PHY1163-Notes-2022 (1)-1

LECTURE NOTES OF PHYSICS FOR
ENGINEERS I (PHY1163) MODULE
Compiled for Year 1, Engineering Options
Academic Year: 2021–2022

Contents
Contents I
Physical Constants 1
I MECHANICS 2
1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Physics and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Standards and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Fundamental quantities and their measurements . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Rules and Conventions in measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Standards prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Uncertainty, Precision and Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Order of Magnitude Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Significant Figures and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2 Rounding Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Scalar and vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Some Vector Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.3 Components and magnitude of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.4 Vector addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.5 Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.6 Vector multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.7 Derivative of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 KINEMATICS 19
2.1 Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 Distance and Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.4 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.5 Uniformly Accelerated Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.6 Falling Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.7 Variable Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.8 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Motion in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.2 Motion in Two Dimension with Constant Acceleration . . . . . . 28
2.2.3 Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.4 Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.5 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
I
II Lecture Notes of Physics for Engineers I Module
3 DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE 34
3.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.4 Application of Newton’s laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Circular Motion and Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.1 Circular motion dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.3 Satellite Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Work, Energy and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.1 Work Done by a Constant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2 Work Done by a Varying Force – One Dimensional Case . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Work Done by a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.4 Work and Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.5 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.2 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.4 Gravitational Potential Energy near the Earth’s Surface . . . . . 47
3.4.5 Nonconservative Forces and the Work-Energy Theorem . . . . . . 49
3.4.6 Potential Energy Stored in a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.7 Relationship between Conservative Forces and Potential Energy . 51
3.5 Linear Momentum and Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum for a Two-Particles System . . 53
3.5.3 Concept of Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5.4 Collisions in One-Dimensional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.5 Collisions in Two-Dimensional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4 DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES 59

4.1 Center of Mass of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Translational Motion of a System of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 Rotation of a Rigid Body about a fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 Angular Velocity and angular Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.2 Rotational Kinematics–Rotational Motion with Constant Angular
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.3 Relationship between Angular and Linear Quantities . . . . . . . 64
4.3.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.5 Calculation of Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.6 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.7 Relationship between Torque and Angular Acceleration . . . . . . 67
4.3.8 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.9 Work-Energy Theorem in Rotational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4 Rolling Motion, Angular Momentum and Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.4.1 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4.2 Angular Momentum and Torque of a Particle . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Lecture Notes of Physics for Engineers I Module III
4.4.3 Angular Momentum and Torque of a System of Particles . . . . . 71

4.4.4 Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY 74

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2 Conditions of equilibrium of a rigid object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Center of gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.1 Finding a Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Elastic properties of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.1 Tensile and Compressive Stress and of Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.2 Young’s modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.3 Volume Stress and Strain and Bulk Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4.4 Shear Stress and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4.5 Poisson’s Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4.6 Stress-Strain Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4.7 Work done in a Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6 FLUID MECHANICS 83
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1.1 States of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1.2 Properties of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2 Pressure in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.2.1 Definition of the Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.2.2 Variation of pressure with depth: Pascal’s law . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2.3 Pressure measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.2.4 Buoyant forces and Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 Fluid dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3.1 Flow Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3.2 Streamlines and equation of continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.3.3 Bernoulli’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.3.4 Poiseuille’s Law and Stokes’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
II OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 95

7 OSCILLATORY MOTION 96
7.1 Motion of an Object Attached to a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.1.1 Analysis Model: Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . 97
7.2 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.2.1 Energy of a Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion . . . 101
7.3.1 Simple Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3.2 Physical Pendulum (Compound Pendulum) . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3.3 Torsion Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.3.4 Oscillations in a U–tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.4 Damped Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.4.2 Viscous Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
IV Lecture Notes of Physics for Engineers I Module
7.4.3 Damped Mechanical Oscillation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.5 Forced Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.5.1 How to drive Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.5.2 Equation of Forced Oscillations and Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8 WAVE MOTION 113

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Propagation of a Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.1 Types of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2.2 One–Dimension Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.3 Analysis Model: Traveling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.4 Speed of Waves on Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.5 Reflection and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.5.1 Refraction of the Wave Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.6 Refraction of a Wave Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.7 Energy Transport by Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.8 Linear Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Bibliography 121
Physical Constants
Name Symbol Value Unit

Number π π 3.14159265358979323846
Number e e 2.71828182845904523536

n
P
Euler’s constant γ = lim 1/k − ln(n) = 0.5772156649
n→∞ k=1
Elementary charge e 1.60217733 · 10−19 C
Gravitational constant G, κ 6.67259 · 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Fine-structure constant α = e2 /2hcε0 ≈ 1/137
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.99792458 · 108 m/s (def)
Permittivity of the vacuum ε0 8.854187 · 10−12 F/m
Permeability of the vacuum µ0 4π · 10−7 H/m
Coulomb Constant (4πε0 )−1 ke 8.9876 · 109 Nm2 C−2
Planck’s constant h 6.6260755 · 10−34 Js
Dirac’s constant ℏ = h/2π 1.0545727 · 10−34 Js
Bohr magneton µB = eℏ/2me 9.2741 · 10−24 Am2
Bohr radius a0 0.52918 Å
Rydberg’s constant Ry 13.595 eV
Electron Compton wavelength λCe = h/me c 2.2463 · 10−12 m
Proton Compton wavelength λCp = h/mp c 1.3214 · 10−15 m
Reduced mass of the H-atom µH 9.1045755 · 10−31 kg
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant σ 5.67032 · 10−8 Wm−2 K−4
Wien’s constant kW 2.8978 · 10−3 mK
Molar gas constant R 8.31441 J·mol−1 ·K−1
Avogadro’s constant NA 6.0221367 · 1023 mol−1
Boltzmann’s constant k = R/NA 1.380658 · 10−23 J/K
Electron mass me 9.1093897 · 10−31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.6726231 · 10−27 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.674954 · 10−27 kg
Elementary mass unit mu = 121
m(126 C) 1.6605656 · 10−27 kg
Nuclear magneton µN 5.0508 · 10−27 J/T
Diameter of the Sun D⊙ 1392 · 106 m
Mass of the Sun M⊙ 1.989 · 1030 kg
Rotational period of the Sun T⊙ 25.38 days
Radius of Earth RA 6.378 · 106 m
Mass of Earth MA 5.976 · 1024 kg
Rotational period of Earth TA 23.96 hours
Earth orbital period Tropical year 365.24219879 days
Astronomical unit AU 1.4959787066 · 1011 m
Light year lj 9.4605 · 1015 m
Parsec pc 3.0857 · 1016 m
Hubble constant H ≈ (75 ± 25) km·s−1 ·Mpc−1
1
Part I
MECHANICS
2
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Physics and Measurement

Human history shows that people have been making continuous and serious attempts to
understand what is happening around them and in the world around them in general.
The inquiring mind of human tried to understand the natural phenomena by observing
and analyzing the environment carefully. This series of human efforts has led us to today’s
modern science and technology.
(a) Science: The Science can be defined as the Knowledge gained through the Systematic
Observations and Experiments.
The scientific methods are: Systematic Observation; Reasoning; Modeling; Theoretical
Prediction.
(b) Physics: It concerned with the understanding the natural phenomena (of Universal).
Physics is based on experimental observation and quantitative measurement.
The Physics may be defined as a branch of the science which studies natural phenomena
in terms of Basic laws, Principles and Quantities. The Physics deals with the Matter and
Energy as the main components of the Nature.
The main methods of Physics are Observation and Experimentation. The study of physics
can be divided into six main areas:
• Classical Mechanics, concerning the motion of objects that are large relative to
atoms and move at speeds much slower than the speed of light.
• Relativity, a theory describing objects moving at any speed, even speeds approach-
ing the speed of light.
• Thermodynamics, dealing with heat, work, temperature, and the statistical
behavior of systems with large numbers of particles.
• Electromagnetism, the study of phenomena concerning electricity, magnetism,
and electromagnetic fields.
• Optics, the study of the behavior of light and its interaction with materials.
• Quantum Mechanics, dealing with a collection of theories connecting the behavior
of matter at the submicroscopic level to macroscopic observations.
1.2 Standards and units

To describe natural phenomena, we must make measurements of various aspects of nature.
Each measurement is associated with a physical quantity, such as the length or the mass
of an object. The laws of physics are expressed as mathematical relationships among
physical quantities.
3
4 Lecture Notes of Physics for Engineers I Module
Physical quantities are classified into two categories: fundamental quantities and
delivered quantities.
Fundamental quantities are quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any physical
quantity. In other hand, derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms
of fundamental quantities. In mechanics, the three fundamental quantities are length,
mass, and time. All other quantities in mechanics can be expressed in terms of these
three.
If we are to report the results of a measurement to someone who wishes to reproduce this
measurement, a standard must be defined.
The measurement of quantity is done by comparing it with some standard called unit. A
unit, therefore, is any division which is accepted as one unit of that quantity. For example,
if someone familiar with our system of measurement reports that a wall is 2 meters high
and our unit of length is defined to be 1 meter, we know that the height of the wall is
twice our basic length unit.
Whatever is chosen as a standard must be readily accessible (permanence or accessibility)
and must possess some property that can be measured reliably. Measurement standards
used by different people in different places throughout the Universe must yield the same
result (reproducibility). In addition, standards used for measurements must not change
with time (invariability). The System International (SI) of units is logically far superior
to all other system.
1.2.1 Fundamental quantities and their measurements

In earlier days, many systems of units were used to measure physical quantities. To
bring uniformity, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in the 1960
accepted the SI system of units. Since then the SI has been periodically updated to take
account of advances in science and the need for measurements in new domains. The last
major revision was adopted by the 26th CGPM (2018), which decided that the SI would
be based on the fixed numerical values of a set of seven defining constants from which the
definitions of the seven base units of the SI would be deduced.
The SI in the system of units in which:
• the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the Caesium–133

atom ∆vCs =9 192 631 770 Hz,
• the speed of light in vacuum c is 299 792 452 m/s,
• the Planck constant h is 6.626 070 634 ×10−34 J s,
• the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 ×10−19 C,
• the Boltzmann constant k is 1.380 649 ×10−23 J/K,
• the Avogadro Constant NA is 6.022 140 76 ×1023 mol−1 ,
• the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd is

683 lm/W
The seven basic quantities included in SI of measurement are:
Department of Physics, 2019-2020

Section 1.2: Standards and units 5
• The time which the unit is second (s). The second used to be defined by Earth’s
rotation, but that’s not constant, so it was redefined as 1/86400 of the mean solar day
in year 1900. In 1967 the second was given an new operational definition involving
atomic vibrations. That was defining the second as the duration of 9,192,631,770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground–state of the caesium-133 atom. But this definition was reviewed
a bit in 2018 when the CGPM decided to base the definition of SI on fixed 7 defining
constants. So the second is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium
frequency ∆vCs , the unperturbed ground–state hyperfine transition frequency of the
caesium 133 atom, to be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the Hz, which is equal to
s−1 . The device that implements this definition—which will seem a lot less obscure
once you’ve studied some atomic physics—is called an atomic clock. Thus, the
second is SI unit of the time, the measure of the duration between two events.
• The length which the unit is meter (m). The meter was first defined as one
ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the north pole. In 1889 a standard
meter was fabricated to replace the Earth-based unit, and in 1960 that gave way
to a standard based on the wavelength of light. Such an operational definition, a
measurement standard based on a laboratory procedure, has the advantage that
scientists anywhere can reproduce the standard meter. By the 1970s, the speed of
light had become one of the most precisely determined quantities. As a result, in
1983 the meter was given a new operational definition, defining the meter as the
length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458
of a second. This definition was reviewed in 2018. Now the meter is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458
when expressed in the unit m s1 , where the second is defined in terms of ∆vCs . Thus,
the meter is the SI unit of the length. The length can be defined as the distance
between two points in space.
• The mass which the unit is kilogram (kg). Until November 2018, the mass standard
was the least satisfactory. Unlike the operational definitions of length and time,
based on procedures that can be repeated anywhere, the unit of mass was defined by
a particular object—the international prototype kilogram kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. The prototype kilogram was
made of a special platinum-iridium alloy that is very hard and not subject to
corrosion. Nevertheless, it could change, and in any event comparison with such a
standard was less convenient than an operational definition that can be checked in
a laboratory. So scientists developed techniques based on counting the atoms in a
given volume, to scale up from the mass of a single atom to a new definition of the
kilogram. Scientists adopted a new definition of the kilogram in 26th CGPM (2018).
Since then, the kilogram is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck
constant h to be 6.626 070 15 ×10−34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal
to kg m2 s−1 . Thus, the kilogram is the SI unit of the mass. The mass of a body is
defined as the quantity of matter in the body, and can never be zero.
• The electric current which the unit is ampere (A). The ampere, symbol A, is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602
176 634 ×10−34 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the
second is defined in terms of ∆vCs .
5
• The thermodynamic temperature which the unit is kelvin(K). The kelvin is

defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380
649 ×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K –1 , which is equal to kg m2 s–2 K –1 , where
the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h , c and ∆vCs .
• The amount of substance, the unit is mole (mol). One mole contains exactly
6.022 140 76 ×1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed numerical value
of the Avogadro constant, NA , when expressed in the unit mol–1 and is called the
Avogadro number.
The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of
specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an
ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of particles.
• The luminous intensity in a given direction which the unit is candela. The
candela, symbol cd, is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous
efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 ×1012 Hz, Kcd , to be 683 when
expressed in the unit lm W –1 , which is equal to cd sr W –1 , or cd sr kg –1 m–2 s3 , where
the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆vCs .
1.2.2 Rules and Conventions in measurement

The following are conventions for writing SI units:
• The units named after scientists are not written with capital initial letter. For
example: newton, henry, watt;
• The symbols of the units named after scientists should be written with capital letters.
For example: N for newton, H for henry, W for watt;
• Small letter are used as symbols for units not delivered from proper names. For
example:m for meter, s for second;
• No full stop or other punctuation marks should be used within or at the end of
symbols. For example: 50 m, and not 50 m.;
• The symbols of units do not take the plural form. For example: 10 kg and not 10
kgs;
• Gap space is always to be left between the number and the symbol of unit and also
between the symbol for the compound units. For example: 2.3 m instead of 2.3m;
10 kg m s−2 instead of 10 kgms−2
1.2.3 Standards prefixes

SI units are specifically designed to conveniently describe the phenomena which occur
in everyday life. Unfortunately, SI units tend to become rather unwieldy when dealing
with phenomena on very small scales (e.g., the motion of molecules) or very large scales
(e.g., the motion of stars in the Galaxy). In order to help cope with this problem, a set
of standard prefixes has been devised, which allow the SI units to be modified so as to
deal more easily with very small and very large quantities: these standard prefixes are
specified in the following table:

Section 1.3: Dimensional Analysis 7
Table 1.1: Some Standard Prefixes

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
18 −1
10 exa− E 10 dec− d
1015 peta− P 10−2 centi− c
1012 tera− T 10−3 milli− m
109 giga− G 10−6 micro− µ
106 mega− M 10−9 nano− n
103 kilo− k 10−12 pico− p
102 hecto− h 10−15 f emto− f
101 −deca d 10−18 atto− a
1.3 Dimensional Analysis
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the fundamental quantities
(length, time, mass) must be raised to form its units. Dimension means the physical
nature of a quantity.
Physicists hold very strongly to the assumption that the laws of physics possess objective
reality: in other words, the laws of physics are the same for all observers. One
immediate consequence of this assumption is that a law of physics must take the same
form in all possible systems of units that a prospective observer might choose to use.
The only way in which this can be the case is is all laws of physics are dimensionally
consistent: i.e., the quantities of the left and right-hand sides of the equality sign in any
given law of physics must have the same dimensions.
A dimensionally consistent equation naturally takes the same in all possible system of
units, since the same conversion factors are applied to both sides of the equation when
transforming from one system to another.
in Mechanics, the dimension of length [l] is denoted L, that of mass [m] is denoted M
and that of time [t] is denoted T.
Example:
• Dimension of the velocity [v] is LT −1
• Dimension of the area [A] is L2
• x = 12 at2 ⇒ [x] = [a] · [t]2 =⇒ L = L

T2
· T 2 (the expression is valid)
• General procedure for setting up an expression of the form x ∝ an tm is that dimension

of the right side must be length [an tm ] = L = LT 0 ;
In terms of dimension analysis:
L n m

T2
T = L ⇔ Ln T m−2n = L ⇔ n = 1 and m − 2 = 0 ⇔ m = 2.
Thus x ∝ an tm , as we know: x = 21 at2
The last comment leads naturally to the subject of dimensional analysis. i.e, the use
of the idea of dimensional consistency to guess the form of simple laws of
physics.
Example:
The speed of sound in a gas might plausible depend on the pressure p, the density ρ, and
the volume V of the gas. Use dimensional analysis to determine the exponents x, y and z
in the formula v = Cpx ρy V z ; where C is a dimensionless constant.
7
Answer:
Equating the dimension of both sides of the above equation, we obtain
L M x M y 3 z

T
= T 2L L3
(L )
A comparison of the exponents of L, M and T on either side of the above expression
yields
 
1 = −x − 3y + 3z
 x = 1/2

0=x+y ⇔ y = −1/2
 
−1 = −2x z=0
 
q
p
Hence, v = C ρ
1.4 Uncertainty, Precision and Significant Figures

Uncertainty
Measurements always have uncertainty mainly due to the quality of the apparatus, the
skills of the experimenter and the number of measurement performed.
Suppose someone is measuring the area of a rectangular plate using a meter stick, with
±0.1 cm as accuracy, also called ”absolute uncertainty”.
➥ If the length measured is: L = 16.3 cm ⇒ 16.2 cm ≤ L ≤ 16.4 cm ⇔ (16.3 ± 0.1) cm
➥ If the width measured is: w = 4.5 cm ⇒ 4.4 cm ≤ w ≤ 4.6 cm ⇔ (4.5 ± 0.1) cm
➥ Calculation of the area: A = L × w = (16.3 cm) × (4.5 cm) = 73.35 cm ⇒ A ≈ 74 cm
Theorems of Uncertainties
We already know that the absolute uncertainty ∆G on a scientific quantity measured G

is given by
Gmax − Gmin
∆G =
2
The accuracy of a measurement is actually given by ”the relative uncertainty”,
expressed in terms of percentage of uncertainty. It is defined by the ration of the
absolute uncertainty and the measured quantity .
∆G
∆Grel =
G
In the above example, the relative uncertainty of the length is
∆L 0.1 cm
∆Lrel = = = 0.00613 ≈ 0.61%of uncertainty or 99.39% of certitude
L 16.3 cm
In case of measurements calculated using mathematical equations, the theorems of uncer-
tainties are helpful.

Section 1.4: Uncertainty, Precision and Significant Figures 9
(a) Uncertainty on an algebraic sum and difference

If we have G = X + Y , with X = X ± ∆X and Y = Y ± ∆Y , the absolute uncertainty
∆G is, by definition:

Gmax − Gmin X + ∆X + Y + ∆Y − X − ∆X + Y − ∆Y
∆G = ∆G = =
2 2
⇒ ∆G = ∆X + ∆Y
If we have G = X − Y , with X = X ± ∆X and Y = Y ± ∆Y , the absolute uncertainty
∆G is, by definition:

Gmax − Gmin X + ∆X − Y − ∆Y − X − ∆X − Y + ∆Y
∆G = ∆G = =
2 2
⇒ ∆G = ∆X + ∆Y
Conclusion: The absolute uncertainty on an addition and on a subtraction is the same
and it is equal to the sum of the absolute uncertainties on the terms which are added or
subtracted.
The relative uncertainty on the sum and difference become, by definition:
∆G ∆X + ∆Y ∆G ∆X + ∆Y
∆Grel = = and ∆Grel =
G X +Y G X −Y
respectively.
(b) Uncertainty on a product or a ratio

If we have G = XY ; with X = X ± ∆X and Y = Y ± ∆Y , the absolute uncertainty ∆G
is, by definition:

Gmax − Gmin X + ∆X Y + ∆Y − X − ∆X Y − ∆Y
∆G = =
2 2
⇒ ∆G = X · ∆X + Y · ∆Y
The relative uncertainty of the product becomes, by definition:
∆G X · ∆Y + Y · ∆X ∆X ∆Y
∆Grel = = = +
G X ·Y X Y
X
If we have G = Y
; with X = X ± ∆X and Y = Y ± ∆Y , the absolute uncertainty ∆G is,
by definition:

Gmax − Gmin 1 X + ∆X X − ∆X
∆G = ∆G = = −
2 2 Y − ∆Y Y + ∆Y
" #
1 (X · Y + Y · ∆X + X · ∆Y + ∆X · ∆Y ) − (X · Y − Y · ∆X − X · ∆Y + ∆X · ∆Y )
= 2
2 Y − (∆Y )2
9
and since (∆Y )2 → 0, we get after simplification:
X · ∆Y + Y · ∆X
∆G = 2
Y
The relative uncertainty on a ratio becomes, by definition:
∆G X · ∆Y + Y · ∆X Y ∆X ∆Y
∆Grel = = 2 · = +
G Y X X Y
Conclusion: The relative uncertainty on a product and on a ration is the same. In

this case, it is useful to first determine the relative uncertainty and then the absolute
uncertainty.
The determination of uncertainties on integer powers or nth roots is deduced from the
equation for the products:
G = X n ⇒ G = X · X · X · X · · · X (n factors) and
➢ ∆Grel = ∆G
G
= ∆X
X
+ ∆X
X
+ · · · + ∆X
X
= n ∆X
X
√
➢ G = n X = X 1/n ⇒ ∆Grel = ∆G G
= n1 ∆X
X
√
➢ G = n X m = X m/n ⇒ ∆Grel = ∆G G
=m ∆X
n X
➢ In general for polynomial and rational functions, we use the partial derivatives:
G = f (x, y, x, · · · )
∂f ∂f ∂f
⇔ dG = dx + dy + dz + · · ·
∂x ∂y ∂z
and then:
∂f ∂f ∂f
∆G = | | · ∆x + | | · ∆y + | | · ∆z + · · ·
∂x ∂y ∂z
1.5 Order of Magnitude Calculations

To compute approximate answer we need to conclude whether or not precise calculation
is necessary. Results are reliable to within of a factor of ten;
Example: (1) How many gallons do you estimate that a cylindrical container 36 cm in
diameter and 68 cm high will hold?
Solution:
Volume of that cylinder:
V = π × r2 × h = π × (18 cm)2 × 68 cm = 3 × (20 cm)2 × 70 cm = 80, 000cm3 ≈ 80 l
Since a litter is approximately equal to a quater of gallon, it follows that the container
will hold approximately 20 gallons. (note that the exact calculation gives 18.3 gallons)
193.7×39.64 (20×102 )(4×101 )
(2) Computer: 8.71
≈ 9
≈ 1 × 103 (exact calculation is about 882)

Section 1.6: Vectors 11
1.5.1 Significant Figures and Numbers

Significant figure (”sig figs”) also called significant digits is the number of reliably known
digits in a number. ie number of meaningful figures in the measured value.
All non-zero digits are significant. Example: 1.12 has 3 significant digits(1, 1 and 2), 9456
has 4 significant digits(9, 4, 5 and 6).
Zeros between non-zero digits are significants. Example: 2005 has 4 significant digits (2,
0, 0 and 5), 3.06 has 3 significant digits (3, 0 and 6).
All zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significants (leading zeros). Example:
in 0.005 only 5 is significant, the 0.0000506 has 3 significant digits (5,0,6).
Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit (tailing zeros) are significant if the decimal
point is shown. Example: 4.00 has 3 significant digits, 300.000 has 6 significant digits,
0.0560 has 3 significant digits and 0.0050600 has 5 significant digits (5,0,6,0,0).
Zeros to the right of the non-zero digit (tailing zeros) are not significant if there is an
understood decimal point. Example: in 600 only, 6 is significant digit; in 9800 000, only 9
and 8 are significants.
In scientific notation, the exponent part of the number is not significant.
When approximate numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of significant digits in
the final answer is the same as the number of significant digits in the least accurate of the
factors.
When approximate numbers are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places should
equal the smallest number of decimal places of any term in the sum or difference.
1.5.2 Rounding Numbers

The result of calculation with the number containing more than one uncertain digit should
be rounded off. The technique of rounding of is followed in applied science:
Remember that significant figures apply your reported result and rounding off your
numbers in the process can lead to errors.
Always retain at leat one more significant figure in your calculations than the number you
are entitled to report in the result. With calculators, it is usually easier to just keep all
digits until you report the result.
When rounding, if the remainder beyond the last digit to be reported is less than 5 drop
the last digit. If the remainder is greater than 5, increase the final digit by 1 and to
prevent rounding bias, if the remainder is exactly 5, then round the last digit to the closest
even number.
Example: when rounded to 3 significant digits; 4.999499, 2.3452, 3.77500 and 0.0024450
will become 4.99, 2.35, 3.78 and 0.00244 respectively.
1.6 Vectors
1.6.1 Scalar and vector quantities
Some physical quantities are entirely defined by a numerical value and are called scalar
quantities or scalars. Examples of scalars include time, mass (e.g 5 kilograms), tempera-
ture (e.g 22 degrees Celsius), energy and volume. Other physical quantities are defined by
11
both a numerical value and a direction in space and these are called vector quantities
or vectors. Examples of vectors include force, velocity (e.g. 12 meters per second north),
moment and displacement (e.g. 120 cm at 300 ). The only basic SI unit for vectors is the
meter, so every vector quantity must involve meters in its definition and unit.
1.6.2 Some Vector Properties

Vectors observe some properties which are:
• Two vectors that have the same direction are said to be parallel.
• Two vectors that have opposite direction are said to be anti-parallel.
• Two vectors that have the same length and the same direction are said to be equal
no matter where they are located.
• The negative of a vector is a vector with the same magnitude but opposite direction.
The magnitude of a vector is a positive number (with units!) that describe its size or its
length.
1.6.3 Components and magnitude of a vector

A vector is a mathematical object possessing, and fully described by, a magnitude and
a direction. It is possible to talk about vectors simply in terms of numbers, but it is
often a lot easier to represent them graphically as arrows. The vector’s magnitude is equal
to the length of the arrow, and its direction corresponds to where the arrow is pointing.
Physicists commonly refer to the point of a vector as its tip and the base as its tail.
There are a number of ways to label vectors. You may have seen vectors labeled by letters
with an arrow above: A, ⃗ ⃗a, or by bold print:A or a and vector magnitudes ∥A∥,
⃗ ∥⃗a∥, A
or a (in plain script). Let consider a vector v whose initial point is the origin O in xy -
coordinate system and whose terminal point is N. We say that the vector is in standard
position. To emphasize that we are thinking of a vector and to avoid the confusion of
notation with ordered - pair and interval notation, we generally write ⃗v =< a, b > or
a −−→
⃗v = ( ), or ⃗v = ON or ⃗v = a i + b j
b
Figure 1.1: A vector representation.
The coordinate a is the scalar horizontal component of the vector, and the coordinate b
is the scalar vertical component of the vector. By scalar, we mean a numerical quantity
rather than a vector quantity. Thus, is considered to be the component form of ⃗v . Note
that a and b are NOT vectors and should not be confused with the vector component
definition.
Thus, if we agree that the vector is to start at the origin,the positive end may be the
⃗
specified by giving the Cartesian coordinates (Ax , Ay , Az ) of the arrow head. Although A
could have represented any vector quantity (momentum, electric field, velocity, etc.), one
particularly important vector quantity, that is, the displacement from the origin to the
point (x, y, z), is denoted by the special symbol r or ⃗r.

Figure 1.2: Cartesian components and direction cosines of A.

Using r for the magnitude of vector r, we find that Figure 1.2 shows that the end-point
coordinates and the magnitude are related by:
x = rcosα ; y = rcosβ and z = rcosγi.e
cosα = x/r, cosβ = y/r, and cosγ = z/r are called the direction cosines, with α being
the angle between the given vector and the positive x-axis, and so on. One further bit of
vocabulary: The quantities Ax ; Ay , and Az are known as the (Cartesian) components
of A or the projections of A, i.e.Ax = x; Ay = y, and Az = z
−→
Now consider a vector AC = ⃗v which is not starting from the origin. Let A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
−→
C(x2 , y2 , z2 ) be the starting point and the end, respectively, of the vector AC = ⃗v . The
−→
components form of AC are v⃗x , v⃗y and v⃗z . ⃗v =< x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 >= v⃗x + v⃗y + v⃗z .
−→
The length, or magnitude, of a vector AC is given by
−→ p q
∥AC∥ = v = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 (1.1)
A unit vector ⃗e can be constructed along a vector using the direction cosines as its
components along the x, y and z directions. For example, the unit-vector ⃗e along the
⃗ is obtained from
vector A
⃗
A A⃗x A⃗y A⃗z
⃗e = = + + (1.2)
A A A A
1.6.4 Vector addition

There are two equivalent ways to add vectors graphically: the tip-to-tail method (called
also nose-to-tail method) and the parallelogram method. Both will get you to the
same result, but one or the other is more convenient depending on the circumstances.
Tip-to-Tail Method
We can add any two vectors, A and B, by placing the tail of B so that it meets the tip of
A. The sum, A+B, is the vector from the tail of A to the tip of B. Note that you will
Figure 1.3: Tip-to-tail method.
get the same vector if you place the tip of B against the tail of A. In other words, A+B
and B+A are equivalent.
Parallelogram Method
To add A and B using the parallelogram method, place the tail of B so that it meets
the tail of A. Take these two vectors to be the first two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
and draw in the remaining two sides. The vector sum, A+B, extends from the tails of A
and B across the diagonal to the opposite corner of the parallelogram. If the vectors are
perpendicular and unequal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a rectangle. If the
vectors are perpendicular and equal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a square.
13
Figure 1.4: Parallelogram method.

• Adding Vector Magnitudes
Of course, knowing what the sum of two vectors looks like is often not enough. Sometimes
you will need to know the magnitude of the resultant vector. This depends not only on
the magnitude of the two vectors you are adding, but also on the angle between the two
vectors. If vectors A and B are not perpendicular, you will calculate the magnitude of
A+B by using the angle α between A and B.
√
A+B = A2 + B 2 + 2AB cosα (1.3)
The second method, you add their components on x and y axis, and you use the
Pythagorean theorem since the projections are perpendiculars.
• Adding Perpendicular Vectors
Suppose vector A has a magnitude of 8, and vector B is perpendicular to A with a

magnitude of 6. What is the magnitude of A+B? Since vectors A and B are perpendicular,
the triangle formed by A, B, and A+B is a right triangle.
√ We can use the Pythagorean
Theorem to calculate the magnitude of A+B, which is 82 + 62 = 10.
• Adding Parallel Vectors
If the vectors you want to add are in the same direction, they can be added using simple
arithmetic. For example, if you get in your car and drive eight km east, stop for a break,
and then drive six km east, you will be 8 + 6 = 14 km east of your origin. If you drive
eight km east and then six km west, you will end up 8 − 6 = 2 km east of your origin.
• Vector Subtraction
You probably know that subtraction is the same thing as adding a negative: 8 − 5 is the
same thing as 8 + (−5). The easiest way to think about vector subtraction is in terms of
adding a negative vector. What is a negative vector? It is the same vector as its positive
counterpart, only pointing in the opposite direction. Then A-B, is the same thing as
A+(-B). For instance, let’s take the two vectors A and B: To subtract B from A, take a
vector of the same magnitude as B, but pointing in the opposite direction, and add that
vector to A, using either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram method.
Figure 1.5: Vector subtraction
1.6.5 Unit Vector

Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of unit vectors. A unit vector is a dimen-
sionless vector having a magnitude of exactly 1. Unit vectors are used to specify a given
direction and have no other physical significance.
We shall use the symbol î, ĵ and k̂ to represent unit vectors pointing in the positive
x, y and z directions, respectively. The unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ form a set of mutually

Figure 1.6: Unit Vectors of the Coordinate System

perpendicular vectors in a right-handed coordinate system as shown in Figure 1.6a. The
magnitude of each vector equals 1, that is, |î| = |ĵ| = |k̂| = 1.
Consider a vector A ⃗ lying in the xy plane as shown in Figure 1.6b. The product of the
components Ax and the unity vector î is the component vector A ⃗ x = Ax î, which lies on the
x axis and has magnitude |Ax |. Likewise, A⃗ y = Ay ĵ is the component vector of magnitude
|Ay | lying on the y axis. Therefore, the unit-vector notation for the vector A ⃗ is
⃗ = Ax î + Ay ĵ
A (1.4)
Now let us see how to use components to add vectors when the graphical method is not
⃗ to vector A
sufficiently accurate. Suppose we wish to add vector B ⃗ in Equation 1.4, where
vector B⃗ has components Bx and By . The resultant vector R ⃗ =A ⃗+B ⃗ is
⃗ = (Ax î + Ay ĵ) + (Bx î + By ĵ)

R or ⃗ = (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ
R (1.5)
⃗ = Rx î + Ry ĵ, we see that the components of the resultant vector are
Because R
Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By (1.6)
1.6.6 Vector multiplication

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
Multiplication is like repeated addition. Multiplying 4 by 3 means adding four three times:
4 × 3 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12. The multiplication of a vector by a scalar works in the same way.
Multiplying the vector A by the positive scalar c is equivalent to adding together c copies
of the vector A. Thus 3A=A+ A+A. Multiplying a vector by a scalar will get you a
vector with the same direction, but different magnitude, as the original. The result of
Figure 1.7: Multiplication of a vector by a scalar.
multiplying A by c is a vector in the same direction as A, with a magnitude of cA. If c is

negative, then the direction of cA is reversed by scalar multiplication.
Dot product
The dot product, also called the scalar product, takes two vectors, multiplies them
together, and produces a scalar. The smaller the angle between the two vectors, the
greater their dot product will be. A common example of the dot product in action is
the formula for work. Work is a scalar quantity, but it is measured by the magnitude of
force and displacement, both vector quantities, and the degree to which the force and
displacement are parallel to one another.
Figure 1.8: Scalar product.
The dot product is denoted by “•” between two vectors. The dot product of vectors A
and B results in a scalar given by the relation:
15
⃗•B
A ⃗ = AB cosθ. (1.7)
where θ is the angle between the two vectors. Order is not important in the dot product as
can be seen by the dot products definition. The dot product has the following properties:
α(⃗b • ⃗c) = (α⃗b) • ⃗c = ⃗b • (α⃗c) and ⃗a • (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a • ⃗b + ⃗a • ⃗c

Since the cosine of 900 is zero, the dot product of two orthogonal vectors will result in
zero. Since the angle between a vector and itself is zero, and the cosine of zero is one, the
magnitude of a vector can be written in terms of the dot product using the rule:
⃗a • ⃗a = a2
When working with vectors represented in a rectangular coordinate system by the com-
ponents A⃗ = Ax i + Ay i + Az k and B
⃗ = Bx i + By j + Bz k, then the dot product can be
evaluated from the relation:
⃗•B
A ⃗ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.8)
This can be verified by direct multiplication of the vectors and noting that due to the
orthogonality of the base vectors of a rectangular system one has i • j = 0 ; j • k =
0 ; i • k = 0 and i • i = 1 ; j • j = 1 ; k • k = 1.
The cross product

The cross product also called the vector product of vectors a and b is a vector perpendicular
to both a and b and has a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram generated from
a and b. The direction of the cross product is given by the right-hand rule. The closer
the angle between the two vectors is to the perpendicular, the greater the cross product
will be. We encounter the cross product a great deal in our discussions of magnetic fields.
Magnetic force acts perpendicular both to the magnetic field that produces the force, and
to the charged particles experiencing the force. The cross product between the vectors is
denoted by × or ∧.
Figure 1.9: Cross product.
Order is important in the cross product. If the order of operations changes in a cross
product the direction of the resulting vector is reversed. That is,
⃗×B
A ⃗ = −B
⃗ ×A
⃗ = C.
⃗
The cross product of vectors A and B gives a new vector C, perpendicular to both vectors
A and B, and whose magnitude:
⃗ × B∥
∥A ⃗ = ∥C∥
⃗ = AB sinθ (1.9)
⃗ is the area generated by
where θ is the angle between the two vectors. The value of ∥C∥
those vectors as shown on Figure 1.9. The cross product has the following properties:
α(⃗b × ⃗c) = (α⃗b) × ⃗c = ⃗b × (α⃗c)

⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c
(⃗a + ⃗b) × ⃗c = ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗b × ⃗c
When working in rectangular coordinate systems, the cross product of vectors ⃗a and ⃗b
given by ⃗a = ax i + ay j + az k and ⃗b = bx i + by j + bz k, can be evaluated using the rule:
⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c = ax ay az = (ay bz − by az )⃗i − (ax bz − bx − az )⃗j + (ax by − bx ay )⃗k (1.10)
bx by bz
One can also use direct multiplication of the base vectors using the relations:
i × j = k ; j × k = i ; k × i = j and i × i = 0 : j × j = 0 : k × k = 0
The triple product

The value of the triple product of vectors a, b, and c is equal to the volume of the
parallelepiped constructed from the vectors. This can be seen from the figure since Volume
= abc sinθ cosφ.
Figure 1.10: Triple product.
⃗a • (⃗b × ⃗c) = a|⃗b × ⃗c|cosφ = abc sinθ cosφ (1.11)

Consider vectors described in a rectangular coordinate system as ⃗a = ax i + ay j + az k ,
⃗b = bx i + by j + bz k and ⃗c = cx i + cy j + cz k. The triple product can be evaluated by using
the relation:
ax ay az
⃗
⃗a •(b×⃗c) = α = bx by bz = (by cz −cy bz )ax −(bx cz −cx −bz )ay +(bx cy −cx by )az . (1.12)
cx cy cz
The triple product has the following properties:
⃗a • (⃗b × ⃗c) = (⃗b × ⃗c) • ⃗a = ⃗c • (⃗a × ⃗b) = ⃗b • (⃗c × ⃗a)
Triple vector product
The triple vector product has the following properties
(⃗a × ⃗b) × ⃗c = −⃗c × (⃗a × ⃗b) = ⃗c × (⃗b × ⃗a)
Verify the expansion of the triple vector product, by direct expansion in Cartesian
coordinates.
(i) ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) = ⃗b(⃗a • ⃗c) − ⃗c(⃗a • ⃗b)
(ii) (⃗a × ⃗b) • (⃗a × ⃗b) = a2 b2 − (⃗a • ⃗b)2
17
1.6.7 Derivative of a vector

⃗
A(u) = Ax (u)⃗i + Ay (u)⃗j + Az (u)⃗k
dA⃗ ∆A ∆Ax⃗ ∆Ay ⃗ ∆Az ⃗

= lim = lim ( i+ j+ k)
du du→0 ∆u du→0 ∆u ∆u ∆u
where ∆Ax (u) = Ax (u + ∆u) − Ax (u) and so on. Hence,
⃗
dA dAx⃗ dAy ⃗ dAz ⃗
= i+ j+ k
du du du du
The derivative of a vector is a vector whose Cartesian components are ordinary derivatives.
It follows that the derivative of the sum of the two vectors is equal to the sum of the
namely vector:
d(A +⃗ B) dA⃗ dB ⃗
= +
du du du
The rules for differentiating vector products obey similar rules of a vector calculus. For
example:
⃗
d(nA) dn ⃗ dA⃗
= A+n
du du du
d(A ⃗• B) ⃗
dA ⃗
⃗ • dA
⃗ +A
= •B
du du du
⃗ B)
d(A × ⃗
dA ⃗
= ×B ⃗ +A ⃗ × dB
du du du
Notice that it is necessary to preserve the order of the terms in the derivative of cross
product.

Chapter 2
KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the part of Classical Mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies
(objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of
that motion.
2.1 Motion in One Dimension

The motion of a particle is completely known if its potion in space is known at all times.
Consider a particle moving along x axis from point P to point Q.
images/Displacementone.png
Figure 2.1: Displacement between two positions
2.1.1 Position
Ideally, a particle (mass point) is a body whose dimension can be neglected in a given
situation. The position of a particle is defined related to a reference point called origin.
In a given reference system, the position of a particle can be specified by a single vector,
called vector position of the particle relative to the origin of the coordinate system as seen
in Figure 1.2.
In order to describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe its position
- where it is at any particular time. More precisely, you need to specify its position relative
to a convenient reference frame. Earth is often used as a reference frame, and we often
describe the position of an object as it relates to stationary objects in that reference
frame. For example, a rocket launch would be described in terms of the position of the
rocket with respect to the Earth as a whole, while a teacher’s position could be described
in terms of where he is in relation to the nearby (white or black or green) board. In
other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in motion relative to
the Earth. To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not the Earth, as the reference frame.
2.1.2 Distance and Displacement

Displacement is a vector quantity, commonly denoted by the vector ⃗s that reflects an
object’s change in spatial position. The displacement of an object that moves from point
A to point B is a vector whose tail is at A and whose tip is at B. Displacement deals only
with the separation between points A and B, and not with the path the object followed
19
Figure 2.2: Vector displacement.

between points A and B. By contrast, the distance that the object travels is equal to the
length of path AB.
Students often mistake displacement for distance; a question favored by test makers
everywhere is to ask the displacement of an athlete who has run a lap on a 400-meter
track. The answer, of course, is zero. After running a lap, the athlete is back where he or
she started. The distance traveled by the athlete, and not the displacement, is 400 meters.
2.1.3 Velocity and Acceleration

Speed
Speed and Velocity are words we often use interchangeably in everyday language. In
physics we make a distinction between them. For now, we discuss only speed, which refers
to how far an object travel in a given time interval. If a car travels 400 km in 5 hours,
we say its average speed was 80 km/h. In general, the average speed, v̄, of an object is
defined as the distance traveled, d, divided by the time, t, it takes to travel that
distance. The bar (-) over the v is the standard symbol meaning average.
d
v̄ = (2.1)
t
• Example
How far can a cyclist travel in 4.0 h if his average speed is 11.5 km/h?
Solution:
Since we want to find the distance traveled, we rewrite the equation above. Since
v = 11.5 km/h and t = 4.0h, d=(11.5 km/h)(4.0 h)=46 km.
Velocity
The word Velocity is used to signify both the magnitude (numerical value) of how fast
an object is moving and its direction (it is therefore called a vector ). The velocity of a
body is a vector quantity that describes both how fast it is moving and the direction in
which it is headed.
In the case of a body traveling in a straight line, its velocity is simply the rate at which it
covers distance. The average velocity v̄ is defined as the displacement divided by the
clasped time (which is t = tf − ti )
⃗
D x⃗2 − x⃗1 ∆⃗x
⃗v̄ = = = (2.2)
t t2 − t1 ∆t
• Example
The position of a bowling ball as a function of time is plotted as moving along the
axis of a graph. At ti = 3.00 s, its position is xi = 40.5 m; at tf = 5.50 s, its
position is xf = 18.2 m. What was its average velocity?

Section 2.1: Motion in One Dimension 21
Solution:
∆x x2 −x1
v̄ = ∆t
= t2 −t1
;
∆x = x2 − x1 = 18.2 m − 40.5 m = −22.3 m and ∆t = t2 − t1 = 5.5 − 3 = 2.5 s
∆x −22.3 m
v̄ = ∆t
= 2.5 s
= −8.92 m/s
The displacement and the velocity are negative, so the ball is moving to the left
along the axis.
Instantaneous velocity
The instantaneous velocity at any point is the average velocity over an indefinitely short
time interval;
∆⃗x d⃗x
⃗v = lim = (2.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
This Equation (2.3) is the definition of instantaneous velocity for one-dimensional motion.
In general,
Figure 2.3: Instantaneous velocity.
Figure 2.3 shows that as ∆t approaches zero, the point P ′ approaches the point P , and
the direction of the velocity d⃗
r
dt
approaches the direction of the tangent to the path P .
Therefore. the velocity vector, ⃗v is always tangent to the path of the motion.
d⃗r dx dy dz
⃗v = = ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k = vx⃗i + vy⃗j + vz⃗k (2.4)
dt dt dt dt
The magnitude of the velocity is called the speed. In rectangular components, the speed is
q
v = ∥⃗v ∥ = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 (2.5)
• Example
A particle is moving along the x axis. Its position as a function of time is given by
the equation x = At2 + B where A = 2.10 m/s2 and B = 2.80 m.
(a) Determine the displacement of the particle during the time interval from ti =
3.00 s to tf = 5.00 s.
(b) Determine the average velocity during this time interval.
(c) Determine the magnitude of instantaneous velocity at t = 5.00 s.
Solution:
(a) At ti = 3.00 s, the position is xi = At2 + B = (2.10 m/s2 )(3 s)2 + 2.8 m = 21.7 m
At tf = 5.00 s, the position is xt = At2 + B = (2.10 m/s2 )(5 s)2 + 2.8 m = 55.3 m
The displacement is thus xf − xi = 55.3 m − 21.80 m = 33.6 m
xt −xi
(b) The magnitude of the average velocity is v = tf −xi
= 33.6/2.00 = 16.8 m/s
(c) Let us determine the instantaneous velocity for any time t (that is, determine v as
2
a function of t). v = dr
dt
= d(Atdt+A) = 2At = (4.2 m/s2 )t, where we have substituted
in A = 2.10 m/s2 . At t = 5.0 s, we have v = (4.20 m/s2 )(5.00 s) = 21.0 m/s.
21
2.1.4 Acceleration
An object whose velocity is changing in time is said to be accelerating. A car whose
velocity increases from zero to 80 km/h is accelerating, if a second car accomplishes this
change in velocity in less time than the first car, it is said to undergo a great acceleration.
In general, the average acceleration, ā, during a time interval ∆t = tf − ti during which
the velocity changes by ∆v = vf − vi is defined as:
⃗vf − ⃗vi ∆⃗v

⃗ā = = (2.6)
tf − fi ∆t
The instantaneous acceleration a, is defined as the limiting value of average acceleration

as we let ∆t approaches zero.
∆⃗v d⃗v
⃗a = lim = (2.7)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Figure 2.4: Graph representation of (a) The Velocity versus the Time; (b) The Acceleration
versus the Time
2.1.5 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Many practical situations occur in which the acceleration is constant. In other situations
the variation in acceleration is sufficient small that we are justified in assuming that it is
constant. We now treat this situation of uniformly accelerated motion: that is, then the
magnitude of the acceleration is constant and the motion is in a straight line. In this case,
the instantaneous and average acceleration are equals. To simplify our notation, let us
take the initial time in any discussion to be: ti . we can then let tf be the final time. The
initial position (xi ) and initial velocity (vi ) and at time tf they will be called xf and vf ,
respectively. The average velocity during the motion will be
xf − xi
v̄ =
tf − ti
and the acceleration (which is assumed constant in time) will be

vf − vi
ā = .
tf − ti
A common problem is to determine the velocity of an object after a certain time given its
acceleration. We can solve such problem by solving for v in the last equation:
vf = vi + a(tf − ti ) (2.8)
For example, it may be known that the acceleration of a particular motor-cycle is 4.0m /s2
and we wish to determine how fast it will be going after, 6.0 s. Assuming it starts from rest
(vi = o), after 6 s the velocity will be v = a(tf − ti ) = (4.0 m/s2 )(6.0 s − 0 s) = 24 m/s.
Next, let us see how to calculate the position of an object after a time t when it is
x −x
undergoing constant acceleration. From the definition of average velocity, v̄ = tff −tii ,

xf = xi + v̄(tf − ti ) (2.9)
Because the velocity increases at uniform rate, the average velocity, v̄, will be midway
between the initial and final velocity,
vf + vi
v̄ = (2.10)
2
Combining the last three equations (2.8 - 2.10), we find
vf + vi (vi + a(tf − ti )) + vi
xf = xi + ( )(tf − ti ) = xi + ( )(tf − ti )
2 2
1
xf = xi + (vf − vi )(tf − ti ) + a(tf − ti )2 (2.11)
2
We now derive the fourth equation, which is useful in a situation when, for instance, the
acceleration, position, and initial velocity are known, and the final velocity is desired but
the final time is not known. To obtain the velocity at any time in term of vi , a, xi and xf .
From Equation (2.8), we get tf − ti = (vf − vi )/a, and substituting this into the above
Equation (2.9) and substituting v̄ by Equation (2.10) we get:
vf + vi
xf = xi + (vf − vi )/a
2
vf2 − vi2 = 2a(xf − xi ) (2.12)

• Example
Suppose a planner is designing an airport for small planes. One kind of airplane
that may use this airfield must reach a speed before takeoff of 200 km/h and can
accelerate at 12.0 m/s2 . If the runway is 100 m long, can this airplane reach the
proper speed to take off ?
Solution:
We use vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi ), with xi = 0, vi = 0, xf = 100 m, and a = 12.0 m/s2 ,
then
√
vf2 = 0 + 2(12.0 m/s2 )(100 m) = 2400 m2 /s2 =⇒ vf = 2400 = 49 m/s.
Unfortunately, this length runway is not sufficient. By solving vf2 − vi2 = 2a(xf − xi )
you can determine how long a runway is needed for this plane.
2.1.6 Falling Bodies

One of the commonest examples of uniformly accelerated motion is that of an object
allowed to fall vertically to the earth. That a falling body is accelerating may not be
obvious at first. And it may seem obvious, as was widely believed until the time of Galileo.
Galileo’s specific contribution to our understanding of the motion of falling objects can be
summarized as follows: At a given location on the earth and in the absence of air
resistance, all objects fall with the same uniform acceleration.
23
We call this acceleration the acceleration due to gravity and we give it the symbol g.
Its value is approximately g = 9.80 m/s2 , and varies slightly according to latitude and
altitude but these variations are so small that are ignored, the effect of air resistance are
often small so that are neglected. When a falling body has the constant acceleration g
and the formulas for uniformly accelerated motion apply. Thus a body dropped from rest,
after the time t has the velocity
v = vo + gt (2.13)
and the distance (height) is

1
d = h = vo t + gt2 (2.14)
2
You will find people throwing balls over their heads; the only acceleration involved is
the constant pull of gravity, −9.8 m/s2 toward the center of the Earth. In this case, the
velocity and the distance are
1
v = vo − gt and h = vo t − gt2
2
At the top, v = 0 m/s then,

vo = g ts
With these formula, you can find the time (ts )taken to reach its highest point,
vo
ts = , (2.15)
g
how high a body will travel (hs )

vo2
hmax = , (2.16)
2g
and the total time to reach the same point (t)
vo
ts = 2 . (2.17)
g
• Example
A student throws a ball up in the air with an initial velocity of 12 m/s and then
catches it as it comes back down to him. What is the ball’s velocity when he catches
it? How high does the ball travel? How long does it take the ball to reach its highest
point?
Figure 2.5: (a)Three graphical views of uniformly accelerated motion; (b) Freely falling
object

2.1.7 Variable Acceleration

In previous sections we saw that if we know the position of object as a function of time,
then we can determine the velocity at any instant by measuring the slope of the x vs t
graph at that instant. Alternatively, we can take the derivative of x with respect to t
since v = dx/dt.
We can determine the acceleration at any time if we know the velocity as a function of
time; this can be done using the fact that the acceleration equals the slope of the v vs
t graph or by taking the derivative of v with respect to t: a = dv/dt. For the example
v = 3At2 + B, a = dv/dt = 6At. If the acceleration, a, is given as a function of time, we
can determine v as a function of time, and given v as a function of time t, we can obtain
the displacement, x.
• Example
An object starts from rest (v1 = 0) at t1 = 0 and accelerates at a rate given by
a(t) = (7.00 m/s3 )t. What is (a) its velocity and (b) its displacement 2.00 s later?
Solution
(a) Let us first determine v as a function of t. We set ti = 0; tf = t; vi = 0, vf = v(t).
Z tf Z t
t2 t2
v(t) = a(t) dt = 7t dt = 7 |t0 = 7( − 0) = (3.5 m/s3 )t2
ti 0 2 2
At t = 2.00 s, v = (3.50 m/s3 )(2.00 s)2 = 14.00 m/s
(b) To get the displacement we use:
Z tf
x(t) = v(t) dt,
ti
with v1 = 0, v2 = 14.0 m/s, t1 = 0, t2 = 2.00 s and let choose x1 = 0

Z 2.00
t3
x2 = (3.5 m/s3 )t2 dt = (3.5 m/s3 ) |02.00 = 9.33 m.
0 3
2.1.8 Exercise
1. A stone is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of 20 m/s
straight upward. The building is 50 m high, and the stone just misses the edge of
the roof on its way down. Taking the origin pf axis of the ground, determine: (a)
The time t1 needed for the stone to reach its maximum height; (b) the maximum
height Hm from the ground; (c) the time to needed for the stone to return to the
level of the thrower; (d) the velocity vo of the stone at this instant; (e) the velocity
v and position y of the stone at t = 5 s; (f) the velocity v2 of the stone just before it
hits the ground; and (g) the time t2 the stone is in the air.
2. A particle moves along the positive x axis in such a way that its coordinate varies
in time according to the expression x = 4 + 2t − 3t2 , where x is in m and t is in s.
(a) Make a graph of x versus t for the interval t = 0 to t = 2 s; (b) Determine the
initial position and initial velocity of the particle; (c) Determine at what time the
particle reaches a maximum position coordinate (Note that at this time v = 0); (d)
Calculate the coordinate, velocity, and acceleration at t = 2 s.
25
2.2 Motion in Two Dimensions

As in the case of one-dimensional motion, in this chapter we shall derive the kinematic
equations of the two-dimensional motion from the fundamental definitions of displacement,
velocity, and acceleration. A special cases of the motion in two dimensions, we shall treat
motion in a plane with constant acceleration and uniform circular motion.
2.2.1 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors

We begin by describing the position of a particle with a position vector ⃗r, drawn from
the origin of some reference frame to the particle located in xy plane, as in Figure 2.6.
images/two_dim.png
Figure 2.6: The displacement vector ∆⃗r
As the particle moves from P to Q in the time interval ∆t = tf − ti , the position vector
changes from ⃗ri to ⃗rf where the indices i and f refer to the initial and final values,
respectively. Because ⃗rf = ⃗ri + ∆⃗r, the displacement vector for the particle is given by
∆⃗r = ⃗rf − ⃗ri (2.18)
We now define the average velocity vector of the particle during the time interval ∆t
as the ration of the displacement to the time interval if this displacement:
⃗v = ∆⃗r (2.19)
∆t
Section 2.2: Motion in Two Dimensions 27
Since the displacement is a vector and the time interval is a scalar, we conclude that the
average velocity vector is a vector quantity directed along ∆⃗r.
The instantaneous velocity vector, ⃗v , is defined as the limit of the average velocity
vector, ∆⃗
r
∆t
, and ∆t approaches zero:
∆⃗r d⃗r
⃗v = lim = (2.20)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
The direction of the velocity vector is along a line that is tangent to the path of the
particle and in the direction of motion.
The average acceleration vector of the particle as it moves from P to Q is defined as
the ration of the change in the instantaneous velocity vector, ∆⃗v = ⃗vf − ⃗vi , to the elapsed
time, ∆t = tf − ti as shown in Figure 2.7
⃗a = ⃗vf − ⃗vi = ∆⃗v (2.21)

tf − ti ∆t
images/chnge_in_velocity.png
Figure 2.7: The change in velocity ∆⃗v = ⃗vf − ⃗vi
Since the average acceleration is the ratio of a vector , ∆⃗v , and a scalar, ∆t, we conclude
that ⃗a is a vector quantity directed along ∆⃗v .
The instantaneous acceleration vector, ⃗a, is defined as the limiting values of the
ratio ∆⃗
v
∆t
as ∆t approaches zero:
∆→−
v d⃗v d2⃗r
⃗a = lim = = 2 (2.22)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt
In other words, the instantaneous acceleration vector equals the first derivative of the
velocity vector with respect to time.
27
2.2.2 Motion in Two Dimension with Constant Acceleration

A particle in motion can be described by its position vector ⃗r. The position vector for a
particle in the xy plane can be written as
⃗r = x⃗i + y⃗j (2.23)
where x, y and ⃗r change with time as the particle moves.

If the position vector is known, the velocity of the particle can be obtained from equations
(2.20) and (2.23), which gives:
d⃗r dx dy
⃗v = = ⃗i + ⃗j ⇒ ⃗v = vx⃗i + vy⃗j (2.24)
dt dt dt
Because ⃗a is constant, its components ax and ay are also constants. Therefore, we can
apply the equations of kinematics to both the x and y components of velocity vector.
Substituting vx = vxo + ax t and vy = vyo + ay t into Equation 2.24 gives

⃗v = vxo⃗i + vyo⃗j + ax⃗i + ay⃗j t ⇒ ⃗v = ⃗vo + ⃗at (2.25)
Similarly, from kinematics we know that the x and y coordinates of a particles moving
with constant acceleration are given by
(
x = xo + vxo t + 12 ax t2
y = yo + vyo t + 12 ay t2
Substituting these expression in Equation 2.23 gives

⃗ ⃗

⃗ ⃗
1 ⃗ ⃗
1
⃗r = xo i + yo j + vxo i + vyo j t + ax i + ay j t2 ⇒ ⃗r = ⃗ro + ⃗vo t + ⃗at2 (2.26)
2 2
This equation says that the displacement vector ⃗r − ⃗ro is the vector sum od a displacement
vector ⃗vo t, arising from the initial velocity of the particle, and a displacement vector 12 ⃗at2 ,
resulting from the uniform acceleration of the particle.
Since the equations 2.25 and 2.26 are vector expressions having one or more components,
we may write the component forms of these expressions along the x and y axes with
⃗ro = ⃗0:
(
vx = vxo + ax t
⃗v = ⃗vo + ⃗at ⇒
vy = vyo + ay t
and
(
1 x = vxo t + 21 ax t2
⃗r = ⃗vo t + ⃗at2 ⇒
2 y = vyo t + 12 ay t2
In other words, two-dimensional motions with constant acceleration is equivalent

to two independent motions in the x and y direction with constant accelerations
ax and ay .

2.2.3 Projectile Motion

Projectile motion occurs when an object is given an initial velocity and then follows a
path determined entirely by the effect of a constant gravitational force. The path, called
a trajectory, is a parabola in the x − y plane.
The formulas for straight-line motion can be used to analyze the horizontal and vertical
aspects of a projectile’s flight separately because these are independent of each other. If
air resistance is neglected, the horizontal velocity component vx remains constant during
the flight. The effect of gravity on the vertical component vy is to provide a downward
acceleration. If vy is initially upward, vy first decreases to 0 m/s and then increases in
the downward direction.
Figure 2.8: Projectile motion [?].
We will describe the motion in the Cartesian coordinate two dimensional system x, y,
with y axis being oriented vertically. The small object was thrown from the position
x = 0, y = 0 of this coordinate system with the initial velocity, ⃗v0 at an angle α from the
positive direction of x axis. The projectile will move along the trajectory drawn by the
dotted line in Figure 2.8. This trajectory is a part of the parabola and this will be evident
from equations we will derive here.
To study the motion of this object we decompose the initial velocity ⃗v0 into its Cartesian
components vx0 and vy0 . These components are also vectors, but we omit arrows in this
notation because subscript x and y implies values with direction. From the trigonometry
it follows that:
v0x = v0 cosα and v0y = v0 sinα (2.27)
The motion along the x axis is completely independent from the motion along the y axis.
Along the horizontal x axis there is a motion with constant velocity v0x . The distance
traveled along the x axis as a function of time can be calculated using:
x(t) = v0x t = v0 cosα t. (2.28)
The distance traveled along the y axis is governed by

1
y(t) = v0y t − gt2 , (2.29)
2
where the velocity along the y axis is
vy = v0y − gt = v0 sinα − gt. (2.30)
There are two main questions asked for such a case of projectile motion:
(1) What is a largest vertical displacement (Maximum height of a projectile) H for
a given angle α ?
(2) What is a largest horizontal displacement (Horizontal range for a projectile) R
for a given angle α?
The rising of the projectile continues till the moment its vertical component of velocity
decreases to zero, so we have 0 = v0y − gtr so tr = v0y /g, i.e. the time of rising of the
projectile tr is given by
29
v0 sinα
tr = (2.31)
g
Substituting this Equation (2.31) for rising time into Equation (2.29) which describes the
vertical displacement, we get after very little algebra, the largest vertical displacement
obtained by the projectile
1 2
H = ymax = v sin2 α (2.32)
2g 0
We already calculated the time of rising to the height H. It is easy to that the time of
falling tf from this height is equal to the time of rising, that is tf = tr . So the total time
(the time of flight) tT the projectile traveling in the x direction is
vo sinα
tT = 2tr = 2tf = 2 (2.33)
g
Substituting this expression for time of motion equation for the largest horizontal dis-
placement, R, we obtain R = v0 cosα(2vo sinα)/g. From Equation (??), we know that
2sinαcosα = sin(2α); thus
v 2 sin(2α)
R= 0 (2.34)
g
The next question we can ask is: for which angle α, with a given initial velocity v0 , will
a) the largest vertical displacement have its maximum?

b) the largest horizontal displacement have its maximum?
Figure 2.9: The maximum horizontal displacement. A projectile launched from the origin
with an initial speed of 50 m/s at various angles of projection. [?]
The first solution, α = 00 leads to vertical displacement equal to zero – the minimum of
vertical displacement. Therefore the maximum vertical displacement is obtained for the
firing angle α = 900 .
The angle at which the maximum horizontal displacement is obtained can be found if
sin(2α) = 1, i.e. 2α = 900 , so so, α = 450 . Note that complementary values of angles
result in the same value of R (range of the projectile). If we express vertical displacement
y as a function of horizontal displacement x, we obtain:
g
y(x) = tanα x − x2 (2.35)
2 v02 cos2 α
• Example:
A football is thrown with a velocity of 10 m/s at an angle of 300 above the horizontal.
(a) How far away should its intended receiver be? (b) What will the time of flight
be? (c) What is the velocity (magnitude and direction) after 0.6 s?

Figure 2.10: Velocity and acceleration vectors for an object in circular motion
2.2.4 Circular Motion
Circular motion is a motion of an object along the circular path. To analyze this motion
we must define displacement, velocity and acceleration for this particular type of motion.
A body that moves in a circular path with a velocity whose magnitude is constant is
said to undergo uniform circular motion. Although the velocity of a body in uniform
circular motion is constant in magnitude, its direction changes continually. The body
is accelerated; the direction of this centripetal acceleration aN (normal acceleration) is
toward the center of the circle in which the body moves, and its magnitude is
v2
aN = . (2.36)
r
Here v is the speed of a particle and r is the radius of the circular path. In a circular
motion, the acceleration always changes the direction but always towards the center of
circular path.
When a particle moves in a curved path with no-constant speed, it has a tangible
acceleration (aτ ) which is along the velocity vector of the particle and normal acceleration
(aN ) which is always directed towards the centre of curvature of the curved path.
Figure 2.11: The motion of a particle along an arbitrary curved path lying in the xy plane
The magnitudes of the tangential and normal acceleration are given respectively by:
dv
aτ = (2.37a)
dt
v2
aN = (2.37b)
ρ
where ρ is the radius of curvature of the curved path at a given instant. The total
acceleration ⃗a and its magnitude are given by
q
⃗a = ⃗aN + ⃗aτ =⇒ a = a2N + a2τ (2.38)
The position of a particle can be expressed by the distance traveled s, or by the angle θ
1 1
s = s0 + v0 t + aτ t2 and θ = θ0 + ω0 t + α t2 , (2.39)
2 2
where at , ω and α are the tangential acceleration, angular velocity and angular acceleration,
respectively. The angle θ in radians is equal to the ratio between the arc s and the radius
r of the circle:
s = θr, (2.40)
and by the same comparison,
v = ωr and aτ = αr (2.41)
31
In the special case of a uniform circular motion, at = 0, then acceleration is a = aN = v 2 /r.

Therefore, for a uniform circular motion, s = θt = vt and for one period, 2πr = ωrT , thus
2π
ω= = 2πf (2.42)
T
Angular frequency, f , is defined as the number of circular revolutions in a given time
interval. It is commonly measured in units of Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 s−1 . For
example, the second hand on a clock completes one revolution every 60 seconds and
therefore has an angular frequency of 1/60 Hz.
Angular period, T , is defined as the time required for one revolution and is related to
frequency by the equation:
1 1
T = or f = . (2.43)
f T
2.2.5 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration

In this section, we describe how observations made by different observers in different
frame of reference are related to each other. We shall find that observers in different
frames of reference may measure different displacements, velocities, and accelerations for a
particle in motion. That is, two observers moving with respect to each other will generally
not agree on the outcome of a measurement.
Now suppose a person riding on moving vehicle (observer A) throws a ball straight up in
the air according to his frame of reference, as in Figure 2.12.a. According to the observer
A, the ball will move in a vertical path.
Figure 2.12: Relative Motion
On the other hand, a stationary observer B will see the path of the ball as a parabola, as
illustrated in Figure 2.12.b.
In ore general situation, consider a particle located at the point P in figure Figure 2.13.
Imagine that the motion of this particle is being described by two observers, one in
′
reference frame S, fixed with respect to the earth, and another n reference S , moving to
the right relative to S with constant velocity ⃗u.
′
Figure 2.13: Fixed frame of reference, S, and the frame of reference, S , in motion with a
constant velocity, ⃗u with respect to S
We label the position of the particle with respect to the S frame with the position vector
′ ′
⃗r and label its position relative to S frame with the vector ⃗r , at some time t. If the
′
origins of the two reference frames coincide at t = 0, then the vectors ⃗r and ⃗r are related
′
to each other through expression ⃗r = ⃗r + ⃗ut or
′
⃗r = ⃗r − ⃗ut (2.44)
If we differentiate Equation 2.44 with respect to time and note that ⃗u is constant, we get
′
d⃗r ⃗r ′
= − ⃗u ⇒ ⃗v = ⃗v − ⃗u (2.45)
dt dt
′
where ⃗v is the velocity of the particle observed in the S’ frame, and ⃗v is the velocity of
the same particle observed in the S frame. Equations () and () are known as Galilean
transformation equations.
Although observers in the two different references will measure different velocities for the
particle, they will measure the same acceleration when ⃗u is constant:
′
⃗v d⃗v d⃗u ′ d⃗u ⃗
= − ⇔ ⃗a = ⃗a, since =0 (2.46)
dt dt dt dt
That is, ”the acceleration of the particle measured by observer in the earth’s
frame of reference will be the same as that measured by any other observer
moving with constant velocity with respect to the first observer”.
33
Chapter 3
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
Dynamics is the part of classical mechanics concerned with forces that produce changes
in motion or changes in other properties, such as the shape and the size of objects. This
leads the dynamics to the concepts of the force and the mass and the laws that govern
the motion of an object. Thus, Dynamics study the motion of objects and the causes and
effects of that motion.
3.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

3.1.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion
Newton’s first law states that when no force acts on an object or when the vector sum of
all forces acting on it is zero, the object is in equilibrium. If the object is initially at rest,
it remains at rest; if it is initially in motion, it continues to move with constant velocity.
This law is valid only in inertial frames of reference.
Figure 3.1: Newton’s First Law of Motion
3.1.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The inertial properties of an object are characterized by its mass. The acceleration of an
object under the action of a given set of forces is directly proportional to the vector sum
of the forces and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. This relationship is
Newton’s second law: X→ −
F = m→ −a (3.1)
Figure 3.2: Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Mass and Weight

The weight of an object is the gravitational force exerted on it by the earth (or whatever
other object exerts the gravitational force). Weight is a force and is therefore a vector
quantity. The magnitude of the weight of an object at any specific location is equal to
the product of the mass m of the object and the magnitude of the acceleration due to
gravity, g, at that location:
W = mg (3.2)
34
Section 3.1: Newton’s Laws of Motion 35
Table 3.1: Difference between mass and weight.

Mass (m) Weight (W )
It is the quantity of matter contained in a It is the force with which the body is at-
body tracted towards the center of earth
It is constant at all places It is not constant at all places
It resists motion of a body It provides motion of a body
It is a scalar quantity It a vector quantity
It is never zero It is zero at the center of earth
It is measured in kg in M.K.S and S.I units It measured in kg m/s in M.K.S units, and
Newton (N) in S.I units
Figure 3.3: Weight of an object in Earth Gravitation Field

3.1.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Newton’s third law states that ”action equals reaction”; when two bodies interact, they
exert forces on each other that, at each instant, are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. The two forces in an action-reaction pair always act on two different bodies;
they never act on the same object.
Figure 3.4: Newton’s Third Law of Motion
3.1.4 Application of Newton’s laws of motion

Newton’s three laws of motion, the foundation of classical mechanics, can be stated very
simply, as we have seen. But applying these laws to situations such as a locomotive,
a suspension bridge, a car rounding a banked curve, or a toboggan sliding down a hill
requires some analytical skills and some problem-solving technique. In this section we
introduce no new principles, but we’ll try to help developing some of the problem-solving
skills needed to analyze such situations.
(a) Equilibrium of a Particle

When an object is in equilibrium, the vector sum of the forces acting on it must be zero
P→
−
F = 0. In component form,
X X
Fx = 0, Fy = 0 (3.3)
Free-body diagrams are useful in identifying the forces acting on the object being considered.
Newton’s third law is also frequently needed in equilibrium problems. The two forces in
an action–reaction pair never act on the same object.
Figure 3.5: Graphic analysis(Free-body diagrams) of the Equilibrium of objects
35
(b) Application of Newton’s Second Law

When the vector sum of forces on an object is not zero, the object has an acceleration
P→−
determined by Newton’s second law, F = m→ −
a . In component form,
X X
Fx = max , Fy = may (3.4)
Figure 3.6: Free-body diagrams for the application of Newton’s Second Law
(c) Contact Forces and Friction

The contact force between two objects can always be represented in terms of a normal
component n perpendicular to the surface of interaction and a frictional component
f parallel to the surface. When sliding occurs, the kinetic-friction force fk is often
approximately proportional to n. Then the proportionality constant is µk , the coefficient
of kinetic friction:
f k = µk n (3.5)
When there is no relative motion, the maximum possible friction force is approximately
proportional to the normal force, and the proportionality constant is µs , the coefficient of
static friction. The governing equation is
f k ≤ µs n (3.6)
The actual static-friction force may be anything from zero to the maximum value given
by the equation 3.6, depend on the situation. Usually µk is less than µs for a given pair
of surfaces.
Figure 3.7: Free-body diagrams for friction forces
(c) Elastic Forces
When forces act on a solid object, the object usually deforms. In some cases, such as
a stretched or compressed spring, the deformation is approximately proportional to the
magnitude of the applied force. This proportionality is called Hooke’s law:
Fspr = −kx (3.7)
Figure 3.8: Elastic Forces

Section 3.2: Circular Motion and Gravitation 37
3.2 Circular Motion and Gravitation

We learned how to apply Newton’s laws to a variety of mechanics problems. In this
section, we’ll continue our study of dynamics, concentrating especially on circular motion.
Objects move in circular paths in a wide variety of situations, such as cars on racetracks,
rotating machine parts, and the motions of planets and satellites, so it’s worthwhile to
study this special class of motions in detail.
3.2.1 Circular motion dynamics
Figure 3.9: Total force acting on a particle having a non uniform circular motion
For an object in uniform circular motion, the acceleration vector →

−
a rad is directed toward
the center of the circle and has constant magnitude
v2
arad = (3.8)
R
The period T is the time required for the object to make one complete circle; the magnitude
of the acceleration vector can also be written as
4π 2 R
arad = (3.9)
T2
Provided that the object can be treated as a particle, circular motion (like other motions)
P→ −
is governed by Newton’s second law, F = m→ −a . Because the net force vector points
in the same direction as the acceleration vector, an object in uniform circular motion is
acted upon by a net force directed toward the center of the circle, with magnitude
v2
Fnet = m (3.10)
R
In previous discussion we found that if a particle moves with varying speed in a circular
path there is, in addition of the centripetal component of acceleration, a tangential
component of magnitude || d⃗ v
dt
||. Therefore, the force acting on the particle must also
have tangential and radial components. That is, since the total acceleration is given by
⃗a = ⃗ar + ⃗aτ , the total force is given by F⃗ = F⃗r + F⃗τ , as shown in Figure 3.9.
3.2.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Two particles with masses m1 and m2 a distance r apart, attract each other gravitationally
with forces of magnitude
m1 m2
Fg = G 2 (3.11)
r
These forces form an action–reaction pair in accordance with Newton’s third law. If the
objects cannot be treated as particles, but are spherically symmetric, this law is still valid;
then, r is the distance between their centers. The gravitational interaction of a spherically
37
Figure 3.10: Gravitational attraction of two masses

symmetric object, from any point outside the object, is just the same as though all its
mass were concentrated at the object’s center.
Weight
The weight W of a body is the total gravitational force exerted on it by all other bodies
in the universe. Near the surface of the earth, an object’s weight is very nearly equal to
the gravitational force exerted by the earth alone. If the earth’s mass is mE , the weight
of an object of mass m is
mmE
W = Fg = G 2 (3.12)
RE
and the acceleration due to gravity g is
mE
g=G 2
(3.13)
RE
3.2.3 Satellite Motion

When a satellite moves in a circular orbit, the centripetal acceleration is provided by the
gravitational attraction of the astronomical body it orbits. If the satellite orbits the earth
in an orbit of radius r, its speed and period T are, respectively,
r
GmE
v= (3.14)
r
and,
2πr3/2
r
2πr r
T = = 2πr = √ (3.15)
v GME GmE
Escape Speed
If an object is projected upward from Earth’s surface with a large enough speed, it can
soar off into space and never return. This speed is called Earth’s escape speed and is given
by r
2GmE
vesc = (3.16)
RE
a relation found by applying the law of conservation energy.
Kepler’s Laws
The German astronomer Johannes Kepler discovered that the orbit of Mars could be
accurately described by an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. He then generalized this
analysis to include the motions of all planets. The complete analysis is summarized in
three statements known as Kepler’s laws:
• All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points.

Section 3.3: Work, Energy and Power 39
• A line drawn from the Sun to any planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
• The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
average distance from the planet to the Sun.
3.3 Work, Energy and Power

Energy is present in various forms, including mechanical energy, thermal energy, and
nuclear energy. The various forms of energy are related to each other through the fact
that when energy is transformed from one form to another, the total amount of
energy remains the same. For example, when an electric motor is connected to a
battery, chemical energy is converted to electrical, which in turn is converted to mechanical
energy.
In this chapter, we shall be concerned only with the form of energy. We shall see that the
concept of work and energy can be applied to the dynamics of a mechanical
system without resorting to Newton’s laws of motion. However, it is important
to note that work-energy concepts are based upon Newton’s laws of motion and therefore
do not involve any new physical principles.
We begin by defining work, a concept that provides a link between the concepts of force
and energy. In Section 3.4, we will discuss the law of conservation of energy and apply it
to various problems.
3.3.1 Work Done by a Constant Force

Consider an object that undergoes a displacement ⃗s along a straight line under the
action of a constant force F⃗ , which makes an angle θ with ⃗s as in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Work done by a constant force
The work done by the constant force is defined as the product of the component
of the force in the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of the
displacement.
Since the component of F⃗ in the direction of ⃗s is F cos θ, the work done by F⃗ is given by
W = F⃗ · ⃗s = (F cos θ) s (3.17)
According to this definition, work is done by the force F⃗ on an object under the following
conditions:
☛ the object must undergo a displacement, and
☛ the vector force F⃗ must have a non zero component in the direction of ⃗s
• From the first condition, we see that a force does no work on an object is the object does
not move (s=0).
• From the second condition, not that the work done by a force is also zero when the
force is perpendicular to the displacement, since cos θ = 0, when θ = 90o .
39
For example, in Figure 3.12, both the work done by the normal force and by the force of
gravity are zero since both forces are perpendicular to the displacement and have zero
component in the direction of ⃗s.
Figure 3.12: Force acting on an object which is displaced horizontally on a rough surface
⋆ The work done by the applied force is positive when the vector associated with the
component F cos θ is in same direction as the displacement. But in general, the work
is positive when done by the system and it is negative when it is done on the system.
⋆ When the vector associated with the component F cos θ is in the direction opposite
to the displacement, the work W is negative.
A common example in which the work is negative is the work done by the frictional force
when a body slides over a rough surface. If the force of sliding friction is f⃗, and the body
undergoes a linear displacement ⃗s, the work done by the force f⃗ is
Wf = −f s (3.18)
where the negative sign comes from the fact that θ = 180o and cos 180o = −1.
Finally, if an applied force F⃗ acts along the direction of the displacement, the angle θ = 0o ,
and cos 0o = 1. In this case, Equation 3.17 gives
W = Fs (3.19)
Work is a scalar quantity, and its units are force multiplied by length. Therefore, the SI
unit of force is N · m (newton × meter) which is called the joule (J). The unit of work in
the CGS system is dyne · cm, which is also called erg. Note that 1 J = 107 ergs.
3.3.2 Work Done by a Varying Force – One Dimensional Case

Consider an object being displaced along the x axis under the action of a varying force,
as in Figure 3.13. The object is displaced along the x axis from x = xi to x = xf . In
such a situation, we cannot use F cos θ to calculate the work done by the force, since this
relationship is applies only when F⃗ is constant in magnitude and direction. However, if
we imagine that the object undergoes a very small displacement ∆x, described in
Figure 3.13.a, then the x component of the force, Fx , is approximately constant over
this interval and we can express the work done by the force for this small displacement
as
∆W = Fx ∆x (3.20)
Figure 3.13: The work done by the variable force Fx as the particle moves from xi to xf
is exactly equal to the area under the curve
If we imagine that the Fx versus x curve is divided into a large number of such intervals, as
in Figure 3.13.a, the total work done for the displacement from xi to xf is approximately
xf
P
equal to the sum W ≈ Fx ∆x. If the displacements ∆x are allowed to approach
xi

zero, the value of that sum approaches a definite value equal to the true area under the
curve bounded by Fx and the x axis. This limit of the sum is called a definite integral:
xf Z xf
X
lim Fx ∆x = Fx dx
∆x→0 xi
xi
Therefore, we can express the work done by the force Fx for the displacement of the object
from xi to xf as
Z xf
W = Fx dx (3.21)
xi
3.3.3 Work Done by a Spring

A body on a horizontal, smooth surface is connected to a helical spring. If the spring
is stretched or compressed a small distance from its unstretched , or equilibrium
configuration, the spring will exert a force on the body given by Equation 3.7. The
negative sign in Equation 3.7 signifies the force exerted by the spring is always directed
opposite the displacement (Figure 3.14).
Since the spring force always acts toward the equilibrium position, it is sometimes
called a restoring force. Once the mass is displaced some distance xm from the
equilibrium and then released, it will move from −xm through zero to +xm
Suppose that the block is pushed to the left a distance xm from its equilibrium, as in
Figure 3.14.c, and then released. Let us calculate the work done by the spring force
as the body moves from xi = −xm to xf = 0. Applying Equation 3.21, we get
Z 0
1
Ws = (−kxx )dx = kx2m (3.22)
−xm 2
That is, the work done by the spring force is positive since the spring force is in the same
direction as the displacement (both are to the right).
If the mass undergoes an arbitrary displacement from x = xi to x = xf , the work done
by the spring force is given by
Z xf
1 1
Ws = (−kxx )dx = kx2i − kx2f (3.23)
−xm 2 2
From this equation, we see that the work done is zero for any motion that ends where it
began (xi = xf )
3.3.4 Work and Kinetic Energy

Consider a situation in which a constant force Fx acts on a particle of mass m moving in
the x direction. Newton’s second law states that Fx = max , where ax is constant since Fx
is constant. If the particle is displaced from xi = 0 to xf = s, the work done by the force
Fx is
W = Fx s = (max )s (3.24)
41
images/work_spring.png
Figure 3.14: Force of a spring, F⃗s

However, from the equation related to the motion of a particle which undergoes constant
acceleration we can write that
vf2 − vi2
ax =
2s
Substituting these equations into Equation 3.24 give
1 1
W = mvf2 − mvi2 (3.25)
2 2
”The product of one half the mass and the square of the speed is defined as
the kinetic energy of the particle”. That is, the kinetic energy, K, of a particle of
mass m and speed v is defined as
1
K = mv 2 (3.26)
2
With this expression, it is often convenient to write Equation 3.25 as

W = ∆K = Kf − Ki (3.27)
That is, ”the work done by the resultant constant force F⃗ in displacing a
particle equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle”.
The work-energy theorem given by Equation 3.27 is also valid in the more general case
when the force varies in direction and magnitude while the particle moves along an
arbitrary curved path in three dimensions. In this situation, we express the work as
Z xf
W = F⃗ · d⃗s (3.28)
xi
where the limits i and f represent the initial and final coordinates of the particle. The
integral given by Equation 3.28 is called a line integral.
Because the infinitesimal displacement vector can be expressed as d⃗s = dx⃗i + dy⃗j + dz⃗k
and since F⃗ = Fx⃗i + Fy⃗j + Fz⃗k, Equation 3.28 reduces to
Z xf Z yf Z zf
W = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz (3.29)
xi yi zi
Thus, we conclude that ”the work done on a particle, by the resultant force
acting on it, is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the particle”.
3.3.5 Power
Power is defined as the time rate of energy transfer. If an external force is applied to an
object, and if the work done by this force is ∆W in the time interval ∆t, then the average
power during this interval is defined as the ratio of the work done to the time interval:
∆W
P = (3.30)
∆t
The instantaneous power, P , is the limiting value of the average power as ∆t approaches
zero:
∆W dW
P = lim = (3.31)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
From Equation 3.31, we can express the work done by a force F⃗ for a displacement d⃗s ,
since dW = F⃗ · d⃗s. Therefore, the instantaneous power can be written
dW d⃗s
P = = F⃗ · = F⃗ · ⃗v (3.32)
dt dt
The unit of the power in the SI system is J/s, which is also called a watt , W : 1 W =
1 J · s1 = 1 kg · m2 · s3
The unit of power in the British Engineering system is the horse power (hp), where
1hp=736 W .
43
3.4 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy

In section 3.3 we introduced the concept of kinetic energy, which is associated with the
motion of an object. We found that the kinetic energy of an object can change only if
the work is done on the object. In this chapter, we introduce another form of mechanical
energy, called potential energy, associated with the position or configuration of an object.
We shall find that the potential energy of a system can be thought of a stored energy that
can be converted to kinetic energy or do work. The potential energy concept of potential
energy can be used only when dealing with a special class of forces called conservative
forces.
3.4.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

Conservative Forces
In general, a force is conservative if the work done by that force acting on a particle
moving between two points is independent of the path the particle takes between the two
points. That is, the work done on a particle by a conservative force depends only on the
initial and the final coordinates of the particle.
Example:
☛ the gravitational force,
☛ the electrostatic force,
☛ the restoring force in a spring,...
With reference to the arbitrary paths shown in Figure 3.15.a, we can write the previous
condition as
WP Q (along 1) = WP Q (along 2)
A conservative force has another property, which can be derived from the above condition.
From the Figure 3.15.b, we can write
WP Q (along 1) = −WP Q (along 2) ⇒ WP Q (along 1) + WP Q (along 2) = 0

Hence, a conservative force has the property that ”the total work done by a conser-
vative force on a particle is zero when the particle moves around any closed
path and returns to its initial position”.
To illustrate that the force of gravity is conservative, recall that the work done by the
gravitational force as a particle of mass m moves between two points of elevation yi and
yf is given by
Wg = −mg(yf − yi )
Another example of conservative force is the force of a spring on a block attached to the
spring, where the restoring force is given by Fs = −kx.
In the previous chapter, we found that the work done by the spring on the block is
1 1
Ws = kx2i − kx2f
2 2
where the initial and final coordinates of the block are measured from the equilibrium
position of the block, x = 0. We see that Ws depends only on the initial and final x
coordinates. In addition, Ws = 0 for a round trip, where xi = xf .

Section 3.4: Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 45
images/conservation_energy.png
Figure 3.15: Properties of a conservative force

Nonconservative forces
A force is nonconservative if the work done by that force on a particle moving between
two points depends on the path taken:
WP Q (along 1) ̸= WP Q (along 2)
From this condition, we can show that if a force is nonconservative, the work done by that
force on a particle that moves through any closed path is not necessarily zero. Since the
work done in going from P to Q along path 1 is equal to the negative of the work done in
going from Q to P along path 2, it follows from the first condition of a nonconservative
force that
WP Q (along 1) ̸= −WP Q (along 2) ⇒ WP Q (along 1) + WP Q (along 2) ̸= 0

The force of sliding friction is a good example of a nonconservative force.
45
As an instructive example, suppose you were to displace a book between two points on a
rough horizontal surface such as a table. If the book is displaced in a straight line between
two points A and B in Figure 3.16, the work done by friction force is simply –f d, where d
is the distance between the points.
images/work_friction.png
Figure 3.16: The work done by the force of friction depends on the path taken between A
and B
However, if the book is moved along any other path between the two points, the work done
by the friction force would be greater (in absolute magnitude) than –f d. For example,
the work done by friction force along the semicircular path in Figure 3.16 is equal to
πd
−f 2 , where d is now the diameter of the circle. Finally, if the book is moved trough
any closed path (such as a circle), the work done by friction would clearly be nonzero
since the frictional force opposes the motion.
3.4.2 Potential Energy

In the previous section, we found that the work done by a conservative force is function
only of the particle’s initial and final coordinates. For this reason, we can define a
potential energy function U such that the work done equals the decrease in
potential energy . That is, the work done by a conservative force F⃗ as the particle
moves along the x axis is
Z xf
Wc = Fx dx = −∆U = −(Uf − Ui ) = Ui − Uf (3.33)
xi
That is, the work done by a conservative force equals the negative of the change in the
potential energy associated with that force, where the change in the potential energy is
defined as ∆U = (Uf − Ui ). We can now express Equation 3.33 as
Z xf
∆U = Uf − Ui = − Fx dx (3.34)
xi
where Fx is the component of F⃗ in the direction of the displacement.

3.4.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Suppose a particle moves along x axis under the influence of only one conservative force
Fx . If this is the only force acting on the particle then the work–energy theorem tells us
that the work done by that force equals the change in kinetic energy of the particle.
Wc = ∆K
Since the force is conservative, according to Equation 3.33 we can write thatWc = −∆U .
Hence,
∆K = −∆U ⇒ ∆K + ∆U = ∆(K + U ) = 0 (3.35)

This is the law of conservation of mechanical energy , which can be written in the
alternative form as
Ki + U i = Kf + U f (3.36)
If we now define the total mechanical energy of the system, E , as the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies, we can express the conservation of the mechanical energy as
Ei = Ef (3.37)
where
E =K +U (3.38)
The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that ”the total mechanical
energy of a system remains constant if the only force that does work is
a conservative force”. This is equivalent to the statement that ”if the kinetic
energy of a conservative system increase (or decrease) by some amount, the
potential energy must decrease (or increase) by the same amount”.
If more than one conservative force acts on the system, then there is a potential energy
function associated with each force. In such case, we can write the law of conservation of
mechanical energy as
X X
Ki + U i = Kf + Uf (3.39)
where the number of terms in the sum equals the number of conservative forces present.
3.4.4 Gravitational Potential Energy near the Earth’s Surface

When an object moves in the presence of the earth’s gravity, the gravitational force can
do work on that object. In the case of a freely falling object, the work done by gravity is
a function of the vertical displacement of the object. This result is also valid in the more
general case where the object undergoes both a horizontal and vertical displacements,
such as in the case of a projectile. Consider a particle being displaced from P to Q along
various paths in the presence of a constant gravitational force (Figure 3.17). The work
done along the path PAQ can be broken into two segments. The work done along PA is
−mgh, and the work done along AQ is zero.
Hence, WP AQ = −mgh.
Likewise, the work done along PBQ is also –mgh, since WP B = 0 and WBQ = −mgh.
Now consider the general path described by the solid line from P to Q. The curve is
47
images/gravitatonalPE.png
Figure 3.17: The net work done by the force of gravity depends only on the vertical
displacements
broken down into a series of horizontal and vertical steps. There is no work done by the
force of gravity along the horizontal steps, since mg is perpendicular to these elements of
displacement. Work is done by the force of gravity only along the vertical displacements,
where the work done in the nth vertical step is −mg = ∆yn . Thus the total work done
by the force of gravity as the particle is displaced upward a distance h is the sum of the
works done along each vertical displacement. Summation of all such terms gives
X
Wg = −mg ∆yn = −mg
Since h = yf − yi , we can express Wg as
Wg = mgyi − mgyf (3.40)

We conclude that since the work done by the force of gravity is independent of the path,
the gravitational force is a conservative force.
Since the force of gravity is conservative, we can define a gravitational potential energy
function, Ug as
Wg = mgy (3.41)
where we have chosen to take Ug = 0 at y = 0.
Substituting the definition of Ug Equation 3.41 into the expression for the work done by
the force of gravity (Equation 3.40) gives
Wg = Ui − Uf = −∆Ug (3.42)
That is, the work done by the force of gravity is equal to the initial value of the potential
energy minus the final value of the potential energy.
The term potential energy implies that the object has the potential, or capability, of
gaining kinetic energy or doing work when released from some point under the influence of
gravity. It is often convenient to choose the surface of the earth as the reference position:
yi = 0

If the force of gravity is the only force acting on a body, then the total mechanical energy
of the body is conserved (Equation 3.37). Therefore, the law of conservation of mechanical
energy for a freely falling body can be written
1 2 1
mvi + myi = mvf2 + myf (3.43)
2 2
3.4.5 Nonconservative Forces and the Work-Energy Theorem

In real physical systems, nonconservative forces, such as friction, are usually present.
Therefore, the total mechanical energy is not constant. However, we can use the work-
energy theorem to account for the presence of nonconservative forces. If Wnc represents
the work done on a particle by all nonconservative forces and W C is the work done by all
conservative forces, we can write the work-energy theorem as
Wnc + Wc = ∆K.
Since Wc = −∆U , (Equation 3.33) this equation reduces to
Wnc = ∆K + ∆U = (Kf − Ki ) + (Uf − Ui ) = ∆E (3.44)

That is, ”the work done by all nonconservative forces equals the change in
kinetic energy plus the change in potential energy”.
Since the total mechanical energy is given by E = K +U , we can also express Equation 3.44
as
Wnc = (Kf + Uf ) − (Ki + Ui ) = Ef − Ei = ∆E (3.45)

That is, ”the work done by all nonconservative forces equals the change in the
total mechanical energy of the system”. Of course, when there are nonconservative
forces present, it follows that Wnc = 0 and Ef = Ei ; that is, the total mechanical energy
is conserved.
3.4.6 Potential Energy Stored in a Spring

Now let us consider another mechanical system that is conveniently described using
the concept of potential, or stored, energy. A block of mass m slides on a frictionless,
horizontal surface with constant velocity vi and collides with a light coiled spring as in
Figure 3.18.
To describe the potential energy stored in the spring, recall from the subsection 3.3.3 that
the work done by the spring on block as the block moves from x = xi to x = xf is
1 1
Ws = kx2i − kx2f
2 2
1 2
The quantity 2 kx is defined as the elastic potential energy stored in the spring denoted
by the symbol Us :
1
Ws = kx2 (3.46)
2
The elastic potential energy stored in the spring is zero when the spring is unstretched,
or undeformed, (x = 0). Furthermore, Us is maximum when the spring has reached its
49
images/potential_energy_spring.png
Figure 3.18: The total energy stored in a spring remains constant

maximum compression (Figure 3.18.c). Finally, Us is always positive since it is proportional
to x2 .
The total mechanical energy of the block-spring system can be expressed as
1 1 1 1
E = mvi2 + kx2i = mvf2 + kx2f (3.47)
2 2 2 2
Applying this expression to the system described in Figure 3.18 and noting that xi = 0 ,
we get
1 1 1
E = mvi2 = mvf2 + kx2f (3.48)
2 2 2
In this case, the total energy is the initial kinetic energy of the block.
Now suppose there are nonconservative forces acting on the block-spring system. In this
case, we can apply the work-energy theorem in the form of Equation 3.45, which gives

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
E= mv + kx − mv + kx = ∆E (3.49)
2 f 2 f 2 i 2 i
That is, the total mechanical energy is not a constant of motion when non-
conservative forces act on the system. Again if Wnc is due to a force of friction,

Section 3.5: Linear Momentum and Collisions 51
then Wnc is negative; therefore the final energy is less than the initial energy.
3.4.7 Relationship between Conservative Forces and Potential

Energy
According to Equation 3.33, the change in potential energy of a particle under the action
of conservative forces equals the negative of the work done by the force. If the system
undergoes an infinitesimal displacement, dx, we can express the infinitesimal change in
potential energy, dU , as
dU = −Fx dx
Therefore, the conservative force is related to the potential energy function through the
relationship
dU
Fx = − (3.50)
dx
That is, ”the conservative force equals the negative of the first derivative of
the potential energy with respect to x”.
We can easily check this relationship for the two examples already discussed. In the case
of the deformed spring Us = 12 kx2 , and therefore
dUs
Fs = − = −kx
dx
which correspond to the restoring force in the spring. Since the gravitational potential
energy function is given by Us = mgy , it follows from Equation 3.50 that Fs = mg.
3.5 Linear Momentum and Collisions

In this section we shall introduce the concept of the linear momentum of the system
of particles and show that this momentum is conserved when the system is isolated from
its surroundings. The law of momentum conservation is especially useful for treating
such problems as the collisions between particles. The concept of the center of mass of a
system of particles will also be introduced. We shall show that the overall motion of a
system of interacting particles can be represented by the motion of an equivalent particle
located at the center of mass.
3.5.1 Linear Momentum and Impulse

The linear momentum vector of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity ⃗v is
defined to be the product of the mass and velocity vector :
p⃗ = m⃗v (3.51)
If a particle is moving in an arbitrary direction, p⃗ will have three components and
Equation 3.51 is equivalent to the component equations given by

px = mvx

py = mvy (3.52)

pz = mvz

51
We can relate the linear momentum to the force acting on the particle using Newton’s
second law of motion: ”The time rate of the change of the linear momentum of
a particle is equal to the resultant force on particle”. That is
⃗ ∆→−
p d⃗p
F = lim = (3.53)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
From Equation Equation 3.53 we see that if the resultant force is zero, the momentum
of the particle must be constant. In other words, the linear momentum of a particle is
conserved when F⃗ = 0. That is, when the force is zero, the acceleration of the particle is
zero and the velocity remains constant.
Equation 3.53 can be written
d⃗p = F⃗ dt (3.54)
If the momentum vector of the particle changes from p⃗i at time ti to p⃗f at time tf , then
integrating Equation 3.54 gives
Z tf
∆⃗p = p⃗f − p⃗i = F⃗ dt (3.55)
ti
The quantity on the right side of Equation 3.55 is called the impulse vector of the
force F⃗ for the time interval ∆t = tf − ti . Impulse is the vector defined by
Z tf
J⃗ = F⃗ dt = ∆⃗p (3.56)
ti
That is, ”the impulse vector of the force F equals the change in the momentum
vector of the particle”. This statement, known as the impulse-momentum theorem, is
equivalent to Newton’s second law of motion. From this definition, we see that impulse is
a vector quantity having a magnitude equal to the area under the force–time curve, as
described in Figure 3.19.a.
Since the force can generally vary in time as in Figure 3.19.a, it is convenient to define a
time averaged force F⃗ , given by
Z tf
⃗ = 1
F F⃗ dt = ∆⃗p (3.57)
∆t ti
where ∆t = tf − ti . Therefore, we can express Equation 3.56
⃗ ∆t
J⃗ = F (3.58)
This average force, described in Figure 3.19.b, can be thought of as the constant force that
would give the same impulse to the particle in the time interval ∆t as the time-varying
force gives over this same interval.
In principle, if F⃗ is known as a function of time, the impulse can be calculated from
Equation 3.56. The calculation becomes especially simple if the force acting on the particle
⃗ = F⃗ and Equation 3.58 becomes
is constant. In this case, F
J⃗ = ∆⃗p = F⃗ ∆t (3.59)

images/impulse.png
Figure 3.19: The impulse is the area under the force versus curve
3.5.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum for a Two-Particles
System
Consider two particles that can interact with each other but are isolated from their
surroundings Figure 3.20. That is, the particles exert forces each other, but no external
forces are present. Suppose that at some time t, the momentum of particle 1 is p1 and the
momentum of particle 2 is p2 . We can apply Newton’s second law to each particle and write
F⃗12 = d⃗
p1
dt
and F⃗21 = d⃗p2
dt
where F⃗12 is the force on particle 1 due to the particle 2, and F⃗21 is the force on particle 2
due to particle 1.
However, Newton’s third law of motion tells us that F⃗12 and F⃗21 are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. That us, they form an action-reaction pair and F⃗12 = −F⃗21 .
we can express this condition as
d⃗p1 d⃗p2 d
F⃗12 + F⃗21 = 0 or + = (⃗p1 + p⃗2 ) = 0
dt dt dt
Since the time derivative of the total momentum, p⃗ = p⃗1 + p⃗2 , is zero, we conclude that
the total momentum, p⃗ must remain constant, that is
p⃗ = p⃗1 + p⃗2 = Constant (3.60)
This vector equation is equivalent to three component equations. In other words, Equa-
tion 3.60 in component form says that the total momenta in the x, y, and z directions
are all independently conserved, or
53
images/Lmonentum_conserv.png
Figure 3.20: The total momentum of the system ,⃗p, is equal to the vector sum p⃗1 + p⃗2 and
F⃗12 = −F⃗21
Figure 3.21: An Example of conservation of Linear Momentum


pix = pf x

piy = pf y

piz = pf z

We can state this law, known as the conservation of linear momentum, as follow: ”if
two particles of massesm1 and m2 form an isolated system, then the total
momentum of the system is conserved, regardless of the nature of the force
between them”. More simply, whenever two particles collide their total momentum
remains constant, provided they are isolated.
Suppose that ⃗v1i and ⃗v2i are the initial velocities of particles 1 and 2, and ⃗v1f and ⃗v2f
are their velocities at some later time. Applying Equation 3.60, we can express the
conservation of linear momentum of this isolated system in the form
m1⃗v1i + m2⃗v2i = m1⃗v1f + m2⃗v2f (3.61)

or

p⃗1i + p⃗2i = p⃗1f + p⃗2f (3.62)

That is, the total momentum of the isolated system at all time equals its initial total
momentum.
3.5.3 Concept of Collision

In this section, we shall use the law of conservation of momentum to describe what
happens when two particles collide with each other. We shall use the term collision to
represent the event of two particles coming together for a short time, producing impulsive
forces on each other. The impulsive force due to the collision is assumed to be much
larger than any external forces present. The collision process may be the result of physical
contact between two objects, as described in Figure 3.22.
Figure 3.22: Collisions between two cars as the result of direct contact
When two particles of masses m 1 and m 2 collide as in Figure 3.22, the impulse forces
may vary in time in a complicated way such as described in Figure 3.23.
Figure 3.23: Impulse force described as a function of time
If F⃗12 is the force on the mass m1 due to m2 then the change in momentum of m1 due to
the collision is given by
Z tf
∆⃗p1 = F⃗12 dt
ti
If F⃗21 is the force on the mass m2 due to m1 then the change in momentum of m2 due to
the collision is given by
Z tf
∆⃗p2 = F⃗21 dt
ti
However, Newton’s third law states that the force on mass m1 due to m2 is equal and
opposite the force on mass m2 due to m1 , or F⃗12 = F⃗21 (see Figure 3.23). Hence, we
conclude that
∆⃗p1 = −∆⃗p2 ⇒ ∆⃗p1 + ∆⃗p2 = 0

Since the total momentum vector of the system is p⃗ = p⃗1 + p⃗2 , we conclude that the
change in the total momentum vector of the system due to the collision is zero, that is,
p⃗ = p⃗1 + p⃗2 = Constant

Since the impulsive forces due to the collision are internal , they do not affect
the total momentum of the system. Therefore, we conclude that ”for any type of
collision, the total momentum of the system just before the collision equals
the total momentum of the system just after the collision”.
55
Whenever a collision occurs between two bodies, we have seen that the total momentum
is always conserved . However, the total kinetic energy is generally not conserved
when collision occurs because some of kinetic energy is converted into thermal
energy and internal inelastic potential energy when the bodies are deformed during
the collision.
⋆ We define an inelastic collision as a collision in which momentum is conserved
but kinetic energy is not.
⋆ When two objects collide and stick together after the collision, the collision is called
perfectly inelastic.
This is an extreme case of an inelastic collision. For example, if two pieces of putty collide,
they stick together and move with some common velocity after the collision.
⋆ An elastic collision is defined as a collision in which both momentum and kinetic
energy are conserved . Billiard ball collisions and the collision of air molecules with the
walls of a container at ordinary temperatures are highly elastic. Elastic and perfectly
inelastic are the limiting cases, and most collisions are cases in between.
Mathematically, a coefficient known as Coefficient of restitution is used to classify collisions,
with
vB,f − vA,f
e= (3.63)
vA,i − vB,i
where vA,i and vB,i are the velocities of mass A and B before impact, and vA,f and vB,f
are the velocities of mass A and B after impact (see Figure 3.24).
For a perfectly elastic collisions, e = 1. For inelastic collisions e < 1. For the bodies stick
together after collision (perfectly inelastic collisions), e = 0.
Figure 3.24: Classification of Collisions
3.5.4 Collisions in One-Dimensional Space

In this section, we treat collisions in one dimension and consider two extreme types of
collisions: (a) perfectly inelastic and (b) elastic. The important distinction between these
two types of collisions is that the momentum is conserved in both cases, but kinetic energy
is conserved only in the case of an elastic collision.
(a) Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

Consider two particles of masses m 1 and m 2 moving with initial velocities v1i and v2i
along a straight line, as in Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.25: Perfectly inelastic head-on collision between two particles
If two particles stick together and move with some common velocity ⃗vf after collision,
then only the linear momentum of the system is conserved:
m1⃗v1i + m2⃗v2i = (m1 + m2 )⃗vf (3.64)
m1⃗v1i + m2⃗v2i
⇒ ⃗vf = (3.65)
m1 + m2

(b) Elastic Collisions

Now consider two particles that undergo an elastic head-on collision (Figure 3.26).
Figure 3.26: Elastic head-on collision between two particles
In this case, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved, therefore we can write
these conditions:
m1⃗v1i + m2⃗v2i = m1⃗v1f + m2⃗v2f (3.66)

and
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (3.67)
2 2 2 2
where each v is positive if a particle moves to the right and negative if it moves to the
left. Let’s cancel the factor 12 in Equation 3.67 and rewrite it as
2 2 2 2
m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )
Next, let us factor both sides of the equation to get
m1 (v1i − v1f )(v1i + v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )(v2f + v2i ) (3.68)

Considering velocities along the horizontal direction, we now separate the terms containing
m1 and m2 in the Equation 3.66, to get
v1i + v1f = v2f + v2i or v1i − v2i = −(v1f − v2f ) (3.69)

According to this equation, the relative velocity of the two objects before the
collision, v1i − v2i , equals the negative of the relative velocity of the two objects
after the collision, −(v1f − v2f ).
Suppose that the masses and the initial velocities of both particles are known. Equations
(3.66) and (3.67) can be solved for the final velocities in terms of the initial velocities,
since there are two equations and two unknowns. Solving for v1f and v2f gives
(m1 − m2 )v1i + 2m2 v2i

v1f = (3.70a)
m1 + m2
(m2 − m1 )v2i + 2m1 v1i
v2f = (3.70b)
m1 + m2
Let us now consider some special cases:
☛ If m1 = m2 then we see that v1f = v2i and v2f = v1i . That is, the particles
exchange velocities if they have equal masses; this is one observes in billiard ball
collision.
☛ If m1 = 0 is initially at rest, v2i = 0 and equations Equation 3.70 becomes
(m1 − m2 )v1i
v1f = (3.71a)
m1 + m2
2m1 v1i
v2f = (3.71b)
m1 + m2
57
☛ If m1 is very large compared with m2 and v2i = 0, we see from Equation 3.71
that v1f ≈ v1i and v2f ≈ 2v1i . That is, when a very heavy particle collides head-on
with a very light one initially at rest, the heavy particle continues its motion
unaltered after the collision, while the light particle rebounds with a
velocity equal to about twice the initial velocity of the heavy particle.
☛ If m2 is much larger than m1 , and m2 is initially at rest, then we find from

Equation 3.71 that v1f ≈ −v1i and v2f = 0. That is, when a very light particle
collides head-on with a very heavy particle initially at rest, the light
particle will have its velocity reversed, while the heavy particle will
remain approximately at rest.
3.5.5 Collisions in Two-Dimensional Space

The general collision of two particles implies that the total momentum in each of
the directions x, y, and z is conserved (Equation 3.62).
Thus, for a three-dimensional problem, we would get three components equations for the
conservation of momentum.
Let us consider a two-dimensional problem in which a particle of mass m1 collides with
a particle of mass m2 , where m2 is initially at rest (Figure 3.27). The collision is not
head-on, but glancing.
Figure 3.27: Elastic head-on collision between two particles
After the collision, m1 moves at an angle θ with respect to the horizontal and m2 moves at
an angle ϕ with respect to the horizontal. Applying the law of conservation of momentum
in component form, pxi = pxf and pyi = pyf and noting that pyi = 0, we get
m1 v1i = m1 v1f cos θ + m2 v2f cos ϕ (3.72a)

0 = m1 v1f sin θ − m2 v2f sin ϕ (3.72b)
Now let us assume that the collision is elastic, in which case we can also write a third
equation for the conservation of kinetic energy, in the form
1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v1i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (3.73)
2 2 2
If we know the initial velocity, ⃗v1i , and the masses, we are left with four unknowns. Since
we only have three equations, one of the remaining quantities (v1f , v2f , θ, or ϕ) must
be given to determine the motion after the collision from conservation principles alone.

Chapter 4
DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES
4.1 Center of Mass of a System
In this section we describe the overall motion of a mechanical system in terms of a very
special point called the center of mass of a system. The mechanical system can be either a
system of particles or an extended object. We shall see that mechanical system moves as if
all its mass were concentrated at the center of mass. Furthermore, if the resultant external
force on the system is F⃗ and the total mass of the system is M , the center of mass moves
⃗
F
with an acceleration given by ⃗a = M That is, the system moves as the resultant external
force were applied to a single particle of mass M located at the center of mass.
One can describe the position of the center of mass of a system as being the
average position of the system’s mass. For example, the center of mass of the pair
of particles described in Figure 4.1 is located on the x axis and lies somewhere between
the particles.
Figure 4.1: Center of mass of a system of two particles
The x coordinate of the center of mass in this case is defined to be
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xc = (4.1)
m1 + m2
For example, if x1 = 0, x2 = d, and m2 = 2m1 , we find that xc = 23 d That is, the center
of mass lies closer to the more massive particle. If the two masses are equal, the center of
mass lies midway between the particles.
We can extend the center of mass concept to a system of many particles in three dimensions.
The x, y and z coordinates of the center of mass of n particles is defined to be
59
n
P
mi xi
i=1
xc = Pn (4.2a)
mi
i=1
n
P
mi yi
i=1
yc = Pn (4.2b)
mi
i=1
n
P
mi zi
i=1
zc = Pn (4.2c)
mi
i=1
n
P
For convenience, we shall express the total mass as M = mi
i=1
The center of mass can also be indicated by its position vector,⃗rc . The rectangular
coordinates of this vector are xc , yc , and zc defined in equations Equation 4.2. Therefore,
⃗rc = xc⃗i + yc⃗j + zc⃗k
n
P n
P n
P
mi xi + mi yi + mi zi
i=1 i=1 i=1
⇒ ⃗rc = (4.3)
M
or
n
P
mi⃗ri
i=1
⃗rc = (4.4)
M
where ⃗ri is the position of the ith particle, defined by ⃗ri = xi⃗i + yi⃗j + zi⃗k
If the body is considered to have a continuous mass distribution, we can express the
vector position of the center of mass of a rigid body in the form
Z
1
⃗rc = ⃗rdm (4.5)
M
where this is equivalent to the three scalar expressions given by the following equation
Z
1
xc = xdm (4.6a)
M
Z
1
yc = ydm (4.6b)
M
Z
1
zc = zdm (4.6c)
M

Section 4.2: Translational Motion of a System of Particles 61
4.2 Translational Motion of a System of Particles

We can begin to understand the physical significance and utility of the center of mass
concept by taking the time derivative of the position vector of the center of mass, ⃗rc ,
given by Equation 4.4. Assuming that M remains constant, that is, no particle
enter or leave the system, we get the following expression for the velocity of the center
of mass:
n
P
n mi⃗vi
d⃗rc 1 X d⃗ri i=1
⃗vc = = mi = (4.7)
dt M i=1
dt M
where ⃗vi is the velocity of the ith particle. Rearranging Equation 4.7 yields
n
X n
X
M⃗vc = mi⃗vi = p⃗i = P⃗ (4.8)
i=1 i=1
We conclude that the total momentum vector of the system equals the total
mass multiplied by the velocity vector of the center of mass. In other words,
the total momentum of the system is equal to that of a single particle of mass M moving
with velocity vector ⃗vc .
If we now differentiate Equation 4.7 with respect to time, we get the acceleration vector
of the center of mass
n n
d⃗vc 1 X d⃗vi 1 X
⃗ac = = mi = mi⃗ai (4.9)
dt M i=1 dt M i=1
Rearranging this expression (Equation 4.9) and using Newton’s second law, we get
n
X n
X
M⃗ac = mi⃗ai = F⃗i (4.10)
i=1 i=1
where F⃗i is the force acting on the particle i.

The forces on any particle in the system may include both external forces (from outside
the system) and internal forces (from within the system). However, by Newton’s third law,
the sum of all internal forces in Equation 4.10 is zero because they cancel
in pairs. Therefore, the net force on the system is due only to the external
forces. Thus, we can write Equation 4.10 in the form
n
X dP⃗
F⃗ext = M⃗ac = (4.11)
i=1
dt
That is, the resultant external force on the system of particles equals the total
mass of the system multiplied by the acceleration of the center of mass. If
we compare this to Newton’s second law for a single particle we see that ”the center of
mass moves like an imaginary particle of mass M under the influence of the
resultant external force on the system”.
Finally, we see that if the external resultant force is zero, then from Equation 4.11 it
follows that
61
dP⃗
= M⃗ac = ⃗0, so that P⃗ = M⃗vc = Constant (4.12)
dt
For an isolated system of particles, both the total momentum and velocity of the center
of mass are constant in time.
4.3 Rotation of a Rigid Body about a fixed Axis

When an extended body, such as a wheel, rotates about its axis, the motion cannot be
analyzed by treating the body as a particle, since at any given time different parts of
the body have different velocities and accelerations. For this reason, it is convenient to
consider an extended object as a large number of particles, each with its own velocity and
acceleration.
In dealing with the rotation of the body, analysis is greatly simplified by assuming the
body to be rigid. A rigid body is defined as a body that is non deformable,
or one in which the separations between all pairs of particles of the body
remain constant. In this chapter, we shall treat the rotation of a rigid body about a
fixed axis, commonly referred to as pure rotational motion.
4.3.1 Angular Velocity and angular Acceleration
Figure 4.2: Rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis through O perpendicular to the
plane of the figure (z axis)
Figure 4.2 illustrates a planar rigid body of arbitrary shape confined to the xy plane and
rotating about a fixed axis through O perpendicular to the plane of the figure. A particle
on the body at a point P is at a fixed distance r from the origin and rotates in a circle of
radius r about O. It is convenient to represent the position of the point P with its polar
coordinates (r, θ). As the particle moves along the circle from the positive x axis θ = 0 to
the point P, it moves through an arc length s, which is related to the angular positionθ
through the relation
s
s = rθ ⇒ θ= (4.13)
r
The quantity θ is then a pure number since it is the ratio of an arc length and the radius
of a circle.
As the particle travels from P to Q in the Figure 4.3 in a time ∆t, the radius sweeps out
an angle ∆θ = θ2 − θ1 , which equals the angular displacement.
Figure 4.3: A particle on a rotating rigid body moving from P to Q along the arc of a
circle
We define the average angular velocity ω as the ratio of this angular displacement to the
time interval ∆t:

Section 4.3: Rotation of a Rigid Body about a fixed Axis 63
θ2 − θ1 ∆θ
ω= = (4.14)
t2 − t1 ∆t
In analogy to the linear velocity, the instantaneous angular velocity, ω, is defined as the
limit of the ratio in Equation 4.14 as ∆t approaches zero:
∆ω dω
ω = lim = (4.15)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
If the instantaneous angular velocity of a body changes from ω1 to ω2 in the time interval
∆t, the body has an angular acceleration. The average angular acceleration, α, of a
rotating body is defined as the ratio of the change in the angular velocity to the time
interval ∆t:
ω2 − ω1 ∆ω
α= = (4.16)
t2 − t1 ∆t
In analogy to linear acceleration, the instantaneous angular acceleration, α, is defined as
the limit of the ratio as ∆ω
∆t
approaches zero:
∆ω dω
α = lim = (4.17)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
For rotation about a fixed axis, we see that every particle on rigid body has the same
angular velocity and the same angular acceleration. That is, the quantities ω and α
characterize the rotational motion of the entire rigid body.
We shall take ω to be positive when s increasing (counterclockwise motion) and negative
when θ is decreasing (clockwise motion). The direction of ω
⃗ is along the axis of rotation,
which the z axis in Figure 4.2. By convention, we take the direction of ω ⃗ to be out of
the plane of the diagram when the rotation is counterclockwise, and into the plane of the
diagram when the rotation is clockwise.
Finally, the sense of α follows from its definition as dω
dt
. It is the same as ω if the angular
dt speed ω is increasing in time and anti parallel to ω ⃗ if the angular speed is decreasing
in time.
4.3.2 Rotational Kinematics–Rotational Motion with Constant

Angular Acceleration
In analogy to a study of linear motion, for rotational motion about a fixed axis, the
simplest accelerated motion to analyze is the motion under constant angular acceleration.
Therefore, we shall next develop kinematic relations for rotational motion under constant
angular acceleration. If we write Equation 4.17 in the form dω = αdt and let ω = ωo at
to = 0, we can integrate this expression directly:
ω = ω0 + αt (f or α = Constant) (4.18)
Likewise, substituting Equation 4.18 into Equation 4.17 and integrating once more (with
θ = θo at to = 0), we get
1
θ = θo + ω0 t + αt2 (4.19)
2
63
If we eliminate t from equations (4.18) and (4.19), we get
ω 2 = ω02 + 2α(θ − θo ) (4.20)
Notice that these kinematic expressions for rotational motion under constant angular accel-
eration are of the same form as those for linear motion under constant linear acceleration
with substitutions:

x → θ

v→ω (4.21)

a→α

4.3.3 Relationship between Angular and Linear Quantities

In this section we shall derive some useful relationships between the angular velocity
and acceleration of a rotating rigid body, and the linear velocity and acceleration of an
arbitrary point in the body.
Figure 4.4: The point P has a linear velocity ⃗v , always tangent to the circular path of the
radius r
We first relate the angular velocity of the rotating body to the tangential velocity, ⃗v , of
a point P on the body. Since P moves in a circle, the linear velocity vector is always
tangent to the circular path, and hence the phrase tangential velocity. Recalling that
s = rθnd noting that r = Constant, we get
ds dθ
v= =r ⇒ v = rω (4.22)
dt dt
Figure 4.5: Total acceleration of the point P of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis
through O
That is, ”the tangential component of the linear acceleration of a point on a

rotating rigid body equals the distance of that point from the axis of rotation
multiplied by the angular acceleration”. Since v = rω for the point P on the
rotating rigid body, we can express the centripetal (or radial) acceleration as
v2
ar = = rω 2 (4.23)
r
The total linear acceleration of the particle is ⃗a = ⃗at + ⃗ar . Therefore, the magnitude of
the total linear acceleration of the point P on the rotating rigid body is given by
q √ √
a = a2t + a2r = r2 α2 + r2 ω 2 = r α2 + ω 2 (4.24)

Figure 4.6: Kinetic energy of the particle of mass mi of a rigid body rotating about z axis
with angular velocity ω
4.3.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy
Let us consider a rigid body as a collection of small particles and let us assume that the
body rotates about the fixed z axis with an angular velocity ω (Figure 4.6).
If the mass of the particle is mi and its speed is vi , the kinetic energy of this particle is
1
Ki = mi vi2
2
We recall that although every particle in the rigid body has the same angular velocity
ω , the individual linear velocities depend on the distance ri from the axis of rotation
according to the expression vi = ri ω . The total kinetic energy of the rotating rigid body
is the sum of the kinetic energies of the individual particles:
!
X 1X 1X 1 X
K= Ki = mi vi2 = mi ri2 ω 2 ⇒ K= mi ri2 ω2 (4.25)
2 i 2 i 2 i
The quantity in parentheses is called the moment of inertia, I:

X
I= mi ri2 (4.26)
i
Using this notation, we can express the kinetic energy of the rotating rigid body (Equa-
tion 4.25) as
1
K = Iω 2 (4.27)
2
That is, the rotational analogy of mass is a quantity called moment of inertia. The
greater the moment of inertia of a body, the greater its resistance to change its angular
velocity.
4.3.5 Calculation of Moments of Inertia

Let us imagine a rigid body divided into a great many small particles whose masses
are m1 , m2 , m3 , ..., and whose distances from the axis of rotation are respectively
r1 , r2 , r3 , ..., respectively. The moment of inertia of this body is given by:
X
I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + ... = mi ri2 (4.28)
i
When the mass of the body is uniformly (continuously) distributed, the sum is reduced to
the integral as: Z
I = r2 dm
where the integral is extended over all the volume of the solid. In this case, the quantity
r is a function of the coordinates x, y and z. Figure 4.7 gives the moments of inertia of
some homogeneous bodies of mass m.
65
Figure 4.7: Moments of inertia of some symmetrical objects.

Steiner’s Theorem (Parallel-Axis Theorem)
If the moment of inertia of a body about an axis passing through its centre of mass is Ic ,
the moment of inertia about any other axis parallel to the axis passing through the centre
of the mass is determined by the Steiner’s theorem: ”The moment of inertia I of
a body about an arbitrary axis is equal to the sum of moment of inertia IC
about a parallel axis passing through the centre of the mass, and the product
of the mass of the body by the square of the distance a between the two axes”:
I = Ic + ma2 (4.29)
Radius of gyration
The radius of gyration of a body is the quantity K defined as followed:
r
I
I = mK 2 or K = (4.30)
m
with m as the mass of a body and I its moment of inertia about an axis of rotation. The
radius of gyration represents a radial distance from any given axis at which the mass of
the body could be concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the body about
that axis.
4.3.6 Torque
When a force is exerted on a rigid body pivoted about some axis, the body will tend
to rotate about that axis. The tendency of a force to rotate a body about some axis is
measured by a quantity called the torque (⃗τ ). Consider the wrench pivoted about the
axis through O in Figure 4.8. The applied force F⃗ generally can act at an angle ϕ to the
horizontal.
Figure 4.8: The force F⃗ gas greater tendency to rotate about O as F⃗ increases and d
increases
We define the magnitude of the torque, τ , resulting from the force F⃗ by the expression.
τ = rF sin ϕ = F d (4.31)
It is very important to recognize that torque is defined only when a reference axis is
specified. The quantity d rF sin ϕ, called the moment arm (or lever arm) of the force
F⃗ , represents the perpendicular distance from the rotation axis to the line of action of
F⃗ . Note that the only component of F⃗ that tends to cause a rotation is F⃗ sin ϕ, the
component perpendicular to ⃗r. The horizontal component, F⃗ cos ϕ, passes through O and
has no tendency to produce a rotation.
Thus, the torque is a vector quantity which is given by
⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ (4.32)

Conventionally, a torque tending to cause counterclockwise rotation is positive, while one

tending to cause clockwise rotation is negative.
Figure 4.9: The force F⃗2 tends to rotate the body counterclockwise about O, and tends to
rotate the body clockwise
For example, in Figure 4.9, the torque τ1 resulting from F⃗1 , which has a moment arm d1 ,
is positive and equal to +F1 d1 , the torque τ2 resulting from F⃗2 , which has a moment arm
d2 , is negative and equal to −F2 d2
Hence, the net torque acting on the rigid body about O is
τnet = τ1 + τ2 = F1 d1 − F2 d2 (4.33)
4.3.7 Relationship between Torque and Angular Acceleration

In this section we shall show that the angular acceleration of a rigid body rotating about
a fixed axis is proportional to the net torque acting about this axis.
Figure 4.10: A particle rotating in a circle under the influence of a tangential force F⃗t
Consider a particle of mass m rotating on circle of radius r under the influence of a

tangential force F⃗t as in Figure 4.10 and a centripetal force F⃗t not shown in the figure
(because no torque is produced by F⃗t ).
The tangential force provides a tangential acceleration ⃗at , and F⃗t = m⃗at .
The torque about the origin O due to the force F⃗t is the product of the magnitude of the
force, F⃗t , and the moment arm of the force,r:
τ = Ft r = (mat )r
Since the tangential acceleration is related to the angular acceleration through the relation
at = rα the torque can be expressed as
τ = Iα (4.34)
That is, the torque acting on the particle is proportional to its angular ac-
celeration, and the proportionality constant is the moment of inertia. It
is important to note that τ = Iα is the rotational analogue of Newton’s second law of
motion, F = ma.
4.3.8 Work and Energy in Rotational Motion

Consider a rigid body pivoted at the point O in Figure 4.11. Suppose a single external
force F⃗ is applied at point P. The work done by F⃗ as the body rotates through an
infinitesimal distance ds = rdθ in a time dt is
dW = F⃗ · d⃗s = (F sin ϕ)rdθ (4.35)

Where F sin ϕ is the tangential component of F⃗ , or the component of the force along the
displacement.
67
Figure 4.11: A rigid body rotating about an axis through O under the action of an external
force F⃗ applied at P
Since the magnitude of the torque due to F⃗ about the origin was defined as rF sin ϕ, we
can write the work done for the infinitesimal rotation dθ as
dW = τ dθ (4.36)
The rate at which work is being done by F⃗ for rotation about the fixed axis is obtained
by formally dividing the left and right sides of Equation 4.36 by dt :
dW θ
= τd (4.37)
dt dt
But the quantity dW
dt
is, by definition, the instantaneous power, P , delivered by the force.
Furthermore, since dtθ = τ ω, Equation 4.37 reduces to
dW θ
P = = τd (4.38)
dt dt
The expression in analogous to P = F v in the case of linear motion, and the expression
dW = τ dθ is analogous to dW = Fx dx
4.3.9 Work-Energy Theorem in Rotational Motion

From that we learned of linear motion, we expect that for rotation of a symmetric object
(such as a symmetric wheel) about a fixed axis, the work done by external forces will
equal the change in rotational kinetic energy. To show that this is in fact the case, let us
begin with τ = Iα. Using the chain rule from the calculus, we can express the torque as
dω dω dθ
τ = Iα = I =I
dt dθ dt
Rearranging the above expression and noting that τ dθ = dW , we get
τ dθ = dW = Iωdω
Integrating this expression, we get for the total work done
Z θ Z θ
1 1
W = τ dθ = Iωdω = Iω 2 − Iωo2 = ∆Krot (4.39)
θo θo 2 2
That is, ”the net work done by external forces in rotating a symmetric rigid
body about a fixed axis equals the change in the body’s rotational kinetic
energy”.
4.4 Rolling Motion, Angular Momentum and Torque

In the previous section, we learned how to treat the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed
axis. This new section deals in part with the more general case, where the axis of rotation
is not fixed in space. We begin by describing the rolling motion of an object such as a
cylinder or sphere. Next, we define a vector product. The vector product is a convenient
mathematical tool for expressing such quantities as torque and angular momentum. In

Section 4.4: Rolling Motion, Angular Momentum and Torque 69
analogy to the conservation of linear momentum, we shall find that the angular
momentum of any isolated system is always conserved .
This conservation law is a special case of the result that the time rate of the change of
the total angular momentum of any system of particles equals the resultant
external torque acting on the system.
4.4.1 Rolling Motion of a Rigid Body

In this section we shall treat the motion of a rigid body that is rotating about a moving
axis. The general motion of a rigid body in space is very complex. However, we can
simplify matters by restring our discussion to homogeneous rigid body having a high
degree of symmetry, such as a cylinder or a sphere.
Furthermore, we shall assume that the body undergoes rolling motion in plane. Suppose
a cylinder is rolling on a straight path as in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12: Paths taken by the c.m. and the point on the rim are different
The center of mass moves in a straight line, while a point on the rim moves in more
complex path which corresponds to the path of a cycloid.
Now consider a uniform cylinder of radius R rolling on a rough, horizontal surface as in
Figure 4.13. Therefore, the velocity and acceleration of the center of mass for pure rolling
motion are given by
ds dθ
vc = = R = Rω (4.40)
dt dt
vc dω
ac = =R = Rα (4.41)
dt dt
Figure 4.13: For pure rolling motion, as the cylinder rotates through an angle θ, the center
of mass of the cylinder moves a distance s = Rθ
The linear velocities of various points on the rolling cylinder are illustrated in Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.14: All points on the rolling body move in a direction perpendicular to an axis
through the contact point P
At any instant, the point P is at rest relative to the surface since sliding does not occur.
A general point on the cylinder, such as Q, has both horizontal and vertical components
of the velocity. However, the points P, P’, and C at the center of mass are unique and of
special interest. Relative to the surface on which the cylinder is moving, the center of
mass moves with velocity vc = Rω whereas the contact point P has zero velocity. The
point P’ has a velocity equal to 2vc = 2Rω, since all points on the cylinder have the same
angular velocity.
We can express the total kinetic energy of the rolling cylinder as
1
K = Ip ω 2 (4.42)
2
69
where Ip is the momentum of inertia about the axis through P.

Applying the parallel-axis theorem, we can substitute Ip = Ic + M R2 into Equation 4.42
to get
1 1 1 1
K = Ic ω 2 + M R2 ω 2 ⇒ K = Ic ω 2 + M vc2 (4.43)
2 2 2 2
The first term on the right, 12 Ic ω 2 , represents the rotational kinetic energy about the center
of mass, and the term 12 M vc2 represents the kinetic energy the cylinder would have if
it were just translating through space without rotating. Thus, we can say ”the total
kinetic energy of an object undergoing rolling motion is the sum of rotational
kinetic energy about the center of mass and the translational kinetic energy
of the center of mass”.
4.4.2 Angular Momentum and Torque of a Particle

A particle of mass m, located at the position vector ⃗r , moves with a velocity ⃗v (Figure 4.15)
⃗ of a particle of mass m and momentum p⃗ located

Figure 4.15: The angular momentum L
at the position vector r
” The instantaneous angular momentum vector L ⃗ of the particle

relative to the origin O is defined by the cross product of its in-
stantaneous vector position and its instantaneous linear momentum
vector p⃗ ”:
⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗
L (4.44)
⃗ is perpendicular to the plane formed by ⃗r and p⃗, and its sense is
The direction of L
⃗ is given by
governed by the right-hand rule. Since p⃗ = m⃗v , the magnitude of L
L = mvr sin θ (4.45)

where θ is the angle between ⃗r and p⃗.
In the case of the linear motion of a particle, we found that the resultant vector force on
a particle was equal to the time rate of change of its linear momentum vector. We shall
now show that Newton’s second law implies that the resultant vector torque acting
on a particle equals the time rate of the change of its angular momentum vector. Let us
start by writing the vector torque on the particle in the form
d⃗p
⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ = ⃗r × (4.46)
dt
Now let us differentiate Equation 4.44 with respect to time
⃗
dL d d⃗p d⃗r
= (⃗r × p⃗) = ⃗r × + × p⃗
dt dt dt dt
d⃗
r
The last term on the right hand in the above equation is zero, since ⃗v = dt
is parallel to
p⃗.
Therefore,

dL⃗ d⃗p
= ⃗r × (4.47)
dt dt
comparing equations (4.46) and (4.47), we see that
⃗
dL
τ= (4.48)
dt
which is the rotational analogy of Newton’s second law, F⃗ = d⃗
p
dt
. This result says that
“the vector torque acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of the change
of the particle’s angular momentum vector”.
4.4.3 Angular Momentum and Torque of a System of Particles

⃗ of a system of particles about some point is defined
The total angular momentum vector, L,
as the vector sum of the angular momentum vectors of individual particles:
n
X
⃗ =L
L ⃗1 + L
⃗2 + ···L
⃗n = ⃗i
L (4.49)
i=1
Since the individual angular momentum vectors of the particles may change in time, the
total angular momentum vector may also vary in time. That is, we find that the time
rate of the change of the total angular momentum vector equals the vector sum of all
torque vectors, including those associated with internal forces between particles and those
associated with external forces. However, the net vector torque associated with the internal
forces is zero. Finally, we conclude that the total angular momentum vector can vary with
time only if there is a net external vector torque on the system, so that we have
n ⃗i n ⃗
X X dL d X⃗ dL
⃗τext = = Li = (4.50)
i=1
dt dt i=1 dt
That is, “the time rate of the change of the total angular momentum vector
of a system about some origin in an inertial frame equals the net external
vector torque acting on the system about that origin”.
4.4.4 Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed Axis

Let us consider a rigid body rotating about an axis that is fixed in direction. We shall
assume that the z axis coincides with the axis of rotation, as in Figure 4.16.
⃗ is
Figure 4.16: When a rigid body rotates about an axis, the angular momentum vector L
in the same direction as the angular velocity vector ω
⃗
The magnitude of the angular momentum vector of the particle of mass mi is

mi vi ri , about the origin O. Because vi = ri ω we can express the magnitude of the angular
momentum vector of the ith particle as Li = mi ri2 ω. The vector Li is directed along the z
axis, corresponding to the direction of ω ⃗.
We can now find the z component of the angular momentum vector of the rigid body by
taking the sum of Li = mi ri2 ω over all particles of the body:
71
!
X X
Lz = mi ri2 ω = mi ri2 ω or Lz = Iω (4.51)
i i
where Lz is the component of the angular momentum and I is the moment of inertia of
the rigid body about the z axis.
Now let us differentiate Equation 4.51 with respect to time noting that I is constant for a
rigid body
dLz dω
=I = Iα (4.52)
dt dt
where α is the angular acceleration relative to the axis of rotation z . Because the
product Iα is equal to the net torque (see Equation 4.50), we can express Equation 4.52
as follows
X dLz
= Iα
τext = (4.53)
dt
That is, “the net external torque acting on a rigid body rotating about a fixed
axis equals the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation multiplied by its
angular acceleration relative to that axis”.
4.4.5 Conservation of Angular Momentum

In the previous section, we found that the total linear momentum of a system of particles
remains constant when the resultant external force acting on the system is zero. We
have an analogous conservation law in rotational motion which states that “the total
angular momentum vector of a system is constant if the resultant external
vector torque acting on the system is a zero vector”. This follows directly from
Equation 4.50 where we see that if
X ⃗
dL
⃗τext = = ⃗0 (4.54)
dt
then
⃗ =C
L ⃗ st (4.55)
P⃗ ⃗ st If a body
For a system of particles, we write this conservation law as Li = C
i
undergoes a redistribution of its mass, then its moment of inertia changes and we express
this conservation of angular momentum vector in the form
⃗i = L
L ⃗f = C
⃗ st (4.56)
If the system is a body rotating about a fixed axis, such as the z axis, then we can write
Lz = Iω
where Lz is the component of L⃗ along the axis of rotation; and I is the moment of inertia
about this axis.
In this case, we can express the conservation of angular momentum as
Ii ωi = If ωf = C st (4.57)

This expression is valid for rotations either about a fixed axis or about an axis through
the center of mass of the system as long as the axis remains parallel to itself.
Although we do not prove it here, there is an important theorem concerning the angular
momentum vector relative to the center of mass. This theorem states that “the resultant
vector torque acting on a body about the center of mass equals the time rate
of the change of angular momentum vector regardless of the motion of
the center of mass”. This theorem applies even if the center of mass is accelerating,
⃗ are evaluated relative to the center of mass.
provided that ⃗τ and L
73
Chapter 5
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND
ELASTICITY
5.1 Introduction
Part of this chapter is concerned with the conditions under which a rigid body is in
equilibrium. The term equilibrium implies that the body is either at rest or
that its center of mass moves with constant velocity . We shall deal with bodies
at rest or bodies in static equilibrium.
In dynamics we stated that one necessary condition for equilibrium is that the net vector
force on an object is zero. If the object is treated as a single particle, this is the only
condition that must be satisfied in order that the particle is in equilibrium. That is, “if
the net vector force on the particle is zero, it will remain at rest (if originally
at rest) or move with constant velocity vector in a straight line (if originally
in motion)”.
The situation with real objects is somewhat more complex because the objects cannot
be treated as particles. An object has a definite size, shape, and mass distribution. In
order for an object to be in static equilibrium, the net vector force on it must
be zero and the object must have no tendency to rotate. This second condition
of equilibrium requires that the net vector torque about any origin be zero. In order to
establish that whether or not an object is in equilibrium, we must know the size and
shape of the object, and the points of application of the various forces.
In the first part of this chapter, we shall be concerned with objects that are assumed
to be rigid. A rigid object is defined as one that does not deform under the
application of external forces. That is, all parts of a rigid object remain at a fixed
separation with respect to each other when subjected to external forces.
The last section of this chapter deals with the realistic situation of objects that deform
under load conditions. Such deformations are usually elastic in nature and will not
affect the conditions of equilibrium. By elastic we mean that when the deforming
forces are removed, the object returns to its original shape. Several elastic
constants will be defined, each corresponding to a different type of deformation.
5.2 Conditions of equilibrium of a rigid object

Consider a single force, F⃗ , acting on a rigid object as in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: The moment arm of F⃗ relative to O is the perpendicular distance d from O to
the line of action of F⃗
74
Section 5.2: Conditions of equilibrium of a rigid object 75
If r is the position vector of the point of application of F⃗ , P and that relative to O, we

saw that the torque associated with the force F⃗ about O is given by
⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗
Recall that the sense of τ is determined by the sense of rotation that F⃗ tends to give to
the object. The right-hand rule can be used to determine the direction of ⃗τ . By definition,
the magnitude of ⃗τ is given by F d.
Now suppose that two vector forces, F⃗1 and F⃗2 , act on a rigid object. The two vector
forces will have the same effect on the object only if they have the same magnitude, the
same direction, and the same line of action.
In other words, “two vector forces F⃗1 and F⃗2 are equivalent if and only if
|F⃗1 | = |F⃗2 | and if they have the same torque about any given point”. An
example of two equal and opposite forces that are not equivalent is shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: The two vector forces acting on the object are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction; yet the object is not in equilibrium
The vector force directed toward the right tends to rotate the object clockwise about
the axis through O, whereas the vector force directed toward the left tends to rotate it
counterclockwise about that axis.
Now suppose an object is pivoted about an axis through its center of mass as in Figure 5.3.
Two equal and opposite vector forces act in directions shown, such that their lines of
action do not pass through the center of mass. A pair of vector forces acting in this
Figure 5.3: The two vector forces acting on the object are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction; yet the object is not in equilibrium
manner forms what is called a couple. Since each force produces the same torque,
Fd , the net vector torque has magnitude given by 2 Fd . Clearly, the object will rotate
in clockwise direction and will undergo an angular acceleration about the axis. This is
a non-equilibrium situation as far as the rotational motion is concerned. That is, the
unbalanced, or net torque on the object gives rise to an angular acceleration
α according to the relationship τnet = −2F d = Iα
In general, an object will be in rotational equilibrium only if its angular
acceleration α = 0. Since τnet = Iα or rotation about a fixed axis, a necessary condition
of equilibrium for an object is that the net torque about any origin must be zero. We now
have two necessary conditions for equilibrium of an object, which can be stated as follows:
(a) the resultant external vector force must equal a zero vector :
X
F⃗ext = ⃗0 (5.1)
(b) the resultant external vector torque must be a zero vector about any
origin: X
⃗τext = ⃗0 (5.2)
75
⋆ The first condition is a statement of translational equilibrium, that is, “the linear
acceleration must be zero viewed from an inertial reference frame”.
⋆ The second is a statement of rotational equilibrium, that is, “the angular acceleration
about any axis must be zero”.
In the special case of static equilibrium, which is the main subject of this chapter, the
object is at the rest so that it has no linear or angular velocity (that is, ⃗vc = ⃗0 and ω
⃗ = ⃗0)
The two vector expressions given by equations (5.1) and (5.2) are equivalent, in general
to six scalar equations. Three of these come from the first condition of equilibrium, and
three follow from the second condition (corresponding to x, y, and z components). We
will restrict our discussion to situations in which all the vector forces lie in a common
plane, which we assume to be the xy plane. Vector forces whose representations are in
the same plane are said to be coplanar. In this case, we shall have to deal with only three
scalar equations. Hence, these conditions of equilibrium provide the equations
P
P Fx = 0

Fy = 0 (5.3)

P
τz = 0
There are two cases of equilibrium that are often encountered.
Case I: If an object is subjected to two vector forces, the object is in equilib-
rium if and only if the two vector forces are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction, and have the same line of action.
Figure 5.4a shows a situation in which the object is not in equilibrium because the two
vector forces are not along the same line of action. In Figure 5.4b, the object is in
equilibrium because the vector forces have the same line of action.
Figure 5.4: Equilibrium for an object subjected to two forces
Case II : If an object subjected to three vector forces is in equilibrium, the

line of action of the three vector forces must intersect at a common point.
That is, the vector forces must be concurrent. (The exception is the situation
in which none of the lines of action intersect. In this situation, the vector
forces must be parallel).
Figure 5.5 illustrates the general rule.
The lines of action of the three vector forces pass through the point S .
Figure 5.5: If three vector forces act on an object that is in equilibrium, their lines of
action must intersect at a point S (or they must be parallel)
The conditions of equilibrium require that F⃗1 + F⃗2 + F⃗3 = ⃗0 and that net vector torque
about any axis be a zero vector.
We can now finish this section assuming that “if any object is in translational
equilibrium and the net vector torque is zero about one point; it must be zero
about any other point”.

Section 5.4: Elastic properties of solids 77
5.3 Center of gravity

In order to compute the torque due to the weight force, all of the weight vectors can be
considered as being concentrated at a single point called the center of gravity as shown
in Figure 5.6. The center of gravity of an object coincides with its center of mass if the
Figure 5.6: Center of gravity of a rigid body
object is in a uniform gravitational field. In several examples that will be presented in

the next section, we shall be concerned with homogeneous, symmetric objects for which
the center of mass coincides with the center of gravity and that with the geometric center
of the object. A rigid object in a uniform gravitational field can be balanced by a single
vector force equal in magnitude to the vector weight of the object, as long as the vector
force is directed upward through the object’s center of gravity.
5.3.1 Finding a Center of Gravity

The center of gravity (CG) of an object of regular form and uniform composition is located
at its geometric center. In the case of a complex object, the way to find its center of
gravity is to consider it as a system of separate particles and then find the balance point
of the system. An example is the mass-less rod in Figure 5.7, which has three particles
m1 , m2 , and m3 attached to it. The CG of the system is at a distance X from the end of
Figure 5.7: The center of gravity.
the rod such that the torque exerted by a single particle of mass M = m1 + m2 + m3 at
X equals the sum of the torques exerted by the particles at their locations x1 , x2 , and x3 .
Thus,
m1 gx1 + m2 gx2 + m3 gx3 = M gX = (m1 + m2 + m3 )gX
P
m 1 x1 + m 2 x2 + m 3 x3 mi xi
X= = Pi (5.4)
m1 + m2 + m3 i mi
This formula can be extended to any number of particles. If the complex object involves
two or three dimensions rather than just one, the same procedure is applied along two
or three coordinate axes to find X, Y and Z, which are the coordinates of the center of
gravity.
5.4 Elastic properties of solids

If the distance between any two points in a body is invariable, the body is said to be a
rigid body . In practice, it is not possible to have a perfect rigid body. All bodies get
deformed under the action of force-some more some less. The property of the body by
virtue of which it tends to regain its original geometry (shape or size) on the removal of
deforming forces is called elasticity. If a body resists deformation and recovers its original
shape, size or volume completely and immediately on the removal of the deforming forces
it is called perfectly elastic body and if it completely retains its altered size and shape, it
77
is said to be perfectly plastic body.

In general, bodies are in between these two extreme limits. There is no perfectly elastic
or perfectly plastic body.
⋆ Examples of elastic body : rubber, steel, · · ·
⋆ Examples of plastic body : moist clay, putty (mastic), · · ·
5.4.1 Tensile and Compressive Stress and of Strain

The simplest elastic behavior to understand is the stretching of a bar, rod, or wire when
its ends are pulled. Figure 5.8a shows a bar with uniform cross-sectional area A, with
equal and opposite forces with magnitude F⊥ pulling at its ends. We say that the bar is
in tension. Figure 5.8b shows a cross section through the bar; the part to the right of the
section pulls on the part to the left with a force with magnitude F⊥ and vice versa. The
force is distributed uniformly over the section, as shown by the short arrows in the figure.
(This is always the case if the forces at the ends are uniformly distributed.)
We define the tensile stress at the section as the ratio of the force magnitude F⊥ to the
cross-sectional area A:
F⊥
T ensile Stress ≡ σ = (5.5)
A
(a) A bar in tension (b) Force on a cross-section through the bar
Figure 5.8: Tensile Stress
When the forces on the ends of a bar are pushes rather than pulls (Figure 5.9a), the bar
is in compression, and the stress is a compressive stress. At the cross section shown,
each side pushes, rather than pulls, on the other.
(a) A bar in compression (b) Force on a cross-section through the bar
Figure 5.9: Compressive stress
The fractional change in length (the stretch) of an object under a tensile stress is called
the tensile strain. Figure 5.10a shows a bar with unstretched length lo that stretches to a
length l = lo + ∆l when equal and opposite forces with magnitude F⊥ are applied to its
ends. The elongation ∆l, measured along the same line as lo , doesn’t occur only at the
ends; every part of the bar stretches in the same proportion. The tensile strain is defined
as the ratio of the elongation ∆l to the original length lo :
l − lo ∆l
T ensile Stain ≡ ϵ = = (5.6)
lo lo
Tensile strain is the amount of stretch per unit length. It is a ratio of two lengths, always
measured in the same units, so strain is a pure (dimensionless) number with no units. The
compressive strain of a bar in compression is defined in the same way as tensile strain,
but ∆l has the opposite direction (Figure 5.10b). In this case, it is often convenient to
treat ∆l as a negative quantity.

(a) Tensile strain. (b) Compressive strain.
Figure 5.10: Tensile and Compressive Stress and of Strain

5.4.2 Young’s modulus
Experiments have shown that, for a sufficiently small tensile or compressive stress, stress
and strain are proportional, as stated by Hook’s law, Equation 3.7. The corresponding
proportionality constant, called Young’s modulus (denoted by Y ), is given by
T ensile stress Compressive stress
Y = or
T ensile strain Compressive strain
or
F⊥ /A lo F⊥
Y = = (5.7)
∆l/lo A ∆l
Young’s modulus is a property of a specific material, rather than of any particular object
made of that material. A material with a large value of Y is relatively unstretchable; a
large stress is required for a given strain. For example, steel has a much larger value of Y
than rubber.
5.4.3 Volume Stress and Strain and Bulk Modulus

When you dive under water, the water exerts nearly uniform pressure everywhere on your
surface and squeezes you to a slightly smaller volume. This situation is different from
tensile and compressive stresses and strains. The stress is now a uniform pressure on all
sides, and the resulting deformation is a change in volume. We use the terms volume
stress and volume strain to describe these quantities. Another familiar example is the
compression of a gas under pressure, such as the air in a car’s tires. We’ll use the terms
volume stress and pressure interchangeably.
The pressure in a fluid, denoted by p, is the force F⊥ per unit area A transmitted across
any cross section of the fluid, against a wall of its container, or against a surface of an
immersed object:
F⊥
p= (5.8)
A
When a solid object is immersed in a fluid and both are at rest, the forces that the fluid
exerts on the surface of the object are always perpendicular to the surface at each point.
If they were not, the fluid would move relative to the object. When we apply pressure to
the surface of a fluid in a container, such as the cylinder and piston shown in Figure 5.11a,
the pressure is transmitted through the fluid and also acts on the surface of any object
immersed in the fluid. This principle is called Pascal’s law. If pressure differences due to
differences in depth within the fluid can be neglected, the pressure is the same at every
point in the fluid and at every point on the surface of any submerged object.
We’ve noted that pressure plays the role of volume stress in a volume deformation. The
corresponding strain, called volume strain, is defined as the fractional change in volume
(Figure 5.11b)–that is, the ratio of change in volume, ∆V , to the original volume Vo
∆V
V olume strain = (5.9)
Vo
79
Volume strain is change in volume per unit volume. Like tensile or compressive strain, it
is a pure number, without units.
(a) Volume stress (b) Volume strain.
Figure 5.11: Volume Stress and Strain
When Hooke’s low is obeyed, the volume strain is proportional to the volume stress
(change in pressure). The corresponding constant ratio of stress to strain is called the
bulk modulus, denoted by B When the pressure on an object changes by a small amount
∆p, from po to po + ∆p, and the resulting volume strain is ∆V /Vo , Hooke’s law takes the
form
∆p
B=− (5.10)
∆V /Vo
We include a minus sign in this equation because an increase in pressure always causes a
decrease in volume. In other words, when ∆p is positive, ∆V is negative. The negative
sign in Equation 5.10 makes B itself a positive quantity.
5.4.4 Shear Stress and Strain

Another kind of stress–strain situation shown in Figure 5.12a is called shear. The block in
Figure 5.12a is under shear stress, which we define as the force F∥ tangent to a material
surface, divided by the area A of the surface on which the force acts:
F∥
Shear stress = − (5.11)
A
Shear stress, like the other two types of stress, is a force per unit area. For systems in
equilibrium, shear stress can exist only in solid materials; a fluid would simply flow in
response to the tangential force.
(a) Shear stress (b) Shear strain.
Figure 5.12: Shear Stress and Strain
Figure 5.12b shows an object deformed by shear. We define shear strain as the
ratio of the displacement x to the transverse dimension h; that is,
x
Shear strain = = tan ϕ (5.12)
h
with x and h defined as in Figure 5.12b. In real-life situations, x is nearly always much
smaller than h, tan ϕ is very nearly equal to ϕ, and the strain is simply the angle ϕ,
measured in radians. Like all strains, shear strain is a dimensionless number because it is
a ratio of two lengths.
If the forces are small enough so that Hooke’s law is obeyed, the shear strain is proportional
to the shear stress. The corresponding proportionality constant (ratio of shear stress to
shear strain), is called the shear modulus, denoted by S:

Shear stress F∥ /A h F∥ F∥ /A
S= = = = (5.13)
Shear strain x/h A x ϕ
For a given material, S is usually a third to a half as large as Y .
5.4.5 Poisson’s Ratio

When the deformation of a cylindrical body is in all directions, two strains are produced.
Strain along the direction of the force (longitudinal strain) and strain in a perpendicular
direction (lateral strain).
The Poisson’s ratio or Poisson coefficient is defined as the ratio of fractional change
of thickness ∆d/d and the fractional change of length ∆L/L.
lateral strain ∆d/d

µ= =− (5.14)
longitudinal strain ∆L/L
The negative sign expresses the experimental fact the diameter d of a cylindrical wire is
reduced under tension while its length L increases
5.4.6 Stress-Strain Diagram

The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known
as that material’s Stress-Strain curve or Stress-strain diagram. It is unique for
each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct
intervals of tensile or compressive loading (stress).
Stress-strain curves of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests conducted
on the same material yield different results, depending upon the temperature of the
specimen and the speed of the loading.
(a) Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for a Ductile Metal under Tension

For relatively small stresses, the bar returns to its initial length when the force is removed.
The elastic limit of a substance is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to
the substance before it becomes permanently deformed and does not return to its initial
length. It is possible to exceed the elastic limit of a substance by applying a sufficiently
large stress as seen in Figure 5.13. Initially, a stress-versus-strain curve is a straight line.
As the stress increases, however, the curve is no longer a straight line. When the stress
exceeds the elastic limit, the object is permanently distorted and does not return to its
original shape after the stress is removed. As the stress is increased even further, the
material ultimately breaks.
Figure 5.13: Stress-strain curve for an elastic solid.
Specifically, the following regions my be distinguished
Elastic region: the material is elastic and the deformation disappears completely if the
stress is no longer acting;
81
Plastic-elastic region: the deformation does not disappear completely after the decay
of the stress;
Plastic region: the deformation is also maintained to a large extent without stress (i.e.
region of permanent deformation).
Hooke’s straight line: tangent to the stress-strain curve at the origin. Its slope is the
elastic modulus E of the body for small strains.
(b) Parameters and Properties of Tensile Load

The transition points between the regions of the stress-strain graph are described by
critical stresses:
Proportional limit is the maximum stress for which stress and strain are proportional.
Beyond proportional limit, Hooke’s law is not valid.
Elastic limit is the stress beyond which irreversible deformation occurs i.e., the maximum
stress a body can experience (or support) without reaching the plastic-elastic region. (For
some materials, the elastic limit coincides with the proportional limit).
Yield point, or yield strength, the maximum stress a body can experience without
becoming permanently deformed.
Tensile strength, or rupture stress, or ultimate strength, or breaking stress, the
maximum stress a body can experience without breaking or rupturing.
5.4.7 Work done in a Strain

In an elastic deformation of a body, work is performed. This work done by the applied
force remains stored up in the body in the form of potential energy, which, in the case,
may be called elastic potential energy or energy strain or strain energy.
Let’s F be the stretching force applied (within the elastic limit) to a ware of length L
and area of cross-section A, such that it increases in length l we have
F/A Y Al
Y = , hence F =
∆l/L L
where Y is the Young’s modulus for the material of the wire. The work done for additional
small increase dl in the length of the wire is
YA
dW = F dl = ldl
L
The work done during the whole increase l in length of the wire is
1 Y Al2
Z Z
YA 1
W = dW = ldl = = Fl (5.15)
L 2 L 2
The work done during stretching of the wire=1/2 stretch f orce × stretch. Since volume
of the wire is V = A · L, the work done per unit volume of the wire or the strain energy
per unit volume is
W 1F l 1
w= = = stress × strain (5.16)
V 2AL 2

Chapter 6
FLUID MECHANICS
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, first we shall present a discussion of the various states of matter .
Next, we shall consider a fluid at rest and derive an expression for the pressure as a
function of its density and depth. We shall then treat fluids in motion, or fluid dynamics.
An underlying principle known as the Bernoulli principle will enable us to determine
relations between the pressure, density, and velocity at every point in a fluid. As we shall
see, the Bernoulli principle is a result of conservation of energy applied to
an ideal fluid .
6.1.1 States of matter

Matter is normally classified as being in one of three states: solid, liquid, or
gaseous. Often, this classification is extended to include a fourth state referred to
as a plasma.
Everyday experience tells us that a solid has a definite volume and shape. We also know
that a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. Finally, a gas has neither definite
volume nor definite shape.
The fourth state of matter can occur when matter is heated to very high temperatures.
Under these conditions, one or more electrons surrounding each atom are freed from the
nucleus. The resulting substance is a collection of free electrically charged particles: the
negatively charged electrons and the positively charged ions. Such an ionized gas with
equal amounts of positive and negative charges is called a plasma. The plasma state exists
inside stars and ionosphere for examples. In this chapter, we shall ignore this plasma
state and concentrate instead on the more familiar solid, liquid, and gaseous forms that
make up the environment on our planet.
All matter consists of some distribution of atoms and molecules. The atoms in a solid are
held at specific positions with respect to one another by forces that are mainly electrical
in origin. The atoms of solid vibrate about these equilibrium positions because of thermal
agitation. One can view the vibration motion of the atom as that which would occur if
the atom were bound to its equilibrium position by springs attached to neighboring atoms
(see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: A model of a solid: the eight atoms are imagined as being attached to each
other by springs, which represent the elastic nature of the inter-atomic forces.
If a solid is compressed by external forces, we can picture these external forces as

compressing the tiny internal springs. When the external forces are removed, the
83
solid tends to return to its original shape and size. For this reason, a solid is
said to have elasticity.
In any given substance, the liquid state exists at a higher temperature than the solid state.
Thermal agitation is greater in the liquid state than in the solid state. As a result, the
molecular forces in a liquid are not strong enough to keep the molecules in fixed positions,
and the molecules wander through the liquid in random fashion (Figure 6.2). Solids and
liquids have the following property in common. When one tries to compress a liquid or a
solid, strong repulsive atomic forces act internally to resist the deformation.
Figure 6.2: Erratic motion of a molecule in a liquid.
In gaseous state, the molecules are in constant random motion and exert only weak forces
on each other. The average separation distances between the molecules of the gas are
quite large compared with the dimensions of the molecules. Occasionally, the molecules
collide with each other; however, most of time they move as nearly free, non interacting
particles.
6.1.2 Properties of Fluids

(a) Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the
substance. It can be expressed in three different ways.
• Mass Density, ρ = m
V
• Weight Density, ω = ρg
• Specific Gravity or Relative density, d = mass density of Substance

M ass density of W ater at 4o C
(b) Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of its resistance to
a shearing force. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between molecules.
We have two coefficients of viscosity:
• Coefficient of dynamic viscosity viscosity (or absolute viscosity), µ, with
F dv
τ= =µ (6.1)
A dy
where, τ is the shear stress, dv the variation of the velocity, and dy the variation of
the layer of the fluid
• Coefficient of kinematic viscosity,

µ
ν= (6.2)
ρ

Section 6.1: Introduction 85
Figure 6.3: Experiment for determination of dynamic viscosity

(c) Vapor Pressure
When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by
the vapor molecules is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressure depend upon temperature
and increase with it.
(d) Surface tension
The surface tension is the property of the liquid by virtue of which the free surface of
liquid at rest tends to have minimum area and as such it behaves as if covered with a
stretched membrane.
Therefore, surface tension of a liquid is measured as the force acting on unit length of
a line imagined to be drawn tangentially anywhere on the free surface of the liquid at
rest. It acts at right angles to this line on both the sides and a long tangent to the liquid
surface.
F
σ= (6.3)
L
(e) Surface Energy
The surface energy is defined as the amount of work done against the force of surface
tension in forming the liquid surface of a given area at a constant temperature.
W = σ · ∆A (6.4)
With σ, the surface tension and ∆A, the increase in area.
(f ) Capillarity
Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous media) is caused by surface
tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the
adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet
(adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (adhesion < cohesion).
The capillary rise (or depression) in a tube of the radius r is given approximately by
2σ cos θ
h= (6.5)
ωr
Figure 6.4: Experiment for the capillarity effects
85
(g) Bulk modulus of elasticity
The bulk modulus of elasticity expresses the impressibility of a fluid. It is the ratio of
change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.
dp
K= (6.6)
−dV /V
6.2 Pressure in Fluids

We have seen that fluids do not sustain shearing stress, and thus the only stress that can
exist on an object submerged in a fluid is one that tends to compress the object. The
force exerted by the fluid on the object is always perpendicular to the surfaces of the
object, as shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: The force of the fluid on the walls of the container is perpendicular to the
walls at all points.
The pressure at a specific point in a fluid can be measured with the device shown in
Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Simple device for measuring pressure
The device consists of an evacuated cylinder enclosing a light piston connected to a spring.
The fluid pressure can be measured directly if the spring is calibrated in advance.
6.2.1 Definition of the Pressure

If F is the magnitude of the normal force on the piston and A is the area of the piston,
then the pressure, p , of the fluid at the level to which the device has been submerged is
defined as the ratio of the force to area:
F
p= (6.7)
A
The pressure in a fluid is not the same at all points. To define the pressure at a specific
point B , consider a fluid enclosed as in Figure 6.7
Figure 6.7: Pressure at a specific point of a fluid
If the normal force exerted by the fluid is ∆F over a surface area of ∆A(look at the
Figure 6.7), then the pressure at that point is:
∆F dF
pB = lim = (6.8)
∆A→0 ∆A dA
Since pressure is force per unit area, it has unit of N · m−1 in SI system. Another name
for the SI unit of pressure is pascal ( Pa ). with 1 P a = 1 N · m2

Section 6.2: Pressure in Fluids 87
6.2.2 Variation of pressure with depth: Pascal’s law

Consider a fluid at rest in a container (Figure 6.8). We first note that all points at the
same depth are at the same pressure.
Figure 6.8: Variation of pressure with depth in a depth
To see this, let us select a portion of the fluid contained within an imaginary cylinder of
cross-sectional area A and height dy .
The upward force on the bottom of the cylinder is PA , and the downward force on the
top is (p + dp)A. The weight of the cylinder, the volume of which is dV , is given by
dW = ρgAdy, where ρ is the density of the fluid. Since the cylinder is in equilibrium, the
forces must add to zero, and so we get:
X dp
F = pA − (p + dp)A − ρgAdy = 0 ⇒ = −ρg (6.9)
dy
From this result, we see that an increase in elevation (positive dy) corresponds to a
decrease in pressure (negative dP ).
If P 1 and P 2 are pressures at the elevations y1 and y2 above the reference level (Figure 6.9),
and if the density is uniform, then integrating Equation 6.9 gives:
p1 − p2 = −ρg(y2 − y1 ) (6.10)
Figure 6.9: Pressure at the depth h below the free surface of a liquid
If the vessel is open at the top (see Figure 1.5.8), then the pressure at the depth h can be
obtained from Equation 6.10.
Taking atmospheric pressure to be pat = p2 , and noting that the depth h = y2 − y1 , we
find that the pressure below the free surface of a liquid is:
p = pat + ρgh (6.11)

where we usually take pat ≈ 1.01 × 105 P a. In other words, the absolute pressure pat
a depth h below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater
than atmospheric pressure by an amount ρgh. This result also verifies that the
pressure is the same at all points having the same elevation. Furthermore, the pressure is
not affected by the shape of the vessel.
In view of the fact that pressure in a fluid depends only upon depth, any increase in
pressure at the surface must be transmitted to every point in the fluid. This was first
recognized by the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and is called Pascal’s law:
“A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted

undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the vessel”
. An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic press illustrated in Figure 6.10.
A force F1 is applied to a small piston of area A1 . The pressure is then transmitted
through a fluid to a larger piston of area A2 .
87
Figure 6.10: One of applications of Pascal’s law (a) Diagram of a hydraulic press. (b) A
vehicle undergoing repair is supported by a hydraulic lift in a garage.
F1 F2
Since the pressure is the same on both sides, we see that p = A1
= A2
. Therefore, the
force F2 is larger that F1 by the multiplying factor A
A1
2
.
F1 F2
= (6.12)
A1 A2
6.2.3 Pressure measurements

One simple device for measuring pressure is the open manometer illustrated in Figure 6.11a.
One end of the U-shaped tube containing a liquid is open to the atmosphere, and the
other end is connected to a system of unknown pressure P .
Figure 6.11: Measuring devices of pressure (a) Mercury manometer; (b) Mercury barometer
The pressure at point B equals pat = ρgh, where is the density of the fluid.
By the way, the pressure at B equals the pressure at point A, which is also the unknown
pressure P. Therefore, we conclude that:
p = pat + ρgh (6.13)

The pressure p is called the absolute pressure, while p − pat is called the gauge
pressure. Thus, the pressure in the system is greater than atmospheric pressure, h
is positive. If the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure (a partial vacuum), h is
negative.
Another instrument used to measure pressure is the common barometer, invented by
Evangelista TORRICELLI (1608-1647). A long tube closed at one end is filled with
mercury (Figure 6.11b). The closed end of the tube is nearly a vacuum, so its pressure
can be taken as zero. Therefore, it follows that pat = ρgh where ρ is the density of the
mercury and h is the height of the mercury column.
One atmosphere of pressure is defined to be the pressure equivalent of a column of mercury
that is exactly 0.76 m in height at 0C , withg = 9.80665 m · s2 At this temperature, mercury
has a density of 13.595 × 10 kg · m3 . Therefore,
pat = 1.013 × 105 P a
6.2.4 Buoyant forces and Archimedes’ principle

Objects submerged in a fluid appear to weight less than they do when outside of the fluid.
Many objects float on the surface of the water. These are two examples of buoyancy.
In each example, the force of gravity is acting downwards; but in addition, an upwards
buoyancy force is exerted by the liquid.
When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it displaces the fluid. The
displaced fluid has a tendency to regain its original position. Due to this an upwards force
is exerted on the body by the displaced fluid. This upwards force is called the Thrust or
the Buoyant force. The Archimedes’s principle states that

Section 6.2: Pressure in Fluids 89
When an object is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts

an upward force on the object equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced
by the object.
Figure 6.12: (a) A totally submerged object that is less dense than the fluid in which it
is submerged experiences a net upward force and rises to the surface after it is released.
(b) A totally submerged object that is denser than the fluid experiences a net downward
force and sinks (c) An object floating on the surface of a fluid experiences two forces, the
gravitational force and the buoyant force.
Water provides partial support to any object placed in it. We say that an object placed
in a fluid is buoyed up by the fluid, and we call that upward force the buoyant force.
According to Archimedes’ principle, “the magnitude of the buoyant force always
equals the weight of the fluid displaced by the object”:
⃗ = |F⃗g |
|B| (6.14)
The buoyant force acts vertically upward through what was the center of gravity of the
displaced fluid (Figure 6.12).
Now imagine that the cube of water is replaced by a cube of steel of the same dimensions.
What is the buoyant force on the steel? The buoyant force acting on the steel is the same
as the buoyant force acting on the cube of water of the same dimensions. This result
applies for an immersed object of any shape, size, or density.
Let us show explicitly that the buoyant force is equal in magnitude to the weight of the
displaced fluid. The pressure at the bottom of the cube in Figure 1.5.11 is greater than
the pressure at the top by an amount ρf gh, where ρf is the density of the fluid and h is
the height of the cube.
Since the pressure difference, ∆p, is equal to the buoyant force per unit area, that is,
∆p = B A
, we see that B = (∆p)A = ρf gV , where V is the volume of the cubic volume
equivalent to the displaced liquid.
Since the mass of the fluid in the cube is M = ρf V , we see that:
B = Fg = ρf V g = M g (6.15)
where W is the weight of the displaced fluid.
It is now instructive to compare the forces on a totally immersed object with those acting
on a floating object.
Case I: A Totally Immersed Object
Where an object is totally immersed in a fluid of density ρf , the upward buoyant force is
given by B = ρf Vo g is the volume of the object. If the object has a density ρo , its weight
is equal to Fg = M g = ρo Vo g and the net force on it is B − Fg = (ρf − ρo )Vo g.
Hence, if the density of the object is less than the density of the fluid, the unsupported
object will accelerate upward (Figure 6.12a). If the density of the object is greater than
the density of the fluid, the unsupported object will sink (Figure 6.12b).
Case II: A Floating Object
89
Now consider an object in static equilibrium floating on a fluid, that is, one which is
partially immersed, as illustrated in the small figure below.
In this case, the upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward weight of the object.
If V is the volume of the fluid displaced by the object (which corresponds to that volume
of the object which is beneath the fluid level), then the buoyant force has a magnitude
given by B = ρf V g. Since the weight of the object is Fg = M g = ρo Vo g and Fg = B, we
see that ρf V g = ρo Vo g, or
ρo V
= (6.16)
ρf Vo
6.3 Fluid dynamics

Thus far, our study of fluids has been restricted to fluids at rest. We now turn our
attention to the subject of fluids in motion. Instead of trying to study the motion of each
particle of the fluid as a function of time, we shall take the more usual approach
of describing the properties of the fluid at each point as a function of time.
6.3.1 Flow Characteristics
When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being one of two main types.
The flow is said to be steady if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, and the
paths of each particle do not cross each other. Thus, in a steady flow, the velocity of the
fluid at any point remains constant in time. Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow
becomes non-steady or turbulent. Turbulent flow is an irregular flow characterized
by small whirlpool-like regions. As an example, the flow of water in a stream becomes
turbulent in regions where rocks and other obstructions are encountered, often forming
“white water” rapids.
The term viscosity is commonly used in fluid flow to characterize the degree of internal
friction in the fluid. This internal friction is associated with the resistance to two adjacent
layers of the fluid to move relative to each other. Because of viscosity, part of kinetic
energy of a fluid is converted to thermal energy.
Because the motion of a real fluid is very complex, and not yet fully understood, we shall
make some assumptions in our approach. Many features of real fluids in motion can be
understood by considering the behavior of an ideal fluid. In our model of an ideal fluid,
we make the following four assumptions:
(a) Nonviscous flow: In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An object

moving through a nonviscous fluid would experience no retarding viscous forces;
(b) Steady flow: In a steady flow, we assume that the velocity of the fluid at each point
remains constant in time;
(c) Incompressible fluid: The density of the fluid is assumed to remain constant in
time;

Section 6.3: Fluid dynamics 91
(d) Irrotational flow: Fluid is irrotational if there is no angular momentum of the fluid
about any point. If a small wheel placed anywhere in the fluid does not rotate about
its center of mass, the flow is irrotational. If the wheel were to rotate, as it would if
turbulence were present, the fluid would be rotational.
6.3.2 Streamlines and equation of continuity

The path taken by a fluid particle under steady flow is called a streamline. The velocity of
the fluid particle is always tangent to the streamline at that point, as shown in Figure 6.13.
No two streamlines can cross each other, for if they did, a fluid particle could move either
way at the crossover point, and the flow would not be steady. A set of streamlines as
shown in Figure 6.13 forms what is called a tube of flow.
Figure 6.13: Schematic representation of a set of streamlines.
Consider now a fluid flowing through a pipe of non uniform size as in Figure 6.14. The
particles in the fluid move along the streamlines in steady flow.
In a small time interval ∆t, the fluid at the bottom end the pipe moves a distance
∆x1 = v1 ∆t. If M1 is the cross-sectional area in the region, then the mass contained in
the shaded region is ∆m1 = ρ1 A1 ∆x1 = ρ1 A1 v1 ∆t1
Figure 6.14: Steady flow motion of an incompressible fluid through a pipe of varying
cross-sectional area
Similarly, the fluid that moves through the upper end of the pipe in the time ∆t has a
mass ∆m2 = ρ2 A2 v2 ∆t2 . However, since mass is conserved and because the flow is steady,
the mass that crosses A1 in a time ∆t must equal the mass that crosses A2 in time ∆t.
Therefore ∆m1 = ∆m2 , or
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2 A2 v2 (6.17)
This expression is called the equation of continuity .
Since ρ is constant for an incompressible fluid, Equation 6.17 reduces to:
A1 v1 = A2 v2 (6.18)
That is, “the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along the
pipe is a constant”. The product Av , which has the dimensions of volume
time
, is called
the volume flux, or flow rate.
6.3.3 Bernoulli’s equation

As a fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross-section and elevation, the pressure will
change along the pipe. In 1738 the Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) first
derived an expression that relates the pressure to fluid speed and elevation.
Again, we shall assume that the fluid is incompressible and nonviscous and flows in an
irrotational, steady manner. Consider the flow through a nonuniform pipe in time ∆t, as
illustrated in Figure 6.15.
91
Figure 6.15: Steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a constricted pipe

The force on the lower end of the fluid is p1 A1 , where p1 is the pressure at point 1. The
work done by this force is W1 = F1 ∆x1 = p1 A1 ∆x1 ⇒ W1 = p1 ∆V1 , where ∆V1 is
the volume of the lower shaded region. In a similar manner, the work done on the fluid at
upper end in the time ∆t is given by W1 = F1 ∆x2 = p2 A2 ∆x2 = p2 ∆V2 . This work is
negative since the fluid force opposes the displacement. Thus the net work done by these
forces in the time ∆t is:
W = (p1 − p2 )∆V
Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy of the fluid, and another part goes
into changing the gravitational potential energy. If ∆m is the mass passing through the
pipe in the time ∆t, then the change in its kinetic energy is:
1 1
∆K = (∆m)v22 − (∆m)v12
2 2
The change in its potential energy is:
∆U = ∆mgy2 − ∆mgy1
We can apply the work-energy theorem in the form W = ∆K + ∆U to this volume of
fluid to give:

1 2 1 2
(p1 − p2 )∆V = (∆m)v2 − (∆m)v1 + [∆mgy2 − ∆mgy1 ]
2 2
∆m
If we divide each term by ∆V , and recall that ρ = ∆V
, the previuos expression reduces to:
1 1
(p1 − p2 ) = ρv22 − ρv12 + ρgy2 − ρgy1
2 2
Rearranging terms, we get:
1 1
p1 + ρv12 + ρgy1 = p2 + ρv22 + ρgy2 (6.19)
2 2
The Equation 6.19 is the Bernoulli’s equation as applied to a nonviscous, incompressible
fluid in steady flow. It is often expressed as
1
p + ρv 2 + ρgy = Const. (6.20)
2
”Bernoulli’s equation says that the sum of pressure, p, the kinetic energy
per unit volume, 12 ρv 2 , and the potential energy per unit volume, ρgy, has the
same value at all point along streamline”
6.3.4 Poiseuille’s Law and Stokes’ Law

(a) Poiseuille’s Law
In the case of a cylindrical pipe, as shown in Figure 6.16, the variation of the velocity
with location across the pipe is not linear. Assuming once again that the layer next to
the wall is at rest, the velocity in the cylindrical shell of radius r can be written

Section 6.3: Fluid dynamics 93
r2

v = v(r) = vo 1 − 2 (6.21)
R
where vo is the velocity at the center of the pipe.
Figure 6.16: Variation in velocity from the center to the linear walls of a fluid flowing
through a cylindrical pipe of radius R
In terms of the pressure difference ∆p = p1 − p2 across the length L of the pipe, the
central velocity is given by
∆pR2
vo = (6.22)
4ηL
By considering the flow through each cylindrical shell, it is possible to show that the total
mass flux dm
dt
(fluid mass flowing through the pipe per unit time) is:
dm ρπR4 ∆p πR4
= ⇒ D= ∆p (6.23)
dt 8ηL 8ηL
In the second form of Equation 6.23, D = Av = A dx

dt
= dV
dt
represents the volume flux.
Since dm = ρdV , then dm
dt
= ρ dV
dt
= ρD
The result (Equation 6.23) is known as Poiseuille’s law. Knowing the coefficient of viscosity
of the fluid, we can then determine the pressure difference that must be provided by an
external agent (a pump perhaps) to sustain a given mass flux through the pipe.
Equivalently, if we force the fluid through a pipe with a known pressure difference,
measuring the mass flux permits us to determine the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
(application in the flow of the blood).
(b) Stokes’ law
Consider a spherical object of radius r which undergoes a freely falling motion through a
viscous medium characterized by the coefficient of viscosity η, as illustrated in Figure 6.17.
Figure 6.17: Illustration of Stokes’ law
If the speed v of the object is not large, the resistance force Fv to the object’s motion is
directly proportional to the speed and given by the following Stokes’ law :
Fv = 6πηrv (6.24)
In that motion, the force of viscosity Fv opposes its action to the weight W = mg of the
object. Since W > Fv the motion is downward and the object remains accelerated. When
Fv = W , the net force acting on the object becomes zero and that object will move with
a constant speed v L called the limit speed (example of some forms of rain).
93
(c) Terminal Velocity
It is the maximum constant velocity acquired by the body which falling freely in a viscous
medium. When a small spherical body falls freely through a viscous medium, three forces
act on it.
• Weight, W = 43 πr3 ρo g
• Upwards thrust (buoyancy), FT = 34 πr3 ρf g
• Viscous drag Fv = 6πηrv
Applying Newton’s second law, we get
2r2 (ρo − ρf )g
vt = (6.25)
9η
(d) Critical Velocity
The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow, up to which the flow is streamlined,
and above to which the flow becomes turbulent.
The critical velocity is given by:
Kη
vc = (6.26)
ρr
with K: a dimensionless constant, r: the radius of the tube, ρ: the density of the liquid,
η: the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
According to Reynolds, the critical velocity is given by:
ηRe
vc = (6.27)
ρD

Part II
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
95
Chapter 7
OSCILLATORY MOTION
The vibration of a quartz crystal of modern electric watch, the swinging pendulum motion
of grandfather watch, the sound vibrations produced by a clarinet or any organ pipe, the
back-forth motion of the pistons in a car engine are all examples of repeated motions over
and over, called ”periodic motions” or ”oscillations”.
A period motion always has a stable equilibrium position. When a body in periodic
motion is moved away from equilibrium and then released, a force F⃗ or torque ⃗τ comes
into action to pull it back toward equilibrium. Meanwhile it picks up some kinetic energy,
so it overshoots, stopping somewhere on the other side, and again pulled back.
The spring vector force F⃗ responsible of the oscillatory motion is called ”a restoring force”.
an example is the motion of a simple pendulum or the motion of an elastic pendulum.
7.1 Motion of an Object Attached to a spring

One of the simplest systems having a periodic motion is shown in Figure 7.1 where a body
of mass m moves on a frictionless horizontal guide system (linear air track) along the OX
axis. The body is attached to a spring of negligible mass that can be either stretched or
compressed. The left end of the spring is fixed and the right end is attached to the body.
Figure 7.1: Vibration of a block attached to a spring (Elastic pendulum)
• The spring vector force F⃗ is the only horizontal net force acting on the body ; the
vertical normal reaction force and the gravitational force being balanced, adding to
zero vector.
• The coordinate system is defined so that the origin O is at the equilibrium position
(the spring being neither stretched nor compressed).
• If the body is displaced to the right to x = +A and then released, the net vector
force F⃗ and the acceleration vector a point to the left; the velocity v increases as
the body approaches to the equilibrium position O where the force F⃗ becomes zero
vector. But because of its motion, it overshoots the equilibrium position.
• On the other side of equilibrium position, the velocity vector v points to the left but
the acceleration vector a and the net vector force F⃗ point to the right; the velocity
v decreases until the body stops at position x = −A before coming back; etc...
☛ A is the amplitude of motion (maximum value of x), in meter (1 m) and always

positive.
☛ For an ideal spring, the total overall range of the motion is: L = 2A.
96
Section 7.2: Simple Harmonic Motion 97
☛ A complete oscillation or complete round-trip is called a cycle.

☛ The time for one cycle is called the period T , in second (1 s).
☛ The number of cycles or periods in a unit time is called the frequency f or υ
in hertz (1 Hz ).
☛ The angular frequency ω, in radian per second 1 rad/s is represented by
the physical quantity ω = 2πf = 2πυ
7.1.1 Analysis Model: Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion

Using the Newton’s second law, we get:
F = ma, with F = −kx

and
d2 x d2 x d2 x
a= ⇒ m = −kx ⇔ m + kx = 0
dt2 dt2 dt2
where
k = mω 2
Applying the Newton’s Second Law to a simple harmonic motion, we obtain the differential
−−→
equation of a simple harmonic motion along OX axis is then:
d2 x k d2 x
2
+ x=0 ⇔ 2
+ ω2x = 0 (7.1)
dt m dt
with
k
ω2 =
m
A solution of Equation 7.1 is:
x = Xm sin(ωt + φ); but also x = Xm cos(ωt + φ) (7.2)

Conclusion: Every force F that is attractive and proportional to the displacement,
always produces a simple harmonic motion.
7.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

The simplest kind of oscillation occurs when the restoring vector force F⃗ = −k⃗x ⇒
F = −kx is proportional to the displacement vector ⃗x from equilibrium position; the
oscillatory motion is then called ”the Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)”.
(a) Definitions
By definition, a particle moving along x−axis has a Simple Harmonic Motion when the
particle’s displacement x relative to the origin of the coordinate system is given by the
relation
x = Xm sin(ωt + φ); or x = Xm cos(ωt + φ) (7.3)

where:
97
• (ωt + φ) is called the angular phase at each time, in radians.
• ω is called the angular frequency in radian per second .
• φ is the phase angular or initial angular phase (t = 0), in radians.
• Xm or A is the motion’s amplitude, that means the maximum value that can be
taken by the abscissa x can take, in meters.
The instantaneous velocity, v, (vibration speed) of a particle in a simple harmonic

motion is by definition:
dx dx
v= = ωXm cos(ωt + φ); or v = ωA cos(ωt + φ) (7.4)
dt dt
The instantaneous acceleration, a, of a particle in a simple harmonic motion is given
by:
d2 x
a= 2
= −ω 2 Xm sin(ωt + φ) = −ω 2 A sin(ωt + φ) ⇔ a = −ω 2 x (7.5)
dt
The relationship between instantaneous velocity v, instantaneous position x and the
amplitude Xm can be given by:
x = Xm sin(ωt + φ) and v = ωXm cos(ωt + φ) ⇔
x2 v2
2
= sin2 (ωt + φ) and = cos2 (ωt + φ) ⇔
Xm ω 2 Xm
2
x2 v2 x2 v2
2
+ = sin2 (ωt + φ) + cos2 (ωt + φ) ⇔ + =1 ⇔
Xm ω 2 Xm
2 2
Xm ω 2 Xm
2
ω 2 x2 + v 2 ω 2 Xm
2
= ⇔ ω 2 x2 + v 2 = ω 2 X m
2
ω 2 Xm2 ω 2 Xm
2
p
⇒ v = ±ω 2 − x2
Xm (7.6)
In addition, the amplitude Xm and the phase angle φ can be determined by initial
conditions, at time t = 0:
x0 = Xm sin φ and v0 = ωXm cos φ ⇔
x20 v02
2
= sin2 φ and 2 2
= cos2 φ ⇔
Xm ω Xm
x20 v02 x20 v02
2
+ 2 2 = sin2 φ + cos2 φ ⇔ 2
+ 2 2 =1 ⇔
Xm ω X m Xm ω Xm
ω 2 x20 + v02 ω 2 Xm
2
= 2 2 ⇔ ω 2 x20 + v02 = ω 2 Xm
2
ω 2 Xm 2 ω Xm
r
v02
⇒ Xm = x20 + (7.7)
ω2

Section 7.2: Simple Harmonic Motion 99
But also:
x0 v0 ωx0
= sin φ ⇔ = cos φ ⇔ tan φ =
Xm ωXm v0

−1 ωx0
⇒ tan (7.8)
v0
The simple harmonic motion (SHM) is always a periodic motion, with a time period
T and a frequency υ, defined by:
2π 1 2π
T = = ⇔ ω= = 2πν = 2πf (7.9)
ω ν T
☛ The time period T is the duration of one complete oscillation, after what the
particle has the same position and the same algebraic value of abscissa x . The SI
unit of the period T is the second (1 s).
☛ The frequency f = ν (also called the number of cycles or periods per second) is
expressed in hertz (1 Hz).
According to the Newton’s Second Law of motion, we have:
n
X
F⃗i = F⃗ = m⃗a ⇒ F⃗ = m⃗a and ⃗a = −ω 2⃗x ⇒ F⃗ = −mω 2⃗x = −k⃗x (7.10)
i=1
Suppose that k = mω 2 = constant, the angular frequency ω pf the simple harmonic

motion becomes:
r
k
ω= (7.11)
ω
Conclusion: In each simple harmonic motion, the net force F⃗ exerted on the particle is
always proportional to the displacement x, but has the opposite direction.
N.B.:
☛ The net vector force’s magnitude is: F = −kx = −mω 2 x
☛ The net vector force F⃗ = −k⃗x occurs when a spring (elastic body) is deformed by
an external force; it is then called the restoring force of Hooke.
☛ Then, the time period T and the frequency ν of a simple harmonic motion can be
related to the strength k of a spring by:
r r
m 1 k
T = 2π and ν= = (7.12)
k 2π m
Figure 7.2: Graphs of abscissa x, vibration’s speed v and acceleration a, as function of

time
99
7.2.1 Energy of a Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion

The kinetic energy of a particle for the translation motion with a velocity v is given by:
1
K = mv 2 ,
2
for the particle in simple harmonic motion, the position and the velocity are given by
x = Xm sin(ωt + φ) and v = dx dt
= ωXm cos(ωt + φ) respectively.
1
⇒ K = mω 2 Xm 2
cos2 (ωt + φ),
2
but ∀ θ cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ. So, the kinetic energy K of a particle in a simple
harmonic motion becomes:
1 1
K = mω 2 Xm
2 2
1 − sin2 (ωt + φ) = mω 2 Xm − x2

(7.13)
2 2
N.B.:
☛ Kinetic energy K will be zero, at each end of the particle’s path where ±Xm .
☛ Kinetic energy K will be maximum, when the particle passes at the equilibrium
position where x = 0 and v = vm .
We know that for a force F⃗ that derives from a potential (a conservative force)
dU
U =− ; with F = −kx ⇔ dU = kxdx
dx
The potential energy U of a particle in a simple harmonic motion becomes:
Z U Z x
1 1
U= dU = kxdx ⇒ U = kx2 = mω 2 x2 (7.14)
0 0 2 2
By definition, the total mechanical energy E of a particle equals to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy.
1 1 1
E = K + U = mω 2 Xm 2
− x2 + mω 2 x2 = mω 2 Xm 2
= Constant (7.15)
2 2 2
Since m, ω and Xm are constant, the total mechanical energy E of a particle in a simple
harmonic motion is also constant; we say that E is conserved .
Figure 7.3: Relationship between K, U and E in a simple harmonic motion
The mechanical energy is constant (as it is required by the law of conservation of energy).
The kinetic energy and potential energies are shown as functions of time in Figure 7.3a
and as functions of displacement in Figure 7.3b.
Note that the total energy E depends on the amplitude Xm which, in turn, depends on
the initial conditions (Equation 7.7).
The total energy of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator (mass+spring) depends only on the
spring constant k and the amplitude A. The total energy (mechanical) of a linear oscillator
is constant and time–independent.

Section 7.3: Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion 101
7.3 Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uni-

form Circular Motion
Consider a particle P moving in a Uniform Circular Motion (UCM) along a circle of center
O lying in the xy − plane
−→ −→
At initial time (t = 0), the vector OP makes an angle ϕ with Ox but at any time t it
makes another angle θ with the same axis.
As the particle P moves around the circular path with a constant angular velocity ω,
−→
the vector OP rotates with the same angular velocity, such a rotating vector is called ”a
phasor ”.
Figure 7.4: Relationship between the uniform circular motion of a point P and the simple
harmonic motion of a point Q. A particle at P moves in a circle of radius A with constant
angular speed ω.
−−→
The projection Q of P onto OX executes a simple harmonic motion, and the x−
coordinate of the particle P at any time t is:
x = A cos θ (7.16)
Knowing that in a uniform circular motion, the constant radial acceleration vector ⃗ar = ⃗a
always points toward the origin O, a = −ω 2 A and that the x –component of ⃗a is the
−−→
acceleration of the SHM of Q along OX given by:
ax = −a cos θ = −ω 2 A cos θ = −ω 2 x (7.17)

−−→
Since the simple harmonic motion of the projection Q of particle P onto OX, we get:
F = max = −mω 2 x = −kx ⇒ k = mω 2 (7.18)

The angular velocity ω, the period T and the frequency f = ν of the simple harmonic
−−→
motion of the projection Q onto OX of the particle P moving in a uniform circular
motion become:
r r r
k 2π m 1 1 k
ω= ; T = = 2π and ν = f = = (7.19)
m ω k T 2π m
7.3.1 Simple Pendulum

A point mass m (bob of the pendulum) hanging by a massless string of length l is an
idealized system for a simple pendulum (Figure 7.5).
When the pendulum is hanging vertically, x = 0, the displacement on the right side is a
positive x and the displacement on the left side is a negative x. If an object is displaced a
distance x along the arc, the component of gravitational force along the arc towards the
equilibrium position is
x
−mg sin θ or − mg sin
l
The negative sign means that it is a restoring force.
101
➨ If x > 0, sin( xl ) > 0, and the force is in negative direction.
➨ If x < 0, sin( xl ) < 0, and the force is in positive direction. Thus
x
F = −mg sin( ) (7.20)
l
Figure 7.5: Simple pendulum
For the small angles sin( xl ) ≈ xl , Equation 7.20 becomes

mgx
F ≈ (7.21)
l
The restoring force is proportional to the displacement, and the resulting motion of
the system is the simple harmonic motion. The proportionality constant C is mg l
. In
2
Equation 7.18 using Equation 7.19, the proportionality constant equals mω , therefore,
we have
r
2mg g
mω = or ω= (7.22)
l l
From Equation 7.21, we get
d2 x x
m 2
= −mg( ) (7.23)
dt l
or
d2 x x
2
+ g( ) = 0 (7.24)
dt l
Therefore, for small oscillations, the position x along the arc of the path is given by
r
g
x(t) = A sin t+ϕ
l
2π
Since T = ω
, we have
s
l
T = 2π (7.25)
g
and
r
1 1 g
f= = (7.26)
T 2π l
For a simple pendulum swinging at small displacement x, Xmax /l, in terms of the angle
that the string makes with the vertical, the maximum angle θmax should be less that
0.1radians.

Section 7.3: Comparing Simple Harmonic Motion with Uniform Circular Motion 103
Figure 7.6: Physical pendulum

7.3.2 Physical Pendulum (Compound Pendulum)
A physical pendulum is formed by any irregular hanging object that oscillates about a
fixed axis that does not pass through the center os the mass of the object.
The motion of a physical pendulum can be described by the relation between the net
external torque τnet applied to the system and the angular acceleration α of the
system
τnet = Iα (7.27)
Here, the quantity relating the angular acceleration and the torque is the moment of inertia
I of mass. The moment of inertia is not always a scalar quantity, thus Equation 7.27 is
not always a linear relation. The moment of inertia is chosen with respect to any axis of
rotation.
τnet = Fnet l = −mgl sin θ (7.28)
Combining the equations Equation 7.27 and Equation 7.28, we have
d2 θ
I = −mgl sin θ (7.29)
dt2
2
where α = ddt2θ
For the small angles, Equation 7.29 becomes the differential equation of the oscillating
system:
d2 θ mglθ
= − (7.30)
dt2 I
The angular frequency ω and the period T are, respectively
r
mgl
ω= (7.31)
I
and
s
I
T = 2π (7.32)
mgl
The physical pendulum is a generalization of the principles of simple harmonic oscillations,

the relations for a simple pendulum can be obtained by substituting I = ml2 . Making
this substitution in Equation 7.32 leads to
s s s
I ml2 l
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
mgl mgl g
Which is exactly Equation 7.25 ot the expression od the period of a simple pendulum.
103
Figure 7.7: Torsion pendulum

7.3.3 Torsion Pendulum
Consider a disk suspended from a torsion wire attached to its center (Figure 7.7).
Is we rotate the disk from its rest position (where the reference line is 0) and release it, it
will oscillate about that position in an angular simple harmonic motion. The wire resists
such deformation by developing a restoring torque τ . For relatively small angles of twist,
the magnitude of this torque is directly proportional to the twist angle and is given by
τ = −κθ (7.33)
Here κ > 0 is a constant called the torsion constant, which depends on the length,
diameter, and material of the suspension wire. The negative sign indicates that the
torque acts in the opposite direction of the angle of the torsion. The above
equation is the angular form of Hooke’s law. The rotational equation of motion os the
system is written as
d2 θ
I =τ (7.34)
dt2
Where I is the moment of inertia of the disk. The moment of inertia of the wire is assumed
to be negligible. Combining the two previous equations, we have
d2 θ
I 2 + κθ = 0 (7.35)
dt
Equation 7.30 is clearly a simple harmonic motion equation. Hence, we can write the
standard solution as
θ = A cos(ωt + φ0 )
where
r
κ
ω= (7.36)
I
The period of the angular simple harmonic oscillator is
r
I
T = 2π (7.37)
κ
The torsion pendulum is often used for time-keeping purposes. For instance, the balance
wheel in a mechanical wristwatch is a torsion pendulum in which the restoring torque is
provided by a coiled spring.
7.3.4 Oscillations in a U–tube

A simple harmonic motion can take place in a U–glass tube containing a mass of water in
which the viscous damping forces acting on the water are negligible.
Suppose that the total length of the liquid column is L and its cross section is A. Then ρ
is the liquid density, the total mass of the liquid is given by

Section 7.4: Damped Oscillations 105
Figure 7.8: Oscillation in a U–tube
m = ρAL (7.38)
Figure 7.8 shows the instantaneous position of the mass of water in the U–tube. The
displacement of the water from its equilibrium level is represented by x measured in one
of the arms of the U–tube. The restoring force acting on the whole mass of water is then
just the weight of the displaced water in the right hand arm of column height 2x:
F = −ρ2xAg (7.39)
The second Newton’s law can be written as
d2 x
ρAL = −ρ2xAg (7.40)
dt2
Note that all the mass is in motion. This can be written in the usual form of SHM
equation.
d2 x 2g
+ x=0 (7.41)
dt2 L
Which defines the angular frequency of SHM
r s
2g l
ω= or T = 2π (7.42)
L 2g
7.4 Damped Oscillations

7.4.1 Introduction
The idealized simple harmonic motion is frictionless. There are conservative forces,
the total mechanical energy is constant, and a system set into motion will continue to
oscillate forever without a decrease in amplitude.
Real-world systems always have some dissipative forces, and oscillations do die out
with time; unless we provide some means for replacing the dissipated mechanical energy.
The best examples are oscillations of a simple pendulum, an elastic pendulum and
oscillations of a car’s shock absorber springs.
In all those cases, the decrease in amplitude caused by dissipative forces is called ”damp-
ing”, and the corresponding motion is called ”damped oscillations”.
The amplitude Xm (t) of oscillations decreases progressively in time, because the loss of
energy due to the body’s motion in a viscous medium, that opposes a resistant
force to the velocity vector ⃗v .
7.4.2 Viscous Friction

When you put your hand out of a moving car, you feel a resistant force pushing your hand
in the opposite direction. The magnitude of that resistant force increases when the car’s
speed v is increasing.
105
➯ When a body is moving in a viscous medium with a small velocity v, it is proved

that the force of the viscous friction F⃗v is quite proportional to the body’s
velocity v, but opposite to the motion’s direction.
dx
F⃗v = −b⃗v ⇒ Fv = −bv = −b (7.43)
dt
where b is a constant that depends on the body’s shape and size, but it is also depends
on the viscous fluid’s nature. It is called ”the coefficient of viscous friction or
damped coefficient” and describes the strength of the damping force.
b = Kη
☛ K is a coefficient characterizing the shape and size of a body moving in a viscous
fluid. (e.g.: K = 6πR for a spherical body of radius R).
☛ η is a coefficient characterizing the fluid’s nature, and called ”coefficient of
viscosity” or ”stickiness”.
Note that Equation 7.43 is only verified in the case of a laminar flow (regular) of the
fluid around a solid body.
➯ When the flow is turbulent (formation of whirlpools behind the solid body), the
force of viscous friction F⃗v increases quickly in function of the body’s velocity ⃗v and
its magnitude becomes:
F v = b1 v + b2 v 2 + b3 v 3 + · · · (7.44)
(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow
Figure 7.9: Flow of a viscous fluid around a rigid body
7.4.3 Damped Mechanical Oscillation Equations

Consider an oscillator mass–spring (m–k), composed by a solid sphere of mass m
hanged on a spring of force constant k (the strength of the spring).
Figure 7.10: Forces acting on a damped oscillator (m-k-b)

−−→
At equilibrium, the sphere occupies a position O on an axis OX upward. The forces
exerted on the sphere are, at any time, its weight P⃗ = m⃗g and the restoring force F⃗0
exerted by the spring.
At the equilibrium
F⃗0 = −P⃗ ⇒ F0 = P = mg
When the solid sphere is oscillating at a velocity v into the viscous fluid, of coefficient
of viscous friction b (damping coefficient), and if we give to the sphere an initial
amplitude Xm0 ; so, the sphere’s oscillations will be necessary damped.
When the sphere passes through the position of abscissa x > 0 downward and at a velocity
v, the following forces are then exerted on it:

Section 7.4: Damped Oscillations 107
➊ its weight P⃗ = m⃗g , with magnitude P = mg;
➋ the restoring elastic force F⃗ = F⃗0 + k⃗x exerted on the body by the spring, and with
magnitude F = Fo − kx;
➌ the force of viscous friction F⃗v = −b⃗v , with magnitude Fv = −bv.
Applying the Newton’s Second law for Dynamics of translation and considering that the
Archimedes’ force is negligible, we get
n
X
F⃗i = m⃗a ⇒ F⃗ + P⃗ + F⃗v = m⃗a
i=1
⃗ axis, we then obtain

and if we project all forces on the direction of OX
F − P − Fv = ma; F = F0 − kx and F0 = P = mg
at equilibrium
mg − kx − mg − bv = ma ⇒ ⇔ −kx − bv = ma
dx d2 x
where v = dt
and a = dt2
dx d2 x
−kx − b
=m 2
dt dt
The differential equation of the damped oscillations then becomes:
d2 x b dx k
2
+ + x=0 (7.45)
dt m dt m
But for more simplicity, we use
b k
and ω02 =
2δ = (7.46)
m m
Putting Equation 7.46 into Equation 7.45, the differential equation of damped
oscillations can also be expressed by
d2 x dx
2
+ 2δ + ω02 x = 0 (7.47)
dt dt
where δ is the damping factor and ω0 is the angular frequency of a simple
harmonic motion associated to the damped oscillations.
Equation 7.45 and Equation 7.47 of damped oscillations, differ to Equation 7.1 of a simple
harmonic motion only by the term in dx
dt
, it is the reason why we call it the differential
equation of a damped oscillator (m–k–b).
A solution of equations (7.45) and (7.47) is
x = Xm (t) cos(ωt + φ) (7.48)

In fact, when δ → 0 (non damped oscillator), the equations (7.1) and (7.47) become the
same, and the angular frequency ω seems to be constant, equals to ω0 (i.e.: ω = ω0 ).
107
However, the amplitude Xm (t) is here a decreasing function of time t, whereas the
phase angle φ of damped oscillations depends only on the motion’s initial conditions
t = 0.
The amplitude Xm (t) of damped oscillations decreases exponentially in function of time
according to the following equation:
Xm = Xm (t) = Xm0 e−Ct ⇒ x = Xm0 e−Ct cos(ωt + φ) (7.49)
❖ C and ω must be related to the constants of the m–k–b system, whereas Xm0 and
φ depend more on the initial abscissa x0 and velocity v0 (t = 0).
2
❖ Putting expressions of x, dx
dt
and ddt2x from Equation 7.49 into Equation 7.48, we obtain
the conditions in which the differential equation of damped oscillations is
satisfied.
dx
= −Xm0 ωe−Ct sin(ωt + φ) − Xm0 Ce−Ct sin(ωt + φ) (7.50)
dt
and
d2 x −Ct
= X m0 −ω 2
+ C 2
e cos(ωt + φ) + 2Xm0 ωCe−Ct sin(ωt + φ) (7.51)
dt2
Putting equations (7.50), (7.51) and (7.48) into Equation 7.47, we get
Xm0 −ω 2 + C 2 e−Ct cos(ωt + φ) + 2Xm0 ωCe−Ct sin(ωt + φ) + · · ·

−2δXm0 ωe−Ct sin(ωt + φ) + 2δXm0 Ce−Ct sin(ωt + φ) = 0

Finally putting together the terms in cosine and in sine, respectively; and then dividing
the two members by Xm0 e−Ct , we obtain:
−ω 2 + C 2 − 2δC + ω02 cos(ωt + φ) + (2ωC − 2δω) sin(ωt + φ) = 0

(7.52)
Equation 7.52 is only satisfied at each time, if all the factors between brackets
equal to zero. That is
−ω 2 + C 2 − 2δC + ω02 = 0
and
2ωC − 2δω = 0
b
⇔C=δ=
2m
⇒ ω 2 = ω02 − δ 2 (7.53)
➡ The angular frequency ω and the frequency ν of damped oscillations are respectively
given by:
s 2
δ
q
2 2
ω = ω0 − δ = ω0 1 − (7.54)
ω0

Section 7.5: Forced Oscillations 109
and
s 2 s 2
ω ω0 δ δ
ν= = 1− = ν0 1− (7.55)
2π 2π ω0 ω0
➡ The angular frequency q ω of damped oscillations is always less than the
k
angular frequency ω0 = m of a simple harmonic motion (non damped oscillations). It
will be all the smaller if the damping factor δ is all the bigger.
➡ The decreasing of the amplitude Xm (t) od damped oscillations per period T is mea-
sured by the fraction XXmm0
(T )
= e−δT called the logarithmic decrement of damped
oscillations; this fraction is always comprised between 0 and 1.
➡ The period T of damped oscillations is called the pseudo–period .
Figure 7.11: Decreasing of the pseudo-period, with respect to the increasing of the damping
factor
✎ If δ < ω0 , the angular frequency ω of damped oscillations decreases when the damping
factor δ increases (Figure 7.11 a–b–c–d), we observe underdamping oscillations.
This is applied in balances, needles of any electrical laboratory apparatus like an
ammeter or a voltmeter.
✎ If δ = ω0 the angular frequency ω of damped oscillations becomes zero; we then

observe critical damping oscillations, and the system (m-k-b) does not oscillate
anymore in this case (Figure 7.11 e–f).
✎ If δ > ω0 we finally observe overdamping oscillations (Figure 7.11 e–f).
7.5 Forced Oscillations

7.5.1 How to drive Oscillations
If we need that the amplitude of oscillations remains constant, we must continuously
give to the system an energy that equals to the lost energy at each period, by applying a
force that varies with time in a periodic way and with a definite frequency. In that case,
oscillations are called forced oscillations or driven oscillations.
Consider now a forced oscillator (m–k–b), by a simple harmonic motion of small
amplitude Xme , angular frequency ωe called the driving angular frequency and given
periodically to the suspension point P of a spring (Figure 7.12).
Figure 7.12: Forced Oscillator (m–k–b)
➨ Let’s x′ = Xme cos(ωe t) be the simple harmonic motion equation of the spring’s
suspension point P . The amplitude of the driving motion is Xme is constant, but its
driving angular frequency ωe varies.
109
✎ If the driving angular frequency ωe is too small (ωe << ω0 ), the strength k of the
spring is such as the displacement x of mass m, will be quite the same as the
displacement x′ of the suspension point P .
✎ If ωe >> ω0 , the displacement x of mass m becomes too small, due to its inertia.
✎ If ωe = ωm ≃ ω0 , the responding displacement x takes a maximum value XM . We

say that the system is in resonance and the frequency of resonance becomes:
ω0
νm ≃ ν0 =
2π
✎ If we progressively change the driving angular frequency ωe from 0 to a value ωm ,

the responding displacement x will then regularly vary from Xme to the maximum
value XM .
✎ If ωe >> ωm , the responding displacement x decreases and tends to zero.
Figure 7.13: Variation of the responding amplitude, in function of the driving angular
frequency ωe and for three damping factors
The resonance phenomena in Mechanics can be dangerous and destructive.

➥ In factories, the engines’ vibrations can, at some frequencies, produce the resonance of
buildings and their destruction, or can cause breaks in the walls or window glasses.
➥ A company of soldiers can destroy a bridge by marching across it in steps.
Example: In 1940, a turbulent wind produced the resonance of the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge in the State of Washington (USA); the bridge collapsed and was destroyed.
Figure 7.14: Resonance and destruction of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
7.5.2 Equation of Forced Oscillations and Solution

Let x− be the abscissa of the hanged mass m with respect to the equilibrium position and
x′ − be the abscissa of the suspension point P with respect to its equilibrium position.
The restoring elastic force exerted by the spring of strength constant k on the mass m, is
F = −k(x − x′ )
The force of viscous friction exerted by the fluid is:
dx
Fv = −bv = −b
dt
Using the Newton’s Second law, we have:
dx dx d2 x
−b − k(x − x′ ) = ma ⇒ −b − kx + kx′ = m 2 ;
dt dt dt
and also

Section 7.5: Forced Oscillations 111
d2 x b dx k k
2
+ + x = x′
dt m dt m m
b k 2 ′
with m = 2δ; m = ωo and x = Xme cos(ωe t)
The differential equation of forced or driven oscillations becomes
d2 x dx
+ 2δ + ωo2 x = ωo2 Xme cos(ωe t) (7.56)
dt2 dt
Equation 7.56 has the same shape like Equation 7.47, but its second member is different
to zero. Such an equation is called a nonhomogenous differential equation; and its
solution is given by:
x = Xm cos(ωe t + θ) (7.57)
Where Xm and θ , are the amplitude and the phase angle (initial angular phase) of forced
or driven oscillations, respectively.
Putting expressions of the velocity v = dxdt
= −Xme ωe sin(ωe t + θ) and of the acceleration
d2 x 2
v = dt2 = −Xme ωe cos(ωe t + θ) in Equation 7.56, we find the expressions of Xm and θ of
the forced or driven oscillations, as functions of the driving angular frequency ωe .
➢ The amplitude Xm of forced oscillations is given by:

Xme
Xm (ωe ) = s (7.58)
2 2 2 2
1 − ωωoe + ω2δo ωe
ωo
➢ The phase angle θ of forced oscillations is given by:

2δ ωe
ωo ωo
θ = arctan 2 (7.59)
ωe
ωo
−1
Note
➊ The amplitude Xm of force oscillations takes a maximum value XM when ωe = ωm and
quite less that ω0 ; so that for Xm = XM , we get
s 2
δ
ωm = ω0 1 − 2 (7.60)
ω0
✎ There will be no resonance (ωm = 0), when

δ 1
≥√
ω0 2

✎ If the damping δ is very small, the ωδ0 ≃ 0 and ωm ≃ ω0
➋ We call the fact of quality of forced oscillator (m − k − b), the physical quantity:
ω0 ω0 ω0 m
Q= ≃ = (7.61)
ωe 2δ b
111
✎ If b is small, then Q is high and the system will be more resonant; we say that the
resonance is sharp. The resonance will be flat in the opposite case.

Chapter 8
WAVE MOTION
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter we will only study the propagation of waves in a deformable (or elastic)
medium; that kind of waves are called mechanical waves.
To produce mechanical waves, we can displace a section of the propagation medium from
its position of equilibrium. Then, cause of the elastic properties of that medium, that
section starts to vibrate around the equilibrium position.
The disturbance (deformation) produced travels through the medium, from one section to
the closer one, putting it in the same vibration but at successively later time. We say
that there is vibration propagation or simply a progressive wave.
8.2 Propagation of a Disturbance

We first focus on a pulse traveling through a medium. Consider a pulse created by flicking
the end of a string. As the end of the string moves up and down repeatedly, a pulse travels
along the string and a traveling wave (progressive wave) is then created.
Figure 8.1: Propagation of a disturbance along a stretched string
8.2.1 Types of Waves

According to direction of particles’ oscillations and the wave propagation direction,
mechanical waves can be transverse or longitudinal.
➢ A wave is transverse when on its passage, the particles of the propagation medium
oscillate perpendicular to the wave direction of propagation. One example of transverse
wave is the propagation of an upward shake along a stretched rope or string .
Figure 8.2: Transverse wave along a stretched rope
➢ A wave is longitudinal when on its passage, the particles of the propagation medium
oscillate in the same direction as the wave direction of propagation. An example is the
propagation of a compression–extension along a stretched spring.
Figure 8.3: Longitudinal wave along a stretched spring
According to the number of space dimensions in which the wave propagates, waves can be:
113
➢ One–dimension waves: waves along a stretched rope or spring
➢ Two–dimension waves: concentric circular waves (crest and valleys) on a liquid

surface or on a drum membrane
➢ Three–dimension waves: sound waves, seismic waves in solids, light waves,

electromagnetic waves used in Telecommunication.
Note
❶ When a wave propagates in a medium, the particles of that medium oscillate at the
same place, without moving in the wave’s direction.
❷ When a wave propagates in a medium, there is no transport of matter, but only a

transport of energy.
❸ The propagation of mechanical waves always needs an elastic material medium;

contrarily to electromagnetic waves that can propagate through empty space (such
as radio or television waves, telephone waves, light waves, X rays and γ rays).
❹ The propagation velocity ⃗v of a wave is called the wave speed or the wave
celerity, and it only depends on the properties of the propagation medium.
❺ It is the elasticity of the propagation medium that produces in each point, a restoring
elastic force F⃗ = −k⃗x that tend to restore each medium’s section to its equilibrium
position.
8.2.2 One–Dimension Wave Function

Consider two photos of the same rope, along which a harmonic wave is traveling. The
photos are taken at two different times, separated by a time duration t.
Figure 8.4: Photos of a same harmonic wave along a stretched rope, taken at different
times
Let at time t0 = 0, the physical quantity associated to the wave propagation be described
by Ψ(x, 0) = Ψ(x) in the reference frame O. Imagine also another reference frame O′ that
has the same motion as the wave, but that occupies the position O at time t0 = 0 (e.g.: a
deformation of a vibrating rope, a compression of a spring). The nature of the wave
function Ψ(x, t) only depends on the kind of wave (mechanical wave along a string
or a spring, mechanical wave at the surface of a liquid, sound wave in air, electromagnetic
or light wave in a medium).

Section 8.3: Analysis Model: Traveling Wave 115
At any later time t, that physical quantity is characterized by Ψ(x′ ) = Ψ(x − d). And since
the two quantities describe a same wave, but delayed in time by t; the one–dimension
−−→
wave function for a wave traveling in the positive direction of OX is:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x′ ) = Ψ(x − d) = Ψ(x − vt) (8.1)

By analogy, the one–dimension wave function for a wave traveling in the negative direction
−−→
of OX is:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x′ ) = Ψ(x + d) = Ψ(x + vt) (8.2)

And since a straight line has two opposite directions, the general one–dimension wave
−−→
function for a wave traveling along OX axis becomes:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x′ ) = Ψ(x ∓ vt) (8.3)
Note
✎ For a wave traveling in the positive direction, we use the negative (−) sign, but for a
wave traveling in the negative direction we use the positive (+) sign.
✏ At a fixed time t (like in the case of taking a snapshot of the pulse), the wave function
becomes Ψ(x) ; it is called the waveform and it defines a curve representing the geometric
shape of the pulse at that time.
8.3 Analysis Model: Traveling Wave

In this section, we introduce an important function Ψ(x) whose shape is sinusoidal. The
wave represented by such a curve is called a sinusoidal wave or a harmonic wave.
Figure 8.5: One–dimension harmonic wave traveling to the right at a wave velocity v
A harmonic or sinusoidal wave is defined as a wave that results from the propagation
of a simple harmonic motion in a given medium.
A harmonic wave is characterized by the following physical quantities:
➊ The wave amplitude: the maximum value that can take the physical quantity
associated to the wave.
➌ The wave period T or temporal period: the time duration of one complete
vibration; it is expressed in seconds (1 s).
➋ The wavelength λ or spatial period: the distance covered by the wave during one
period of time T ; it is expressed in meters (1 m).
➍ The wave frequency ν: the number of vibrations or cycles per second; it is expressed
in hertz (1 Hz).
115
Figure 8.6: Wavelength and period of a harmonic wave

−−→
In general, the wave function of a harmonic wave traveling along OX axis is a sine or
cosine function of x and time t given by the physical quantity:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x ∓ vt) = Ψm sin [k (x ∓ vt)] or Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x ∓ vt) = Ψm cos [k (x ∓ vt)]
(8.4)
where Ψm is the harmonic wave amplitude: the maximum value that can take the
physical quantity Ψ(x, t) associated with the wave.
Since the sine or cosine function is a periodic function of period 2π, the harmonic
wave function Ψ(x, t) that propagates, takes again the same algebraic value and the same
variation, when the wave has traveled a distance equal to the wavelength λ ; this occurs
after a time that equals to one period T .
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ[(x + λ), t] = Ψ[x, (t + T )]

−−→
The harmonic wave function for a one-dimension harmonic wave traveling along OX axis
can then be given by one of the following expressions:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψm sin [k(x + λ) ∓ kvt] = Ψm sin [k(x ∓ vt) + 2π]

(8.5)
= Ψm sin [kx ∓ kv(t + T )] = Ψm sin(kx ∓ ωt)
The wave number k on a distance equals to 2π meters is defined by:
2π
λk = 2π ⇔ k = (8.6)
λ
Putting Equation 8.6 into Equation 8.5, the harmonic wave function for a one-dimension
−−→
harmonic wave travelling along OX axis can also be given by:

2π 2π
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ sin x∓ vt
λ λ
(8.7)
x t
⇒ Ψ(x, t) = Ψm sin 2π ∓ = Ψm sin(kx ∓ ωt)
λ T
or by:

2π 2π
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ cos x∓ vt
λ λ
(8.8)
x t
⇒ Ψ(x, t) = Ψm cos 2π ∓ = Ψm cos(kx ∓ ωt)
λ T
The angular frequency ω of harmonic waves and expressed in radians per second (1 rad/s)
becomes:
2π 2π
ω= v = kv = = 2πf (8.9)
λ T
The relationship between the wavelength λ, the period T and the frequency f of a harmonic
wave is given by:
v
λ = vT = (8.10)
f

Section 8.6: Reflection and Transmission 117
8.4 Speed of Waves on Strings

Consider a string of mass per unit of length (linear mass density µ), stretched by a tension
force T⃗ and a transverse wave that travels along the string at celerity ⃗v .
−−→
The different points of the string reached by the wave front, oscillate in the OX direction
−−→
with a velocity of vibration ⃗v = ⃗vy ; but during the same time the wave travels in the OX
direction at a speed ⃗vx = ⃗v
Figure 8.7: Wave front propagation and wave celerity
The motion of an element mass ∆m of the stretched string, reached by the wave front
travelling and having an element length ∆l, is composed by two perpendicular motions:
−−→
➊ A uniformly varying rectilinear motion along the OY axis, with acceleration ⃗ay :
Ty T sin θ T sin θ
ay = = and vy = ay ∆t ⇒ vy = × ∆t (8.11)
∆m ∆m ∆m
−−→
➋ A uniformly varying rectilinear motion along the OX axis, such as:
∆l ∆l
∆l = vx ∆t ⇔ ∆t = = (8.12)
vx v
Putting Equation 8.12 in Equation 8.11, where vx = v, the wave celerity along the string,
we get:
T sin θ ∆l ∆l
vy = × with vy = v tan θ ⇒ v 2 = vx2 = T × × cos θ
∆m v v
The wave celerity v along a stretched string or rope is given by the following general
expression:
s
T
v= cos θ (8.13)
µ
However, the angle θ is generally very small; then cos θ ≈ 1
The wave celerity v along a stretched rope or string simply becomes:
s
T
v= (8.14)
µ
Note that the mechanical wave celerity always depends on elastic and inertial
properties of the medium of propagation.
8.5 Reflection and Transmission

8.5.1 Refraction of the Wave Pulse
When a travelling wave pulse reaches a rigid obstacle, one part is transmitted and
another part is reflected. The main part moves back from the obstacle in opposite
direction and becomes reflected, but a small part is absorbed. The reflected wave pulse is
inverted.
117
Figure 8.8: Reflection of a wave pulse by non deformable and deformable obstacles
8.6 Refraction of a Wave Pulse
At the boundary of two media with different inertia, an incident wave pulse sets up:
✎ Weak refracted wave pulse, vibrating in the same direction as the incident wave pulse;
and if the second medium’s inertia is the highest: v2 < v1 .
✎ A weak refracted wave pulse and a strong reflected wave pulse, both vibrating in
the same direction as the incident wave pulse; and if the second medium’s inertia is the
smallest: v2 > v1 .
Figure 8.9: Refraction of a wave pulse at the boundary of two media
8.7 Energy Transport by Waves

The wave motion always corresponds to a transport of energy and not matter of the
medium of propagation.
Consider the simplest case of a harmonic wave. During the wave propagation, it is energy
used to put in oscillation the wave source at the beginning that propagates through the
medium at a constant wave celerity v.
According to the expression of the total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator (Simple
harmonic motion); the total mechanical energy E, carried on by a harmonic wave is also:
1 1
E = mω 2 Ψ2m = mω 2 A2 (8.15)
2 2
The density of energy ε in J/m3 carried on by a harmonic wave equals to the total
energy per unit volume Vo :
E 1m 2 2 1 1
ε= = ω Ψm = ρω 2 Ψ2m = ρω 2 A2 (8.16)
Vo 2 Vo 2 2
where ρ is the mass density of the propagation medium.
The power P (inW ) carried on by the harmonic wave becomes:
E εVo 1 1
P = = = εvS = ρω 2 vSΨ2m = (ρω 2 vS)A2 (8.17)
t t 2 2
where:
➡ Vo = Sd = Svt,
➡ v –is the wave celerity,
➡ ε – is the density energy,
➡ Vo – is the volume of the propagation medium,
➡ S – is the wave section of penetration through the propagation medium.

Section 8.8: Linear Wave Equation 119
Figure 8.10: Wave intensity is related to amplitude and frequency

The wave intensity I in W/m2 is the energy carried on by a wave per unit time and per
unit cross-section area (power carried on per unit of cross–section area):

T 1 2 2 1 2
I= = εv = ρω v Ψm = ρω v A2 (8.18)
tS 2 2
Note that for a harmonic wave, the wave intensity I is always proportional to
the square of the wave amplitude.
8.8 Linear Wave Equation

−−→
The propagation of an harmonic wave through a medium, along an axis OX at a celerity
⃗v , is described by the following general wave function:
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x ∓ vt) (8.19)

However, it can also be described by a differential wave equation for a wave that propagates
−−→
along the OX axis.
Suppose that u = x ∓ vt, we get
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(u) = Ψ(x ∓ vt) (8.20)
By derivation of Equation 8.20, successively with respect to x then to time t, we have:
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂u ∂Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ
= = and = (8.21)
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂x2 ∂u2
then
∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂u ∂Ψ ∂ 2Ψ 2
2 ∂ Ψ ∂u
2
2∂ Ψ
= = ∓v and = (∓v) = v (8.22)
∂t ∂u ∂t ∂u ∂t2 ∂u2 ∂t ∂u2
that is
∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ
= (8.23)
∂u2 v 2 ∂t2
Comparing Equation 8.22 and Equation 8.23, we get:
∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ
= (8.24)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2
The equation (2.52) is the one-dimension wave differential equation of a wave
−−→
that travels along the OX axis.
Note
➊ In the particular case of light waves, a part of electromagnetic waves, of the wave length
λ in the ranges 0.4µm ≤ λ ≤ 0.7µm; the general wave function Ψ(x, t) is replaced by the
electric field E or the magnetic field B that compose any electromagnetic wave, travelling
−−→
in the OX direction.
119
∂ 2E 1 ∂ 2E ∂ 2B 1 ∂ 2B
= or = (8.25)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2 ∂x2 v 2 ∂t2
where E = Em sin(kx − ωt); B = Bm sin(kx − ωt) and v –the celerity of light in that
medium, characterized by its refractive index n.
➋ For sound waves, the general wave function Ψ(x, t) is replaced by the pressure fluctuation
∆p or p(t) in the propagation medium. The one–dimension sound wave differential equation
−−→
along OX direction becomes:
∂ 2 ∆p 1 ∂ 2 ∆p ∂ 2p 1 ∂ 2p
= 2 or = 2 2 (8.26)
∂x2 v ∂t2 ∂x2 v ∂t
A compression (∆p > 0) corresponds to a minimum displacement of a section of the
medium where sound waves propagate; and an expansion (∆p < 0) corresponds to a
maximum displacement of a section of the medium where sound waves propagate.
➌ In general, the three–dimension wave differential equation becomes:
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ 1 ∂ 2Ψ
+ + = (8.27)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 v 2 ∂t2

Bibliography
[1] Raymond A. Serway and John W Jewett, Jr, Physics for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics, 2nd Edition, Brooks/Cole (2010).
[2] Jay Newman, Physics of Life Sciences, Springer (2008)
[3] Frederick J, Bueche and Eugene Hecht, Schaum’s Easy Outlines of College Physics,
McGraw-Hill (2000)
[4] George J. Hademenos, Schaum’s Easy Outlines of Applied Physics, McGraw-Hill

(2003)
[5] A. S. Kompaneyets, Pheoretical Physics, Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola, New York
(2012)
[6] Late Dr. Baziruwiha Jean de Dieu , Mechanics, Kigali Institute of Education (2013)
[7] Dr. Lakhan Lai Yadav, Dr. Evariste Minani and late Dr. Jean de Dieu Baziruwiha
(1964-2013), Kinetic Theory of Matter and Thermodynamics, Kigali Institute of
Education (2014)
[8] Richard Wolfoson, Essential University Physics ,2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley (2012)
[9] Hugh D. Young, Sears-Zemansky’s College Physics, 9th Edition, Addison-Wesley

(2012)
121

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LECTURE NOTES OF PHYSICS FOR

ENGINEERS I (PHY1163) MODULE

Compiled for Year 1, Engineering Options

Academic Year: 2021–2022

4 DYNAMICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES 59

4.4.3 Angular Momentum and Torque of a System of Particles . . . . . 71

5 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY 74

II OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 95

7.4.3 Damped Mechanical Oscillation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

8 WAVE MOTION 113

Name Symbol Value Unit

1.1 Physics and Measurement

1.2 Standards and units

1.2.1 Fundamental quantities and their measurements

The SI in the system of units in which:

• the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the Caesium–133

• the speed of light in vacuum c is 299 792 452 m/s,

• the Planck constant h is 6.626 070 634 ×10−34 J s,

• the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 ×10−19 C,

• the Boltzmann constant k is 1.380 649 ×10−23 J/K,

• the Avogadro Constant NA is 6.022 140 76 ×1023 mol−1 ,

• the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd is

The seven basic quantities included in SI of measurement are:

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• The thermodynamic temperature which the unit is kelvin(K). The kelvin is

1.2.2 Rules and Conventions in measurement

1.2.3 Standards prefixes

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Table 1.1: Some Standard Prefixes

• Dimension of the velocity [v] is LT −1

• Dimension of the area [A] is L2

• x = 12 at2 ⇒ [x] = [a] · [t]2 =⇒ L = L

• General procedure for setting up an expression of the form x ∝ an tm is that dimension

1.4 Uncertainty, Precision and Significant Figures

➥ If the length measured is: L = 16.3 cm ⇒ 16.2 cm ≤ L ≤ 16.4 cm ⇔ (16.3 ± 0.1) cm

➥ If the width measured is: w = 4.5 cm ⇒ 4.4 cm ≤ w ≤ 4.6 cm ⇔ (4.5 ± 0.1) cm

➥ Calculation of the area: A = L × w = (16.3 cm) × (4.5 cm) = 73.35 cm ⇒ A ≈ 74 cm

We already know that the absolute uncertainty ∆G on a scientific quantity measured G

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(a) Uncertainty on an algebraic sum and difference

(b) Uncertainty on a product or a ratio

and since (∆Y )2 → 0, we get after simplification:

The relative uncertainty on a ratio becomes, by definition:

Conclusion: The relative uncertainty on a product and on a ration is the same. In

1.5 Order of Magnitude Calculations

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1.5.1 Significant Figures and Numbers

1.5.2 Rounding Numbers

1.6.2 Some Vector Properties

• Two vectors that have opposite direction are said to be anti-parallel.

1.6.3 Components and magnitude of a vector

Figure 1.1: A vector representation.

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Figure 1.2: Cartesian components and direction cosines of A.

x = rcosα ; y = rcosβ and z = rcosγi.e

1.6.4 Vector addition

Figure 1.3: Tip-to-tail method.

Figure 1.4: Parallelogram method.

• Adding Perpendicular Vectors

Suppose vector A has a magnitude of 8, and vector B is perpendicular to A with a