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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

(E) Structure & Utility pre-construction survey:


Structures located within the zone of potential
influence may experience disturbance due to soil
movement caused by tunnel excavation and
construction in close proximity (e.g. cut-and-cover
excavation, shallow soft ground tunneling, etc.). If
the anticipated movement can induce potential
damage to a structure, some protection measures
will be required, and a detailed preconstruction
survey of the structure should be performed.
Preconstruction survey should ascertain all pertinent
facts of pre-existing conditions, and identify features
and locations for further monitoring.
The requirement for utility survey varies with
tunneling methods and site conditions. Cut-and-
cover tunnel and shallow soft ground tunnel
construct ions, parti cul arly in u rban areas,
extensively impacts overlying and adjacent utilities.
Water, sewerage, storm water, electrical, telephone,
fiber optic and other utility mains and distribution
systems may require excavation, re-routing,
strengthening, reconstruction and/or temporary
support, and may also require monitoring during
construction.
1.3 Geo-technical Investigations during Cons-
truction phase: It sometimes becomes necessary
to perform additional subsurface investigations and
ground characterization during construction. Such
construction phase investigations serve a number
of important functions like:
• Verify initial ground support selection and for
design/re-design.
• Documenting existing ground conditions for
reference, in case of contractual claims.
• Assessing ground and groundwater conditions
ahead of the advancing face, to reduce risks
and improve the efficiency of tunneling
operations. This enables forewarning of

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adverse tunneling conditions like potential


high water inflow, very poor ground etc.
• Verification of conditions assumed for final
tunnel lining design, including choice of
unlined tunnel.
• Mapping for the record, to aid in future
operations, inspections, and maintenance
work.
A typical construction phase investigation program
would include some or all of the following elements:
• Subsurface investigation (borings and
geophysical) from the ground surface.
• Additional groundwater observation wells and/
or piezometers.
• Additional laboratory testing of soil and rock
samples.
• Geologic mapping of the exposed tunnel face:
with due safety precautions.
• Geotechnical instrumentation.
• Probing in advance of the tunnel heading
from the face of the tunnel: It typically
consists of drilling horizontally from the
tunnel heading by percussion drilling or
rotary drilling methods.
• Pilot Tunnels are small size tunnels (typically
at least 2mx2m in size) that are occasionally
used for large size tunnels in complex
geological conditions.
Pilot tunnel may also be located adjacent to the
proposed tunnel, using the pilot tunnel for
emergency exit, tunnel drainage, tunnel ventilation,
or other purposes for the completed project.

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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Tunnel Seismic Prediction: Himalayas is the one


of the youngest geologies on earth having rock
mass with fault zones, sheared zones, fractured
rock mass and being permeable and water
bearing. Even with the best of geotechnical
exploration, all these features cannot be captured
in advance. Therefore, geological prediction during
construction becomes inevitable in such cases.
Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) is one of such
modern techniques, which has been used in many
tunnels world over including tunnels in Himalayas
region. TSP can also explore water bearing
formations in 3D image. It takes less time as
compared to probe drilling method. Once the
geological risk is identified and mapped properly,
risk management becomes easy, cheaper and
predictable to large extent.
This is adopted as predictive method during
excavation process, for both drill & blast and TBM
techniques, and no access face is required to
perform the measurements. The TSP system is an
underground seismic reflection package comprising
measurement instrumentation and its own
interpretation software. By employing the principle
of echo sounding, it serves to predict changes in
rock physical properties ahead of and around
spatially very restricted underground excavations
such as tunnel tubes. TSP-3D is one such patented
technique developed by Amberg Technologies AG
of Switzerland. In this method, acoustic signals are
produced by a series of 24 shots of usually 50 to
100 grams of detonation cords aligned along one
tunnel wall side and having additional shot line
along opposite tunnel wall side in case of more
complex geology (Fig. 4.05). The 3 component
receiver picks up the seismic signals which were
being reflected from any kind of discontinuity in
rock mass ahead (Fig. 4.06). The capability of
system to record full wave field of compressional
and shear wave in conjunction with analysis

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software enables determination of rock mechanical


properties such as Poisson’s Ratio and Young’s
Modulus within the prediction area. The final 2D
and 3D result produced by the system software
presents boundary planes crossing the tunnel axis
coordinates ahead (Fig. 4.07).

Fig. 4.05: TSP Survey

Fig. 4.06: Principle of TSP

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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Fig. 4.07: TSP Output


2. Assessing exploration requirements of a
Tunneling Project:
(1) Because of the complexities of geology and
the variety of functional demands, no two tunnels
are alike. It is therefore difficult to give hard and
fast rules about the required intensity of
explorations or the most appropriate types of
exploration. Nonetheless, following can help in the
planning of explorations:
(a) Plan explorations to define the best, worst,
and average conditions for the construction
of the underground works; locate and
define conditions that can pose hazards or

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Chapter-4

great difficulty during construction.


(b) Use qualified geologists to produce the
most accurate geologic interpretation so as
to form a geological model that can be
used as a framework to organize data and
to extrapolate conditions to the locations of
the underground structures.
(c) Determine and use the most cost-effective
methods to discover the information sought.
(d) Anticipate methods of construction and
obtaining data required to select
construction methods and estimate costs.
(e) Anticipate potential failure modes for the
completed structures and required types of
analysis, and obtain the necessary data to
analyze them (e.g., in situ stress, strength,
and modulus data for numerical modeling).
(f) Drill at least one boring at each shaft
location and at each portal.
(g) Special problems may require additional
explorations.
(2) Frequently, even the most thorough
explorations will not provide sufficient information
to anticipate all relevant design and construction
conditions. Here, the variation from point to point
may be impossible to discover with any reasonable
exploration efforts. In such instances, the design
strategy should deal with the average or most
commonly occurring condition in a cost-effective
manner and provide means and methods to
overcome the worst anticipated condition,
regardless of where it is encountered.
(3) The specific scope and extent of the
investigation must be appropriate for the size of
the project and the complexity of the existing
geologic conditions; must consider budgetary

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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

constraints; and must be consistent with the level


of risk considered acceptable.
(4) Since unanticipated ground conditions are
most often the reason for costly delays, claims and
disputes during tunnel construction, a project with
a more thorough subsurface investigation program
would likely have fewer problems and lower final
cost.
3. Geotechnical investigation Program for tunnels
should involve/include:
(a) Active consultation with experienced
geotechnical engineers, geologists &
designers.
(b) “What”, “Why”, “Where”, “How” & “How
much” for each Geotechnical parameter to be
tested/investigated.
(c) Phasing the investigations (Para-1 above).
(d) Keeping the investigation program and
contract flexible enough so as to enable
taking up of additional investigations as per
unexpected requirements that emerge during
course of work.

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TUNNEL SURVEYING

CHAPTER-5

TUNNEL SURVEYING

Surveying plays an important role in construction of


tunnels, right from the planning stage to the final
completion. Surveying techniques are applied in tunnels
for:
(i) Proper initial planning.
(ii) Integration of geo-technical and geographical
data with topographical mapping (and utility
mapping, if located in urban area).
(iii) Actual alignment and guidance of tunnel, adit
and shaft construction.

1. Type of Surveys: Following surveys are required in


any typical tunnel project:
1.1 Preliminary Surveys: Topographic maps,
maintained by Survey of India (some of them in
digital form), are generally sufficient for initial
planning. However, in most cases, supplementary
data are required, either due to inaccuracies in
the data available or due to changes in land use
or topography. Therefore, a horizontal and vertical
control survey is required to obtain general site
data for route selection and for design. This
survey should be expanded from existing records
and monuments, that are based on the same
horizontal and vertical datum, that will be used for
final design of the structures. Additional temporary
monuments and benchmarks are placed as needed
to support field investigations, mapping,
environmental studies and route selection.
Typically, reasonably detailed mapping in corridors
100 to 1000m wide are required along all
contemplated alignments. This mapping should be

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Chapter-5

sufficiently detailed to show natural and man-made


constraints to the project. In urban areas,
mapping of major utilities, that may affect the
project, must also be done.
When the project corridor has been defined, new
aerial photographs should be obtained and
photogrammetric maps should be prepared to
facilitate/obtain data on portal design, access,
drainage, depth of cover, geology, seismic history
etc.
1.1.1 Equipment and Techniques: Modern mapping
equipment and techniques provide a wide range of
products and services to support planning and
design, and ongoing construction management,
including:
(a) Digital Ortho Mapping, wherein the aerial
photographic image is digitized in true plan position
and scale (Example: Fig. 5.01), and can be inserted
into the project Geographic Information System
(GIS) or database.

Fig. 5.01: Digital Ortho Mapping

(b) Digital topographic mapping, wherein


contours and planimetric features are directly
digitized during the map compilation process
(Example: Fig. 5.02) and can be CAD-plotted and/
or inserted into the project GIS.

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TUNNEL SURVEYING

Fig. 5.02: Digital Topographic Mapping

(c) Software enabling manipulation of digital map


and survey data to extract profiles, cross sections,
spot elevations, etc., and to superimpose this data
selectively with design, right of way, geologic,
and other data sets that have been digitized into
the GIS/database.
1.2 Utility Surveys: Utility surveys are mainly
required for urban tunnels for information on
preliminary and final route selection and to
determine the type and extent of utility
protection, relocation, reconstruction or monitoring
needed. Deep tunnel construction may not pass
through any utility systems, but vibration, blasting
shock, and settlement may affect surface and
underground utilities in the project corridor. Cut-
and-cover construction, particularly in urban areas,
extensively affects overlying and adjacent utilities.
The information from utility surveys supplements
existing utility maps and records.
Utility surveys, like all other surveys on the
project, must be based on the primary horizontal
and vertical control network, and must be
sufficiently accurate to ensure that all utility
features are located within required tolerances.
1.2.1 Equipment and Techniques: Instruments and
systems available for locating utilities include:

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Chapter-5

(a) Photogrammetric mapping: Routinely used


to document the location of pre-painted surface
features such as manholes, valves, inlets,
hydrants, etc. This is normally done during the
photogrammetric mapping phase of the survey
work.
(b) Magnetic surveys: Ferrous bodies such as
iron and steel pipes, barrels, piles, etc., induce
anomali es i n th e eart h's magn et ic field.
Magnetometers detect the anomalies, whose
amplitude is a function of the ferrous mass and
the distance from the surface.
(c) Electromagnetic toning: A low-frequency AC
current is conducted into linear metal features
such as pipelines, cables, cable jackets etc., by
connecting an AC tone generator to an exposed
section of the feature. A handheld receiver detects
the feature by electromagnetic signals whose
magnitudes are a function of the strength of
induced AC current, distance between tone
generator and mobile receiver, depth of cover over
the feature, electrical conductivity of the feature,
and electrical insulation between the feature and
its burial medium (earth, water). Operating AC
electrical cables may also be detected by
electromagnetic toning.
(d) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): A portable
instrument that emits radar frequency signals
vertically downward and plots energy pulses
reflected by buried objects.
1.3 Primary Survey Network: Primary surveys are
the basic positional reference for the project.
These surveys must be founded on stable and
accessible monuments, and they must be
conducted to a high degree of accuracy to meet
project needs. The survey work, computations,
adjustment, and data recording must be accurate
and reliable so that design and construction can

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TUNNEL SURVEYING

proceed with absolute confidence in the credibility


of the survey data.
1.3.1 Survey Control: Primary horizontal surveys
are conducted using Triangulation, Electronic
Distance Meter (EDM) traverse, Global Positioning
System (GPS) surveys or a combination of these
methods. The GPS is helpful in providing precise
references at low cost over long distances. When
used in differential mode in establishing control
networks, GPS gives relative positioning accuracies
as good as two ppm. GPS is also flexible, because
line-of-sight is not required between points.
After completion of route selection, a horizontal and
vertical survey of high accuracy is conducted, with
permanent monuments installed near portals, adits,
and other selected locations in the project corridor.
Design and execution of the survey must be done
with the objective of establishing a singular and
authoritative survey system that is based on
securely founded monuments and meets the accuracy
standards required for the project. All subsequent
surveys and construction work must be based solely
on the control survey network, and the project plans
and specifications should contain specific statements
affirming this.
(a) Electronic Distance Measuring: Modern EDM
instruments (TotalStation) combine accurate
measurement of angles and distances, computer
processing of data and storage of observed angle
& distance data. Range of distance measurement
depends upon type of EDM used, number of
reflective prisms and clarity of the air. Typical
range is 2000-3000m, with some specialized
instruments ranging in excess of 7000m. Standard
deviation of angles and distance measurements
vary with the various models and makes of EDMs
available. EDMs with data collectors can download
survey data for processing and plotting using
specialized "field-to-finish" software.

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Theodolites, TotalStation and EDMs cannot be


adjusted or calibrated in the field. This work must
be done in a competent service facility as
recommended by the OEM. Level instruments,
however, require regular testing to assure that
the horizontal crosshair defines a true level plane.
(b) Global Positioning System (GPS):
Coordinate positioning of widely spaced control
monuments is usually accomplished by GPS
surveys, which utilize the signal transit time from
ground station to satellites to determine the
relative position of monuments in a control network.
The accuracy of measurement is dependent upon
the number of satellites observed, configuration of
the satellite group observed, elapsed time of
observation, quality of transmission, type of GPS
receiver, and other factors including network design
and techniques used to process data. GPS surveying
requires the simultaneous operation of several
receiving instruments located at different stations
throughout the survey network, and the success
of an observing session depends upon each
instrument being in place and operating at a
predetermined time. This requires detailed advance
planning.
Although GPS surveying is now increasingly
becoming common, high-order GPS surveys entail
extremely sophisticated procedures for both field
and office work. Accordingly, the work should be
planned and executed under the direction of a
qualified GPS specialist with strong credentials in
the application of advanced geodesy to design
and construction.

2. Surveying steps in alignment control of Tunnels:


Setting out centre line of tunnel at exact location and
elevation is done in following steps:
(i) Establishment of temporary benchmarks and
alignment posts, as required for work, and

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