝑟 and 𝑟 1. 1 32.9 67.1 2.04
in parallel 2. 2 49.5 50.5 2.04 2.12
3. 3 56.6 43.4 2.30
Calculations:
1. Calculationfor resistance 𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐 and 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒓𝟐 in parallel:
a) When only 𝑟 is connected,
( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 4.05 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From second observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 4.01 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From third observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 4.17 Ω
.
𝑟11 𝑟21 𝑟31 . . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑟 ) = = = 4.07 Ω

b) When only 𝑟 is connected,

( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 5.56 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From second observation, 𝑟 = ×𝑅 = = 5.59 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From third observation, r = ×𝑅 = = 5.81 Ω
.
. . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑟 ) = = = 5.65 Ω
c) When both 𝑟 and 𝑟 are connected in parallel,
( ) . ×
From first observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 2.04 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From second observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 2.04 Ω
.
( ) . ×
From third observation, 𝑅 = ×𝑅 = = 2.30 Ω
.
. . .
Mean value of resistance (𝑅 ) = = = 2.12 Ω

2. Calculation for verification of laws:

Experimental value of 𝑅 = 2.12 Ω
. × .
Theoretical value of 𝑅 = = = 2.36 Ω.
. .
Result:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of 𝑅 are approximately same.
Hence, law of resistances in parallel is verified.
Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key 𝐾 should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 10
 Experiment No. – 5
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half
half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus Required:
1. A Weston type galvanometer
2. A voltmeter
3. A battery eliminator
4. Two (10,000 Ω and 500 Ω ) resistance boxes
5. Two one-way keys
6. A rheostat
7. An ammeter
8. Connecting wires
9. A piece of sand paper.
Theory:
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method
.
𝐺=

where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and 𝑆 is the shunt resistance.
(ii) The figure of merit,
𝑘=
( )

(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑘
where 𝑛 is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on the either side of zero.

Observations:
1. The emf of the battery, 𝐸 = 2.65 𝑉
2. Number of divisions on the galvanometer scale 𝑛 = 30
3. Table to Find theResistance and Figure of Merit of Galavanometer
S. Resistance 𝑹 Deflection in the ShuntResistance Half 𝐑.𝐒 𝟏 𝑬
𝑮= 𝑲 =
No. (in ohm) galvanometer ((𝜽) 𝑺 (in ohm) deflection 𝐑 𝐒 𝜽 𝑹 𝑮
𝜽/2 (in Ω) (A/div)
1. 1070 30 55 15 57.98 7.83× 10
2. 1180 28 55 14 57.68 7.64× 10
3. 1257 26 55 13 57.51 7.75× 10

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 4. 1340 24 55 12 57.35 7.90× 10
Mean = 57.63 7.78× 10
Calculations:
1. Calculation for resistance of galvanometer:
𝑅 .𝑆 1070×55 1070×55
From first observation, 𝐺 = 𝑅 1−𝑆1 = 1070−55 = 1015
= 57.98 Ω
1 1
𝑅 .𝑆 1180×55 1180×55
From second observation, 𝐺 = 𝑅 2−𝑆2 = 1180−55 = 1125
= 57.68 Ω
2 2
𝑅 .𝑆 1257×55 1257×55
From third observation, 𝐺 = 𝑅 3−𝑆3 = 1257−55 = 1202
= 57.51 Ω
3 3
𝑅 .𝑆 1340×55
1340×55
From fourth observation, 𝐺 = 𝑅 4−𝑆4 = 1340−55 = 1285
= 57.35 Ω
4 4
𝐺 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + 𝐺4 57.98+57.68+57.51+57.35 230.52
Mean value of resistance, 𝐺 = 1 4
= 4
= 4 = 57.63 Ω
2. Calculation for k:
𝐸 2.65 2.65
From first observation, 𝑘 = 𝑅 + 1𝐺 𝜃 = (1070+57.98) 30 = 33839.4 = 7.83 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
1 1
𝐸 2.65 2.65
From second observation, 𝑘 = 𝑅 + 2𝐺 𝜃 = (1180+57.68) 28 = 34655.04 = 7.64 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
2 2
𝐸 2.65 2.65
From third observation, 𝑘 = 𝑅 + 3𝐺 𝜃 = (1257+57.51) 26 = 34177.26 = 7.75 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
3 3
𝐸 2.65 2.65
From fourth observation, 𝑘 = 𝑅 + 4𝐺 𝜃 = (1340+57.35) 24 = 33536.4 = 7.90 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
4 4
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 7.83+7.64+7.75+7.90
Mean value of figure of merit, 𝑘 = 4
= 4
× 10
−5
31.12 ×10
= 4
= 7.78 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣
3. Calculation for maximum current through Galvanometer
Maximum current that can flow through galvanometer 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑘 = 30 × 7.78 × 10 = 2.33 𝑚𝐴
Result:
1) Resistance of galvanometer is 57.63 Ω.
2) Figure of merit of given galvanometer is 7.78 × 10 𝐴/𝑑𝑖𝑣.
Precautions:
1) The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3) The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4) Initially a high resistance from the resistance boxes (𝑅) should be introduced in the circuit
(otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter
can be damaged).
Sources of error:
1) The instrument screws may be loose.
2) The plugs resistance boxes may not be clean.
3) The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4) The divisions of galvanometer may not be of equal size.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 12

 Experiment No. – 6
Aim: To find the values of 𝑣 for differen
different values of 𝑢 in case of a concave mirrorr and to find the focal length.
Apparatus Required:
1. An optical bench,
2. Three hree uprights (zero end upright fixed and two outer uprights with lateral movement)
3. Concave mirror
4. Mirror holder
5. Two optical needles (one thin and one thick)
6. Knitting needle
7. A half meter scale
Theory: When an object ‘O’ is placed beyond the focus 𝐹 of a concave mirror then its real and inverted image
‘𝐼’ is formed in front of the mirror.
If 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑓 are the distance of object, image and focus of the mirror from the pole then,

= +

Observations:
1. Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm
2. Actual distance of the object needle from the mirror using index needle, 𝑙 = 13 𝑐𝑚
Observed distance of the object needle from the mirror (𝑙 ′)
=position
position of mirror upright – position of object needle upright on the scale = 13.2 𝑐𝑚
Index correction for object distance, 𝑒 = actual distance(𝑙 ) – observed distance (𝑙 ′) = −0.2 𝑐𝑚.
3. Actual distance of the image from the mirror using index needle, 𝑙 = 13 𝑐𝑚
Observed distance of the image needle from the mirror (𝑙 ′)
=position
position of mirror upright – position of image needle upright on the scale = 12.7 𝑐𝑚
Index correction for image distance, 𝑒 = actual distance(𝑙 ) – observed distance (𝑙 ′) = 0.3 𝑐𝑚.
Table for focal lengths:
Position of Observed distance Corrected distance Focal Legth
S.
Mirror 𝑷 Object 𝑶 Image 𝑰 𝒖 = 𝑷𝑶 𝒗 = 𝑷𝑰 𝒖 = 𝒖 + 𝒆 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒆 𝒖𝒗
No. 𝒇=
𝒖+𝒗
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 5 19.2 43.3 14.2 38.3 14 38.6 10.27
2 5 21.2 38.5 16.2 33.5 16 33.8 10.85
3 5 23.2 27.8 18.2 22.8 18 23.1 10.11
4 5 29.2 22.6 24.2 17.6 24 17.9 10.25
5 5 32.2 21.4 27.2 15.4 27 16.7 10.31
6 5 34.2 19.2 29.2 15.2 29 15.5 10.10

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Calculations:
𝑢 𝑣 −14×(−38.6) 540.4
From first observation,𝑓 = 𝑢 1+𝑣1 = −14−38.6 = − 52.6 = −10.27 𝑐𝑚
1 1

𝑢 𝑣 −16×(−33.8) 540.8
From first observation, 𝑓 = 𝑢 2+𝑣2 = −16−33.8 = − 49.8 = −10.85 𝑐𝑚
2 2

𝑢3 𝑣3 −18×(−23.1) 415.8
From first observation, 𝑓3 = = =− = −10.11 𝑐𝑚
𝑢3 +𝑣3 −18−23.1 41.1

𝑢4 𝑣4 −24×(−17.9) 429.6
From first observation, 𝑓4 = = =− = −10.25 𝑐𝑚
𝑢4 +𝑣4 −24−17.9 41.9

𝑢5 𝑣5 −27×(−16.7) 450.9
From first observation, 𝑓5 = = =− = −10.31 𝑐𝑚
𝑢5 +𝑣5 −27−16.7 43.7

𝑢6 𝑣6 −29×(−15.5) 449.5
From first observation, 𝑓6 = = =− = −10.10 𝑐𝑚
𝑢6 +𝑣6 −29−15.5 44.5

𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓
Mean of focal length 𝑓 = 1 2 3 6 4 5 6

10.27+10.85+10.11+10.25+10.31+10.10
=− 6
61.89
=− 6 = −10.31 𝑐𝑚

Result:
The focal length of the given concave mirror is−10.31 𝑐𝑚.
Precautions:
1. The tips of the needles and the pole of the mirror should be at same height.
2. The parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from
the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed beyond the focus of the mirror.
4. The upright should be vertical.
Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 14

 Experiment No. – 7
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between 𝑢 and 𝑣 or between 1/𝑢 and 1/𝑣.
Apparatus Required:
1. An optical bench
2. Three
hree uprights (one central upright fixed, two outer upright with lateral movement)
3. Convex lens
4. Lens holder
5. Two optical needles (one thin and one thick)
Theory: When an object ‘O’ is placed beyond the focus 𝐹 of a convex lens then its real and inverted image is
formed on the other side of the lens.
If 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑓 are the distance of object, image and focus of the lens from the optical centre then,
then
= −

Observations:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = 15 cm
𝟏 𝟏
Table for 𝒖 and 𝒗 or and
𝒖 𝒗
Object Image 𝒖𝒗
Position of 𝟏 𝟏 𝒇=
S. distance distance 𝒖 𝒗
No. Object O Lens L Image I 𝒖 = LO 𝒗 = LI 𝒖 𝒗 (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)
1. 16 35 94.5 19 59.5 0.05263 0.01680 14.4
2. 12 35 76.5 23 41.5 0.04348 0.02410 14.8
3. 10 35 71.9 25 36.9 0.04000 0.02710 14.9
4. 8 35 69.8 27 34.8 0.03704 0.02874 15.2
5. 5 35 66.6 30 31.6 0.03333 0.03164 15.4

Calculations:
× . .
From first observation, 𝑓 = = = = 14.4 𝑐𝑚
. .
× . .
From second observation, 𝑓 = = = = 14.79 𝑐𝑚 ≅ −14.8 𝑐𝑚
. .
× . .
From third observation, 𝑓 = = = = 14.9 𝑐𝑚
. .
× . .
From fourth observation, 𝑓 = = = = 15.2 𝑐𝑚
. .

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 × .
From fifth observation, 𝑓 = = = = 15.38 𝑐𝑚 ≅ −15.4 𝑐𝑚
. .
𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 +𝑓 14.4+14.8+14.9+15
15.2+15.4
Mean value of focal length 𝑓 = 1 2 53 4 5 = 5
74.7
= 5 = 14.94 ≅ 14.9𝑐𝑚

Graph 1.
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 Plotted the graph between 𝑢 and 𝑣 taking along 𝑋-axis and 𝑣 along 𝑌-axis.
Drew a line OA from O making an angle 45° with 𝑋-axis. If AB and AC are perpendicular on 𝑋-axis and 𝑌-
axis drawn from A then AB = AC = 2𝑓 or OC = OB = 2𝑓
𝑂𝐵 31 𝑂𝐶 31
∴ 𝑓 = 2 = 2 = 15.5 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓 = 2 = 2 = 15.5𝑐𝑚
Mean value of 𝑓 = 15.5 𝑐𝑚
Graph 2.
Plotted the graph between and taking along 𝑋-axis and along 𝑌-axis. The graph so obtained is
straight line which intersects the axis at P and Q respectively and also nearly at an angel 45° with 𝑋- and
𝑌-axis.
1 1
OP = 0.0735 ∴ 𝑓 = 𝑂𝑃 = 0.0735 = 13.6 𝑐𝑚
1 1
OQ = 0.0595 ∴ 𝑓 = 𝑂𝑄 = 0.0595 = 16.8 𝑐𝑚
𝑓 +𝑓 13.6+16.8 30.4
Mean 𝑓 = 1 2 2 = 2
= 2 = 15.2 cm
Result:
The focal length of the given convex lens determined from
𝑢𝑣
1) 𝑓 = 𝑢−𝑣 = 14.9 𝑐𝑚
2) (𝑢-𝑣) graph = 15.5 𝑐𝑚
1 1
3) 𝑢 − 𝑣 graph = 15.2 𝑐𝑚
Precautions:
1) The tips of the needles and the centre of the lens should be at same height.
2) The parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from
the needle.
3) The object needle should be placed beyond the focus of the lens.
4) The upright should be vertical.
Sources of error:
1) The uprights may not be vertical.
2) Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 17

 Experiment No. – 8
Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between the angle
of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus Required:
1. Drawing board
2. A white sheet of paper
3. A triangular glass prism
4. Drawing pins
5. Office pin
6. A pencil
7. A half meter scale
8. A graph paper
9. A protractor
Theory: For a glass prism the angle of deviation (𝛿) depends upon the angle of incidence (𝑖). As the angle of
incidence increases the angle of deviation
viation first decreases and becomes minimum at a particular value of the
incidence angle. On further increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation increases. In minimum
deviation position, the angle of incidence (𝑖) and angle of emergence (𝑒) are equal to each other, i.e.,
refracted ray is parallel to base of prism.

Observations:
Table for the angle of incidence and angle of deviation
S.No. Angle of incidence Angel of deviation
1. 35° 47
47°
2. 40° 45
45°
3. 45° 39
39°
4. 50° 37
37°
5. 55° 41
41°

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Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 19
Calculations:
Plotted graph between angle of incidence (𝑖) and angle of deviation (𝛿) by taking ∠𝑖 taking along 𝑋-axis
and ∠𝛿 along 𝑌-axis.
From this graph, we find the value of angle of minimum deviation 𝛿 corresponding to lowest point of the
graph. 𝛿 = 37°

Result:
1) 𝑖-𝛿 graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (𝑖) increases, the angle of deviation (𝛿) first
decreases, attains a minimum value (𝛿 ) and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of
incidence.
2) Angle of minimum deviation 𝛿 = 37°
Precautions:
1) The position of the prism should not be disturbed during experiment.
2) All the angles should be measure carefully.
3) The pins should be fixed vertical
vertical.
4) The images of 𝑃, 𝑄 and the pins 𝑅, 𝑆 should be in same line.
5) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 𝑚𝑚.
6) The angle of incidence should lie between 35° to 60°.
Sources of error:
1) Pin pricks may thick.
2) Measurement of angles may be wrong.

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 Experiment No. – 9
Aim: To find the refractive index of the water by using concave mirror.
Apparatus required:
1. A concave mirror
2. Water in a beaker
3. An optical needle
4. An adjustable clamp stand
5. A meter scale.
Theory:
The refractive
ractive index of the water is measured as
Real radius ofcurvature of the concave mirror
𝑛 = Apparent radius ofcurvature ofthe concave mirror

Observations:
Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = 15 cm
Table for the refractive of the water
S. No. Actual Radius of Curvature (R) Apparent Radius of Curvature (R’) 𝑹
(in cm) (in cm) 𝒏𝒘 =
′
𝑹
1. 29.2 21.8 1.34
2. 30.6 22.6 1.35
3. 29.8 22.2 1.34

Calculations:
29.2
From first observation, 𝑛 = 21.8 = 1.339 ≅ 1.34
30.6
From second observation, 𝑛 = 22.6 = 1.353 ≅ 1.35
29.8
From third observation, 𝑛 = 22.2 = 1.342 ≅ 1.34
𝑛𝑤 +𝑛𝑤 +𝑛𝑤 3 1.34+1.35+1.34
34 4.03
Mean Refractive Index of the Water, 𝑛 = 1 3 2 = 3
= 3

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 = 1.343 ≅ 1.34
Result:
The refractive index of water with respect to air = 1.34
Precautions:
1) The base should be horizontal.
2) The liquid should be transparent.
3) Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
4) The mirror and surface of water should be clean.
5) On vertical stand the needle should be clamped horizontally as tip of pin on principal axis of mirror.
6) The parallax should be removed completely.
Sources of error:
1) The liquid may not be quite transparent.
2) Parallax removal may not be perfect.

Prashant Kumar Saxena (PGT Physics) Page 22

 Experiment No. – 10
Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.
Apparatus required:
1. A plane mirror
2. A convex lens
3. Water in a beaker
4. An optical needle
5. An adjustable clamp stand
6. A meter scale.
Theory:
If 𝑓 and 𝑓 be the focal length of the double convex glass lens and plano
plano-concave
concave liquid
li lens and 𝐹 be the
focal length of their combination then
1 1 1 1
= + or = −
𝑓𝑔 𝑓𝑤 𝐹 𝑓𝑔
𝑓𝑔
then, 𝑛 =2− 𝐹

Observations:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = 15 𝑐𝑚
Table for the distance of needle tip from lens and mirror
Distance of needle tip
𝒙 +𝒙𝟐
Focal Length
Arrangement S. No. From Lens From plane mirror Mean 𝒙 = 𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 (in cm)
𝒙𝟏 (in cm) 𝒙𝟐 (in cm) (in cm)
1. 9.2 10.1 9.65
Without Water 2. 9.0 10.2 9.60 𝑓 = 9.67
3. 9.1 10.4 9.75
1. 14.5 15.4 14.95
With Water 2. 14.2 15.6 14.90 𝐹 = 14.98
3. 14.6 15.6 15.10

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Calculations:
Without Water
. . .
From first observation, 𝑓 = = = =9.65 𝑐𝑚
. . .
From second observation, 𝑓 = = = =9.60 𝑐𝑚
. . .
From third observation, 𝑓 = = = =9.75 𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑔 +𝑓𝑔 +𝑓𝑔 9.65+9.60+9.75
Mean value of focal length convex lens𝑓 = 1 2 3 = =………. 𝑐𝑚
3 3
29
= 3 = 9.67 𝑐𝑚
With Water
. . .
From first observation, 𝐹 = = = =14.95 𝑐𝑚
. . .
From second observation, 𝐹 = = = =14.90 𝑐𝑚
. . .
From third observation, 𝐹 = = = =15.10 𝑐𝑚
𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹 14.95+14.90+15.10
Mean value of focal length of plano-convex Lens𝐹 = 1 32 3 = 3
44.95
= 3 = 14.98 𝑐𝑚
𝑓𝑔 9.67
𝑛 = 2 − 𝐹 = 2 − 14.98 = 2 − 0.65 = 1.35
Result:
The refractive index of water with respect to air = 1.35
Precautions:
1) The base should be horizontal.
2) The liquid should be transparent.
3) Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
4) The mirror and lens should be clean.
5) On vertical stand the needle should be clamped horizontally as tip of pin on principal axis of lens.
6) The parallax should be removed completely.
Sources of error:
1) The liquid may not be quite transparent.
2) Parallax removal may not be perfect.

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 Experiment No. – 11
Aim: To draw the 𝐼-𝑉 characteristics curve of a 𝑝-𝑛 junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
bias
Apparatus Required:
1. A 𝑝-𝑛 junction diode
2. 3 𝑉 battery
3. 30 𝑉 battery
4. 𝐴 high resistance rheostat
5. One (0-3 𝑉) voltmeter
6. One 0-30 𝑉 voltmeter
7. One 0-10 𝑚𝐴 ammeter
8. One 0-100 𝜇𝐴 ammeter
9. One way key
10. Connecting wires.
Theory:
Forward-bias characteristics: When the positive and negative poles of a battery are connected to 𝑝-region
and 𝑛-region of the 𝑝-𝑛 junction diode respectively, then the 𝑝-𝑛 junction is said to be in forward biased.
When the applied voltage is less than the potential barrier, then no current flows through the junction. As
soon as the applied voltage increases beyond the potential barrier, the current start to increase. The forward
current increases in the beginning and then rapidly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward
current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or thresho
threshold voltage. The graph plotted between the applied
voltage and the corresponding currents are called forward bias characteristics of the 𝑝-𝑛 junction.
Reverse-bias characteristics:When
When the negative and positive poles of a battery are connected to 𝑝-region and
𝑛-region of the 𝑝-𝑛 junction diode respectively, then the 𝑝-𝑛 junction is said to be in reverse biased. In
reverse-bias
bias the diode current is very small. It remains small approximately constant for all the voltages less
than the break down voltage. At breakdown, the current increases rapidly for small increase in vol voltage. The
graph plotted between the applied voltage and the corresponding currents are called reverse bias
characteristics of the 𝑝-𝑛 junction.

Observations:
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter =0−3𝑉
Least count of voltmeter = 0.05 𝑉
Range of milli-ammeter = 0 − 10 𝑚𝐴

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 Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 𝑚𝐴
S. No. Forward- bias Voltage 𝑽𝑭 (in V) Forward Current 𝑰𝑭 (in mA)
1. 0 0
2. 0.2 0
3. 0.4 0
4. 0.6 0.2
5. 0.8 0.8
6. 1.0 1.6
7. 1.2 2.4
8. 1.4 3.4
9. 1.6 4.4
10. 1.8 5.2
11. 2.0 6.2
12. 2.2 7.0
13. 2.4 7.8
For Reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter = 0 − 30 𝑉
Least count of voltmeter = 0.5 𝑉
Range of micro-ammeter = 0 − 100 𝜇𝐴
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2 𝜇𝐴
S. No. Forward- bias Voltage 𝑽𝑹 (in V) Forward Current 𝑰𝑹 (in 𝝁A)
1. 0 0
2. 2 4
3. 4 8
4. 6 12
5. 8 16
6. 10 20
7. 12 24
8. 14 28
9. 16 32
10. 18 36
11. 20 40
12. 22 44
13. 24 100

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Result:
1) I-V characteristics curve of 𝑝-𝑛 junction in forward and reverse bias is shown in adjoining graph.
2) The value of threshold voltage or knee voltage or cut in voltage for given diode, 𝑉 = 0.7 𝑉
3) The value of reverse breakdown voltage for given diode, 𝑉 = 24 𝑉
Precautions:
1) All connections in the circuit should be neat and clean.
2) The voltmeter, milli-ammeter and micro-ammeter should be of suitable range and the current and
voltage should not be exceeded beyond their limits.
3) The key should be opened when circuit is not being in use and it should be opened when only at the
time of taking observations.
4) The potential difference across the diode should be increased gradually in small steps. Take care that
the current should not be exceeded beyond the specified limit.
Sources of error:
1) The 𝑝-𝑛 junction diode kit may be faulty.
2) The forward voltage may be applied beyond the tolerance limit of the diode.
3) The connections in the circuit may be loosen.

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