Table of contents

Lesson Lesson Title. Page

no. no.
Lesson 1 Introduction to Environmental Psychology 1
Lesson 2 Common assumptions of Environmental Psychology 6
Lesson 3 Theories in Environmental Psychology 10
Lesson 4 Arousal theories 14
Lesson 5 Stimulus Load, Behavioral Constraint, and Adaptative Level theories 19
Lesson 6 Ecological theories and comparison of theories 23
Lesson 7 The present framework and future directions in Environmental 26
Psychology (I)
Lesson 8 The present framework of Environmental Psychology (II) 34
Lesson 9 Elementary Psychophysics/Perception and its Cognitive Bases 38
Lesson 10 Perception and its Cognitive Bases/Theories of Environmental 44
Perception
Lesson 11 Learning Theory/Probabilistic Functionalism and Environmental 48
Cognition
Lesson 12 Responses to novel environments and environmental cognition 53
Lesson 13 Characteristics of cognitive maps 55
Lesson 14 Environmental evaluation 58
Lesson 15 Environmental Evaluation (Affective Bases of Environmental 60
Evaluation)
Lesson 16 Environmental Attitudes 63
Lesson 17 Environmental Attitude Formation 65
Lesson 18 Social Bases of Attitudes 67
Lesson 19 Impact of Environment on Individual (Personality Development and 69
Individual Differences)
Lesson 20 Murray’s Theory of Personality Development and Interactionist 71
Perspective
Lesson 21 Environmental changes and stress 74
Lesson 22 Stress as cause and effect 77
Lesson 23 Physiology of stress 81
Lesson 24 General Adaptation Syndrome 85
Lesson 25 Measuring stress 88
Lesson 26 Measuring stress 92
Lesson 27 Moderators of the stress response 96
Lesson 28 Environmental and Cultural Variances 99
Lesson 29 Attribution Theory 104
Lesson 30 Judgmental Shortcuts and Culture 109
Lesson 31 Population and Culture 112
Lesson 32 Impact of Environment on Its Incumbents 117
Lesson 33 Effects of Urbanization 121
Lesson 34 Problems related to Crowding 129
Lesson 35 Impact of Population concentration on humans 132
Lesson 36 The Distinction between Density and Crowding 134
Lesson 37 Environmental changes in Rural Areas 138
Lesson 38 The Built Environment and Human Adjustment 140
Lesson 39 Prisons 142
Lesson 40 Education environments 144
Lesson 41 Institutional Design reconsidered & Queuing theory 146
Lesson 42 Energy use in homes and commercial buildings 148
Lesson 43 Conservation as an energy source 150
Lesson 44 Understanding Urban Sprawl: challenges and solutions 152
Lesson 45 Urban Blight 154
Lesson 1
Introduction to Environmental Psychology

The origins of environmental psychology can be traced back to the 1960s when researchers from
various disciplines such as architecture, sociology, and psychology began to examine how the
environment influences human behavior, cognition, and well-being (Steg, van den Berg, & de
Groot, 2012). Initially, the focus was on the design and evaluation of built environments, such as
homes, offices, schools, and hospitals. This was also known as architectural psychology or human
factors (Clayton & Saunders, 2012). Later, the field expanded to include the natural environment,
such as parks, forests, and wildlife. This was also called conservation or green psychology
(Clayton & Saunders, 2012). Environmental psychology is a diverse and interdisciplinary field
that addresses various topics, such as environmental perception, attitudes, and values,
environmental behavior and decision-making, environmental stress and coping, environmental
restoration and well-being, and environmental education and communication (Steg et al., 2012).
Different environments can arouse different feelings in human beings. Our mental concepts and
associations with a particular environmental type i.e., our perceptions about different surroundings
also affect our physiology, feelings, and reactions. Any change in the environment also brings
about a shift in our thinking styles and adaptive behaviors. Let's consider the following two
situations:

1. Suppose you are sitting in your comfortable room with a cup of coffee while working on
your laptop. Automatically you will feel pleasant and more motivated to involve yourself
in creative tasks.
2. Now imagine that due to some emergency, you have to work on your laptop during a traffic
jam while on public transport. You will feel unpleasant, your creative abilities will
probably decline and you will think about getting rid of the task as soon as possible.

The first situation will perhaps give rise to feelings such as contentment, peace, joy, and relief.
You will be able to think of multiple solutions to a single problem and develop a broadened
understanding of the different demands that the environment presents. The second situation will
probably give rise to feelings such as aggression, irritability, urgency, and dissatisfaction. It might
even make you feel claustrophobic! In conclusion, it is fair to say that our environment and its
different aspects can generate different feelings in us and ultimately different behavioral responses.
With technology and rapid industrialization, the environment is becoming increasingly complex.
The dangers of acid rain, the unreliability of nuclear power plants, and the difficulties in handling
and disposing of toxic chemicals are being discussed. Additionally, the pace of suburban sprawl
and urban decay is speeding up. Chemicals such as dioxin, formaldehyde, PCB (polychlorinated
biphenyl), / and sulfur dioxide, once found only in the laboratories are becoming household words.
Human beings are using and abusing the environment openly.

Many people are working hard to fix the environment, but there are still a lot of problems.
Scientists, engineers, political and spiritual leaders, and the general public care more about the
environment now, but they don't always have the money, skills, or tools to do something about it.

The Environmental Debate

1
There is a debate regarding the environment between two groups of people. The first group has a
pessimistic approach and the second group has an optimistic approach. Let's look at both:

 The Pessimists:
Some people say that the environment is so damaged that it will not be livable by the year 2100.
They are angry about how many animals and plants have died in the last 100 years, how much
land has become dry and useless, how many trees have been cut down, and how much water has
been polluted by acid rain. They think that the environment is being harmed by the rich and the
poor fighting over natural resources. They say that the rich take too much and the poor want to
keep what they have, and this makes the environment suffer and lose.

 The Optimists:
Some people confidently highlight the remarkable achievements that have been made in improving
human conditions and well-being in the fields of agriculture, medicine, and design technology.
They believe that human creativity and innovation can overcome any challenge. They argue that
there is sufficient energy, but the methods of obtaining it must be improved. There is a balanced
population, but the distribution of people needs to be adjusted. There is manageable waste, but the
systems of transporting and storing it need to be refined. They have a positive outlook on the future
of the environment.

 Has the debate been resolved?

The debate on the environmental crisis remains unresolved, as different perspectives and solutions
are proposed. Technology may offer some relief to the strain that human activities impose on the
earth's resources, or human behavior may undergo significant changes to reverse the environmental
damage. The intensity of the debate is increasing, as evidenced by the United Nations Earth
Summit held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, which raised global awareness of the situation. Along
with this growing concern, there has been a renewed interest in the impact of the environment on
human functioning. Various biological, psychological, and social problems have been predicted
due to environmental degradation and population growth. Research is accumulating on the
physiological, psychological, and behavioral effects of environmental factors such as noise, air
pollution, temperature, barometric pressure, and building design. Both short-term and long-term
effects are being examined. Moreover, some studies suggest that exposure to certain environmental
conditions can have delayed negative consequences that persist even after the exposure has ceased.
These are also being investigated with more attention. Likewise, the possibility of changing values,
attitudes, and behavior toward the environment is being explored.

Definition of Environmental Psychology

To define Environmental Psychology, first, we need to understand the words “Environment” and
Psychology separately.

 Environment:
Psychologist Kurt Lewin (1951) proposed a simple formula to define behavior (B) as a function
of the person (P) and the environment (E): B = f (P, E). He stated that P and E are interdependent
variables. However, Wohlwill (1970) observed that the environment was often understood as
social or interpersonal influences, or as an unclear concept. Saegert (1987) also criticized that the
social sciences defined the environment mainly in terms of social interactions and structures. Thus,

2
the term environment has been vague and ambiguous, referring to a general physical and social
context for behavior. The term environment has also been applied to various nonsocial conditions,
ranging from climate to bathroom design. All in all, the environment is the natural world that
surrounds us and supports our life. It includes all the living and non-living things that affect us,
such as animals, plants, water, air, land, and climate. The environment is important for our survival
and well-being, as it provides us with resources, services, and beauty.

 Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychology often focuses on
understanding a person’s emotions, personality, and mind through scientific research, experiments,
observation, and trials. Psychology often involves four goals, including the following:

• Describe: This goal involves collecting information and naming, classifying, and summarizing
what is observed. For example, a psychologist may describe the symptoms of depression, the
stages of memory, or the types of personality.

• Explain: This goal involves understanding the causes and reasons behind the observed behavior.
For example, a psychologist may explain why people are more likely to help others in some
situations than others, how stress affects the immune system, or what factors influence intelligence.

• Predict: This goal involves forecasting when and how the observed behavior will occur again in
the future. For example, a psychologist may predict how a person will perform on a test, how a
couple will resolve a conflict, or how a group will make a decision.

• Change: This goal involves modifying, influencing, or controlling the observed behavior to
achieve positive outcomes. For example, a psychologist may change a person’s habits, attitudes,
or emotions, help a client cope with a problem, or design an intervention to prevent or treat a
disorder.

Psychology is a science because it uses the scientific method to study and understand human
behavior and mental processes. The scientific method is a systematic and objective way of
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. The
scientific method involves four steps: (1) making observations and asking questions, (2) forming
hypotheses and making predictions, (3) testing hypotheses and gathering evidence, and (4)
drawing conclusions and communicating results. Psychologists use the scientific method to test
theories, discover facts, and solve problems in various areas of psychology, such as cognitive,
social, developmental, and clinical psychology. By using the scientific method, psychology aims
to produce valid, reliable, and generalizable knowledge that can be applied to real-world situations
(Cherry, 2020; McLeod, 2020).

 The relationship between humans and the environment:

Humans and the environment have a complex and interdependent relationship, as they influence
and affect each other in various ways. Humans depend on the environment for their survival and
well-being, as it provides them with natural resources, such as water, food, energy, and materials.
However, humans also modify and transform the environment for their benefit, often causing harm
and degradation to it. For example, humans cause climate change, pollution, deforestation,

3
biodiversity loss, and environmental injustice through their activities and consumption patterns
(Clayton & Myers, 2015). These environmental problems have negative impacts on human health,
quality of life, and security, as well as on the ecosystems and species that share the planet with
humans (Steg, van den Berg, & de Groot, 2012).

Therefore, humans need to find ways to improve their relationship with the environment and make
it a win-win situation for both. This means that humans should respect and protect the environment,
and use it sustainably and ethically, so that does not compromise its ability to support life and
function. This also means that humans should benefit from the environment, and enjoy its beauty,
diversity, and services, without harming or exploiting it. A win-win relationship between humans
and the environment can be achieved by various means, such as adopting green lifestyles,
technologies, and policies, promoting environmental education and awareness, engaging in
environmental activism and stewardship, and supporting environmental justice and equity
(Clayton & Myers, 2015; Steg et al., 2012).

 So how can Environmental Psychology be defined?

Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field that studies the complex and dynamic
relationships between humans and their environments. It draws from various disciplines, such as
biology, geology, psychology, law, geography, economics, sociology, chemistry, physics, history,
philosophy, and engineering. It aims to understand how humans and environments affect and
interact with each other. It also focuses on solving socially relevant problems and applying
knowledge in practical ways. It considers both the influence of the physical environment on human
behavior and the influence of human behavior on the physical environment.

Environmental psychology could, therefore, be defined as a behavioral science that investigates,

to enhance, the interrelationships between the physical environment and human behavior.

This definition does not show how rich and different environmental psychology is, or its goal to
make better ways of understanding. Environmental psychologists want to know how people's
bodies, minds, and actions react to their environment. Researchers in the field, therefore
investigate questions that involve physiological content (e.g., changes in heart rate, endocrine
functioning, galvanic skin response, mortality)", psychological content (e.g., spatial behavior
patterns, mental images, environmental stress, attitude change) behavioral content (e.g. altruism,
aggression, performance). They also adopt an interdisciplinary perspective, and consider the
meteorological, physical, geographical, architectural, and ecological features of the environment
that affect its inhabitants. These aspects are also relevant to other disciplines, such as geology,
physics, chemistry, and biology. However, environmental psychology tries to integrate these
aspects and understand the interrelated processes that govern organism-environment relationships.
Moreover, environmental psychologists balance between solving practical problems and
developing broad-based integrative theory. They use theoretical and applied research to inform
each other. For instance, they use theory to understand and prevent negative reactions to crowding
and use practice to refine theories of crowding. Therefore, environmental psychology is a unique
and diverse discipline that draws from various disciplines, methods, concerns, and theories.
Considering these factors, and the possibility of change and criticism, we will define
environmental psychology as:

4
A multi-disciplinary behavioral science, both basic and applied in orientation, whose foci are
the systematic interrelationships between the physical and social environments and individual
human behavior and experience.

Goals of Environmental Psychology:

The goals of environmental psychology are to:
• Understand how and why our environment impacts us, such as our behavior, emotions, and
cognition.
• Apply that knowledge to improve the design and management of environments that promote
well-being, productivity, and sustainability, such as green buildings, parks, and public spaces.
• Improve our relationship with the world around us, by fostering environmental awareness,
conservation, and social responsibility

Objectives of the course:

• To learn about the history, scope, and methods of environmental psychology
• To understand how human behavior and the environment influence and interact with each other
• To explore the interdisciplinary nature of environmental psychology and its connections with
other fields
• To develop an environmental perspective in psychology and apply it to various issues and
problems
• To examine the theoretical and empirical developments in environmental psychology and their
implications
• To anticipate the future trends and challenges in environmental psychology and their solutions
• To analyze the environmental challenges faced by Pakistan and their psychological aspects

Common Assumptions of Environmental Psychology:

The term environment is a vague and broad concept that can be interpreted differently by various
disciplines. For instance, historians, biologists, architects, sociologists, economists, and
psychologists have each adopted their definitions of the environment to suit their research interests
and objectives. Historians have explored the environmental Zeitgeist, biologists have examined
the ecological niche, architects have analyzed the design features and economists have calculated
the ratio of supply to demand to explain how external factors influence human behavior. Despite
the ambiguity of the term environment, it is possible to identify some common assumptions that
underpin its study in all environmental science, regardless of the specific approach. These
assumptions are as follows:

(1) The earth is the only suitable habitat we have.

(2) The earth's resources are limited.
(3) The earth as a planet has been and continues to be profoundly affected by life.
(4) The effects of land use by humans tend to be cumulative.
(5) Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystems and not of individual organisms or
populations.

We will begin our next lesson by discussing these assumptions in detail.

5
Lesson 2
Common Assumptions of Environmental Psychology

The term environment is a vague and broad concept that can be interpreted differently by various
disciplines. For instance, historians, biologists, architects, sociologists, economists, and
psychologists have each adopted their definitions of the environment to suit their research interests
and objectives. Historians have explored the environmental Zeitgeist, biologists have examined
the ecological niche, architects have analyzed the design features and economists have calculated
the ratio of supply to demand to explain how external factors influence human behavior. Despite
the ambiguity of the term environment, it is possible to identify some common assumptions that
underpin its study in all environmental science, regardless of the specific approach. These
assumptions are as follows:
(1) The earth is the only suitable habitat we have.
(2) The earth's resources are limited.
(3) The earth as a planet has been and continues to be profoundly affected by life.
(4) The effects of land use by humans tend to be cumulative.
(5) Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystems and not of individual organisms or
populations.
In the following pages, we will elaborate on each of these assumptions.
1. The earth is the only suitable habitat we have, and its resources are limited. It has been
proven by research that human beings will also be affected if certain species become extinct. The
earth has witnessed various forms of life emerge, evolve, flourish, and go extinct, with humans
achieving a dominant position only in the recent past. However, this domination does not disprove
two essential realities that must be acknowledged:
(1) Humans, too, will succumb to extinction either through geologic, meteorological, or
interstellar cataclysm, natural biological processes, internecine quarrels, or because the earth's
resources will no longer support human life in its present form
(2) Although there may be other habitable islands in the cosmic sea, they are spaced at such
great distances throughout the universe as to be virtually irrelevant to human survival.
Despite these realities, the earth is of great significance to us and our future generations. We need
to adapt to the opportunities and constraints that the earth offers, as well as the inevitable fact that
it is constantly evolving. Moreover, we need to do so in a manner that ensures our survival.
Environmental psychology, a new and emerging field, promises to provide insights that will enable
us to live on earth in a sustainable way.
2. The earth as a planet has been profoundly affected by life. Human contributions to the visual
landscape of the planet are everywhere: tall skyscrapers, intricate networks of highways and
electrical lines/ engineered lakes/ and the vapor trails of high-flying jet planes are constant
reminders of human presence. More subtle indicators are the changing quality of the chemical
composition of the atmosphere, geologic changes in the earth’s crust, engineering changes in
hydrologic processes and chemical changes in the waters that cover the planet.

6
Clearing of forests, plowing of land, black-topping of highways and parking lots not only affect
the earth visually but change the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the light reflecting
and absorbing characteristics of the earth's surface and hydrologic drainage patterns. These
changes in turn influence the rate of heating and cooling and therefore the temperature of the earth
and its atmosphere. Weather and climate are thus influenced by the presence of humans. It is hoped
that a more thorough understanding of the ways in which humans influence earth's natural
processes will lead to more intelligent and life-preserving behaviors on their part.
3. The outcomes of land use by humans tend to be cumulative and therefore we have
obligations to ourselves as well as future generations to minimize their negative effects. A
number of changes in the environment are brought about by human habitation. For example, fall
plowing, the development of sanitation systems and the building of shelters. These practices
influence the earth immediately as well as having long-term impact. A dam built today not only
supplies electrical energy for today's population but also influences the course of the waterways
on which the dams are built, often in irreversible fashion. The conclusion of all this is that while
humans have multiplied, their life's resources have shrunk and there is every indication that this
trend is continuing. For example, the same conditions that helped to create the Sahara are
expanding it southward. Every year two to three more square miles are lost to the drought and
sands. The “Thar” Desert of India is advancing at the rate of about one-half mile annually along
its entire perimeter. We have an obligation to ourselves and to future generations to see that this
trend is halted, if not reversed. An understanding of environmental psychology represents a start
toward reversing these trends.
4. Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of eco system and not of individual organisms
and populations. No single organism, population or species is capable of both producing all its
own food and completely recycling all of its own metabolic products. Green plants and light
produce carbon dioxide, sugar and water; from sugar and inorganic compounds many organic
compounds are manufactured including protein and woody tissue. But no plant can degrade the
woody tissue developed in this fashion back to its inorganic compounds. This degradation requires
other organisms such as bacteria and fungi. To complete the recycling of chemical elements from
inorganic to organic and back to inorganic requires the use of several species. The smallest system
capable of complete chemical recycling is known as ECO System. Humans are part of a very
complex and delicately balanced ecosystem. Thus, to understand humans fully it is necessary to
study them within the context of the ecosystems in which they survive. Environmental psychology
is the field that attempts to develop an understanding of this interdependency. It should be clear by
now that to comprehend fully the relationship of humans to their environment the student of the
environment should be aware of contributions from a large number of disciplines. Environmental
studies by their very nature are the domain of a generalist with a strong interdisciplinary interest.
All environmental problems must be looked at from numerous perspectives so that a clear and total
picture can be put together from the many pieces.
After studying the common assumptions of Environmental Psychology in detail, it is important to
state the comprehensive definition of Environmental Psychology once again. Students must focus
how these common assumptions are tightly packed in the following definition:
A multi-disciplinary behavioral science, both basic and applied in orientation, whose foci are
the systematic interrelationships between the physical and social environments and individual
human behavior and experience.

7
This definition mentions that Environmental Psychology is “Basic” and “Applied” in orientation.
Let’s briefly look at these two terms:
• Basic Behavioral Science.
Basic behavioral science is a term that refers to the scientific study of human behavior and its
underlying causes and consequences. Basic behavioral science aims to discover general laws and
theories that explain and predict human behavior, as well as to identify the factors that influence
and modify it. An example of basic behavioral science is the field of behavioral psychology, which
studies how people learn, remember, and behave based on their interactions with the environment.
• Applied Behavioral Science.
Applied behavioral science is the use of scientific knowledge and methods from various behavioral
science disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics, to solve practical
problems or create new products or technologies that involve human behavior. An example of
applied behavioral science is the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA), which involves
applying behavioral principles and techniques in various settings, such as education, health care,
criminal justice, and social services, to help individuals with behavioral or developmental
challenges.
Current Events Influencing Environmental Psychology
If present trends continue: The world will become increasingly crowded, more polluted (Leonard,
1986; Peterson, 1987), less stable ecologically (Manabe & Wetherald, 1986), and more vulnerable
to disruption (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Supplies of drinking
water will diminish drastically, and despite greater material output, the world's people will become
poorer than they are today (Postel, 1985, 1986, 1987). The forests of the world will become
increasingly shed as a result of the requirements of wood for building and burning (Bowander,
1987; Myers, 1984) and as a result of the increasing acidity of rainfall worldwide. The need for
commercial land will increase and less land will be left behind for farming and cultivation. The
following factors are important to be considered in this regard.
 Population Trends.
 Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation.
 Public Policy and the Environment.
 Human Behavior and the Environment.

1. Population trends
According to the world population projections, if the current trends continue, the human population
will reach 10 billion by 2030 and 30 billion by the end of the twenty-first century. These numbers
are close to the estimated maximum number of people that the earth can support. However, some
regions of the world have already surpassed the limit of their carrying capacity. The population in
Sub-Saharan Africa and the Himalayan regions of Asia has exceeded the ability of their local
environment to sustain life. The combination of overgrazing, fuel wood collection, and harmful
farming practices has resulted in a series of ecological changes from open woodlands to scrub to
fragile semi-arid land to useless weeds and finally to bare soil. The situation is worsened by the
burning of animal dung and crop residues for heating and cooking, which deprives the croplands
of organic matter, reduces their water retention, and lowers their fertility. In Bangladesh, Pakistan,

8
and large parts of India, the high demand for basic needs by the large population has degraded the
quality of the cropland, pasture, forests, and water resources that their livelihood relies on. Let’s
look at a few population statistics in Pakistan.
Population mid-2007 169, 300, 000
Births per 1000 population 31
Deaths per 1000 population 8
Rate of natural increase (percent) 2.3 %
Projected Population, 2025 228, 800, 000
Projected Population, 2050 295, 000, 000

The dramatic increase in world population has been a driving force for the development of
Environmental Psychology.
In this lecture, only “Population Trends” was discussed in detail. The remaining three
current events will be discussed in detail in the next lecture.

9
Lesson 3
Theories in Environmental Psychology

We will begin lesson 3 by discussing the following current events influencing Environmental
Psychology.
 Population Trends. (already discussed in detail in the lecture 2)
 Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation.
 Public Policy and the Environment.
 Human Behavior and the Environment.

2. Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation.

Other examples of serious deterioration in the earth's basic resources can be found throughout the
world, including the industrialized nations. Erosion of agricultural soil, salinization of the highly
productive irrigated farmland, and Lake Acidification are becoming more prevalent. Extensive loss
of tropical forests and more or less permanent soil degradation have occurred throughout much of
the Amazon River Basin (McHale, 1979). The world’s deserts now make up 800 million hectares
increasing in size.

Regional water shortages and deteriorating water quality which is already a problem in many parts
of the world, are likely to worsen. The world water withdrawals are expected to increase by 200
to 300 percent in the next two decades, and a large proportion of it will be polluted due to the use
of waterways as coolants and as waste carriers. The potential for human conflict over the use of
freshwater reservoirs is heightened by the fact that out of the 200 major river basins of the world,
148 are shared by two countries and 52 are shared by three to ten countries. Long-standing
difficulties over the shared rivers of Plata (Brazil and Argentina), Euphrates (Syria and Iraq), and
Ganges (Bangladesh and India) have the potential to intensify as the need for additional freshwater
occurs. Thus, the depletion of natural resources essential for survival has been another factor
influencing the development of environmental psychology.

The industrialization, urbanization, and population growth of the planet have resulted in various
negative consequences. Chemical and human waste is being produced at rates faster than we can
safely dispose of, non-renewable resources are being consumed at increasing rates, plans for
reestablishing renewable resources are shortsighted and the fate of our waterways, wildlife,
climate, and perhaps the earth itself appears in jeopardy. The deterioration of the environment is
thus another reason for the increased interest in environmental psychology.

Let’s look at a few facts about population trends in Pakistan.

Pakistan population trends and environmental indicators

CO2 emissions per capita in 2002 0.7 metric tons
Natural habitat remaining (%) 63 %
*We have consumed 37% of our natural habitat we are left with.

10
3. Public Policy and the Environment
The problems in preserving the carrying capacity of the earth and sustaining the possibility of a
decent life for human beings are indeed enormous and about to happen but they are just that—
problems. Policy changes coupled with government business and individual actions can do much
to alleviate many of them. Reforestation after cutting requires detoxification of chemical by-
products before disposal as well as judicious soil management, thereof, the government has started
to implement policies in this regard. Interest in energy and material conservation is growing,
industrial and household recycling is becoming more prevalent and the need for family planning
is becoming better understood. High-yield hybrids are continuously being introduced and methods
for farming the seas are being developed. Public policy requires dependable scientific evidence to
support its decisions. This has created a pressing need for the advancement of environmental
psychology and has fostered its expansion as a field of study. However, inspiring change in people
with regard to environmental literacy such as encouraging them to use personal bags for shopping
rather than black plastic bags also requires economic resources. This is because we would have to
provide an alternative to the black plastic bag business when our efforts will pull down their
industry. This calls for a well-rounded environmental policy to be developed by the government
and environmentalists combined.

4. Human Behavior and the Environment

Although these policy developments are positive steps, they are insufficient to address the
increasing difficulties that humanity faces. Needed changes go far beyond the responsibility of one
nation, and new initiatives must be taken if worsening poverty, environmental degradation, and
international conflict are to be prevented. The solutions if they exist are complex and long-term
and tied to the problems of poverty, injustice, and social conflict. The problems of the globe are
human problems, many of which have been caused directly or indirectly by human presence.
Advanced technology, while potentially a part of the solution to some of these problems, is also
the cause of many of them. Because many of these problems are the result of human behavior, the
psychologist, whose domain of interest is human behavior, has potentially a great deal to contribute
in their resolution.

Environmental psychologists are very much attuned to the health of mother earth. They realize
there are no quick fixes and that only through under-standing and changing human behavior can
there be any hope of maintaining a habitable planet—that is, even though psychologists recognize
that many of the problems are technological they also emphasize that the source of these problems
is human behavior. Equally important is their realization that without an understanding of the
mechanisms and laws that govern the life-sustaining processes of the earth, there is no hope that
any changes in human behaviors or policies will have any medicinal effects.

Psychologists in this regard tend to focus on behavior modification. An example of behavior

modification with reference to environmental psychology is the use of token economy to promote
pro-environmental behaviors, such as recycling, saving energy, or using public transportation. A
token economy is a system in which individuals earn tokens or points that can be exchanged for
rewards. For instance, a school may implement a token economy to reward students for bringing

11
reusable water bottles, turning off lights, or taking the bus. The tokens can then be used to buy
items from the school store, such as pencils, stickers, or books. This way, the students are motivated
to adopt more eco-friendly habits.

Theories in Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field that benefits from the diverse viewpoints
of various disciplines on a common phenomenon, which may result in less biased theories and
more universal solutions. However, this diversity also poses challenges for the consistent use of
knowledge and the formulation of coherent and comprehensive theories.
Let’s begin by discussing four theories that come under the umbrella of Historical Influences.

Historical Influences
Thinking among environmental psychologists has been influenced by theories both within and
outside of the discipline of psychology. Some of these theories are very:
(i) Broad in scope:
The scope of a theory means the kinds of problems that the theory addresses. Theories that are
broad in scope try to understand numerous phenomena all at once. Their natural framework is so
vast and so general in its nature that it can accommodate a bulk of information.
(ii) Focused in scope:
Theories with a narrow or focused scope specifically try to understand a particular thing. For
example, a specialist in cell biology might conduct research on cells only while a generalist in
biology might engage in surface-level research on a wide range of topics.
(iii) Empirical:
These are scientific in nature and are data-driven. For example, the theory of Natural selection by
Charles Darwin which is supported by a lot of data driven research.
(iv) Non-Empirical:
These are general theories usually not backed up by data-driven research. They are based on logic
and intuition. For example, those proposed by Plato in ancient philosophy.
We will review a number of them to provide the context for a consideration of current theories of
environment-behavior relationships. These theories include:

 Geographical Determinism
 Ecological Biology (theories)
 Behaviorism (behaviorist perspective or interactionism)
 Gestalt psychology

Geographical Determinism
Some historians and some geographers have attempted to account for the rise and fall of entire
civilizations on the basis of environmental characteristics. For example, Toynbee (1962) theorized
that the environment (specifically, topography, climate, vegetation, availability of water, etc.)
presents challenges to its inhabitants. Extreme environmental challenge leads to the destruction of
a civilization, whereas too little challenge leads to stagnation of culture. Thus, Toynbee proposed
that an intermediate level of environmental challenge enhances the development of civilizations,

12
and extremely diminished or excessive levels are debilitating. The notion of environmental
challenge and behavioral response, although rooted in the thinking of such geographical
determinists, appears often in one form or another in various theories in environmental psychology.
As one example Barry, Child, and Bacon (1959) have suggested that agricultural, non-nomadic
cultures seem to emphasize responsibility, obedience, and compliance in child rearing practices,
whereas nomadic cultures often emphasize independence and resourcefulness. These differences,
they suggest, result from the fact that people who live and work together in organized non-mobile
communities require more structured organization and therefore stress the importance of obedience
and compliance. On the other hand, independence and resourcefulness are esteemed and taught by
nomads in preparation to meet the changing and unpredictable demands of an environment
confronted by them. Thus, the environment sets the stage for the development of cultures having
the best chance of survival.

This implies that ghetto culture develops a set of skills in its residents that are most appropriate for
the ghetto. It can be reasoned that someone who is not proficient in street fighting is unlikely to
cope with the conditions of the streets. As we will discuss later in this text, some have extended
this argument to other established environments that shape their residents in ways that are
seemingly adaptive to those environments but are harmful in the broader context.

Ecological Biology (theories)

Environmental Psychology has been greatly influenced by the development of ecological theories,
which examine the biological and sociological interrelations between organisms and their
environment. Ecological science has shown that organisms are not isolated from their environment,
but rather essential to it. This idea of organism-environment mutualism is present in many
contemporary environment-behavior theories. The environment and its inhabitants are often
treated as distinct elements, but their interdependence is undeniable. These various elements are
considered to form a holistic system and any change in one element is expected to affect the whole
system.

We will discuss Behaviorism (behaviorist perspective or interactionism) in detail in the next

lecture.

13
Lesson 4
Arousal Theories

We start this lecture in continuation of the last lecture by discussing Behaviorism

(behaviorist perspective or interactionism) that comes under the influences of Historical
Influences.

 Behaviorism (behaviorist perspective or interactionism)

It comes from the psychology discipline and involves behaviorists' reaction to the failure of
personality theories to account fully for human behavior. It is now generally accepted that
considering both the environmental context in which behavior occurs and person variables (i.e.,
personality, dispositions, attitudes, etc.) leads to more accurate behavior predictions than
measurement alone. This is central to most current theories of environmental behavior. Human
beings are biological entities that share this environment along with other species. For example,
Human beings and elephants have a long and complex history of coexistence, ranging from cultural
reverence and mutual benefit to conflict and competition. (King et al., 2016). Human behavioral
patterns are characterized by the attitude that they have. For example, if we consider why people
use black plastic shopping bags despite knowing their negative consequences, we will conclude
that this has to do with their personal preferences and attitudes. Top behaviorist of the 20th century,
William James also said:

"The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering
the way they look at things"

Let’s try to understand the crisscross between environmental and personal factors in predicting
human behavior by looking at the biography of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi on December 25, 1876. He was admitted to bar in
England and then he returned to India and became an active supporter of The Indian National
Congress. In 1913, he joined the Muslim League. In 1916, he was elected the president of the
Muslim League, he was re-elected to this post again in 1920. He played an important role in
bringing about the Lucknow Pact of 1916. In the Lucknow Pact, the Congress agreed to ensure a
separate electorate for the Muslim community. He resigned from Congress in 1930 and channeled
all his efforts towards the ends of the Muslim League. He headed the Muslim League and struggled
until the creation of the Independent Pakistan. He was appointed the first Governor general of
Pakistan.

After reading this biography, ask yourself one question: Did Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s personal
characteristics make him the founder of Pakistan, or was it the result of environmental factors?
This question will help you completely understand the role of heredity and environment in shaping
human behavior.

 Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology was developed primarily in Germany and concurrently with behaviorism.
Gestalt psychologists were more concerned with perception and cognition than with overt
behavior. Perception is how we make sense of our surroundings, cognition is how the information

14
coming from the environment is processed in our brain, and overt behavior is how we react in
response to our information processing. For example, a child might tell his mother that he wants
to be a fighter pilot and start watching pilot movies and cartoons because of the kind of information
he received and processed about fighter pilots. In the same manner, an employer might reject a
very talented candidate for the job just due to his negative perception of him. The most important
principle of this body of work was the objects, persons, and settings are perceived as a whole,
which is greater than the sum of its parts. From the Gestalt point of view, behavior is rooted in
cognitive processes; it is determined not by stimuli, but from the perception of those stimuli. For
example, a man might react positively to a high traffic jam because of his positive mood due to his
recent promotion, and a man who recently fought with his wife, due to his negative mood, might
become angry due to even a minor delay caused by the traffic.

Mini-Theories

These approaches (the historical influences) tend to be rather broad in scope and lacking in
empirical evidence. Each has its focus on convenience and no single perspective is satisfactory in
accounting for the complexity of the environment-behavior relationship. No "grand theory" exists
that can incorporate the distinctive contributions of each of these influences on environmental
psychology. This is so for at least four reasons:
(1) There is not enough data available regarding environment-behavior relationships to lead to the
kind of confidence needed for a unifying theory.
(2) The relationships that researchers have looked at are highly varied.
(3) The methods used are inconsistent.
(4) How variables have been measured has not always been compatible from one research setting
to the next.

Even though well-articulated, all-encompassing theories are not available at this time, there are
several "mini-theories," or mini-approaches, that have been used successfully in conceptualizing
specific organism-environment relationships. Included in these are the arousal approach, the
stimulus load approach, the behavioral constraint approach, the adaptation level approach,
the environmental stress approach, and the ecological approach. Each of these can handle
some, but not all, of the available data. Some are more useful in dealing with group behavior (the
ecological approach), whereas others focus on the individual level of analysis (the stimulus load
approach). Some find their greatest utility at the psycho-physiological level (the stress approach);
others are useful for accounting for individual differences (the adaptation level approach). Before
turning to an orientation that attempts simultaneously to embrace aspects of many of these
approaches, a brief description of each of these approaches will be provided.

 Arousal Theories
Arousal theories have typically been concerned with the influence of arousal on performance.
Generally, performance is maximized at intermediate levels of arousal but falls off as arousal is
either increased or decreased. This relationship, sometimes referred to as an inverted-U
relationship, has been shown to differ slightly depending on whether performance is measured on
simple or complex tasks (see graph Figure) and is often referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson law.
These relationships are consistent with other findings that humans tend to seek out intermediate

15
levels of stimulation (Berlyne, 1974), and are reminiscent of Toynbee's assertion, referred to earlier
that cultures only develop in environments that provide intermediate environmental challenges.

Performance changes that vary curvilinear with temperature increases have also been shown. One
explanation of these findings is that increases in ambient temperature lead to increases in arousal
levels. Initially, the higher arousal leads to performance enhancement, but as it increases further,
over-arousal occurs, causing performance decrements. Similarly, it has been shown that personal
space invasions lead to increases in arousal (Middlemist, Knowles, & Matter, 1976) and
performance decrements (Evans & Howard, 1972; McBride, King, & James; 1965). Additionally,
increases in noise levels have been associated with changes in arousal and performance (see Evans
& Cohen, 1987). Thus, several variables associated with arousal changes are related to
performance changes, and performance has consistently been curvilinearly related to arousal.
Other theorists utilizing an arousal perspective have featured physiological responses to
environmental stimulation. Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, galvanic skin
response, and adrenaline secretion among others have been shown to occur with changes in the
environment. Increased ambient temperature leads to blood vessel dilation, perspiration, increased
heart rate, and in extreme conditions, lowered blood pressure and insufficient oxygen supplied to
the brain. Personal space invasion has been linked to delayed onset and shorter duration of
maturation for males. Noise exposure alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and the flow of gastric
juices to the stomach.

Neurologists such as Hebb (1972) have linked arousal with increased activity of the reticular
activating system of the brain. Still, other theorists have equated arousal with changes in motor
activity or with self-report of arousal. Berlyne (1974) has, for example, characterized arousal as
lying on a continuum anchored at one end by sleep and at the other by excitement, and Mehrabian
and Russell (1974) have identified arousal as a major component in people's affective responses
to their environment.

Independent of the orientation taken concerning arousal, several consistencies are apparent:

1. Changes in arousal are associated with changes in the environment

16
2. Pleasant as well as unpleasant stimulation increases arousal — that is, room temperatures above
100 degrees Fahrenheit and loud, obnoxious noises influence arousal in ways similar to
rollercoaster rides.
3. Changes in arousal lead people to seek information about their internal states (Schacter &
Singer, 1962) as well as to seek information from others (Festinger, 1954)
4. People tend to evaluate moderate levels of arousal positively
5. Often great expenditures of energy are utilized by individuals to bring the environment to a level
of moderate stimulation.

 Factors Impacting Arousal Level

Furthering the point various researchers have tried to identify the impact of different environmental
factors on the arousal level:
I. Temperature: An increase in ambient temperatures leads to an increase in arousal level.
Usually, higher arousal leads to performance enhancement but as it increases further over-arousal
occurs causing performance decrease.
II. Personal Space Invasion: An optimal personal space invasion can increase performance while
too much invasion can cause a decrease in performance. For this reason, cubicles are designed in
offices in such a way that colleagues are clustered together yet have a separate working space. This
provides an optimal invasion of personal space leading to increased arousal (due to collaboration,
relative performance assessment, and comparison) which ultimately leads to increased
performance.
III. Noise Level: An optimal noise level can increase arousal and performance while too much
noise can decrease arousal and performance. For example, you might be able to work better while
sitting in a room while occasionally chatting with your colleagues (due to optimal noise level) and
you might not be able to work appropriately in a room where there is too much chatter and loud
music because noise level is not optimal.

 Physiological Response to Environmental Stimulation

Changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, galvanic skin response, and adrenaline
secretions have been shown to occur with changes in the environment. Every human carry 12
British thermal units of electricity, which can create fluctuations in the body’s
ecosystem/metabolism or equilibrium when it comes into contact with environmental stimuli.
I. Temperature
An increase in ambient temperature leads to the following physiological changes:
• Blood vessel dilation • Pupil dilation • perspiration • Increased heart rate.
II. Extreme conditions
Extreme environmental conditions such as food, water, or nutritional scarcity can lead to:
• Lowered blood pressure • Insufficient oxygen reaching the brain due to which a person might
collapse.
III. Invasion in personal space has been linked to
• Delayed onset and shorter duration of micturition for males.
IV. Exposure to Noise:
Extreme noise may:
• Alters blood pressure, heart rhythm, and flow of gastric juices to the stomach which might lead
to acidity.

17
  Arousal and Nervous System:

Arousal is linked with increased activity of the reticular activating system of the brain.
 For arousal theorists, consistency and break inconsistencies are also very important. For
example, in a park, we might not notice people engaging in exercise and laughter because
that’s what everyone is doing but if we see a man crying in the same park, it will be
something unusual and inconsistent with what was happening in the environment. It will
immediately grab our attention and increase our arousal and ultimately behavior.
 Changes in arousal are associated with changes in the environment. Pleasant as well as
unpleasant stimulation increases arousal, either negative or positive. i.e. room temperatures
above 100 degrees might stimulate negative arousal, while a 25-degree temperature may
stimulate optimal arousal.
 Changes in arousal lead people to seek information about their internal states. For example,
during times of high arousal and stress, people might experience hold and cold body
flashes. This might make them want to inquire about their blood pressure or sugar levels.
 People tend to associate moderate levels of arousal positively. This is why the interior of
many offices is designed to be calm and cool so that people experience positive arousal
and ultimately perform better at work. Great expenditure of energy is utilized by
individuals to bring such specific environments to a moderate level of stimulation.

18
Lesson 5
Stimulus Load, Behavioral Constraint, and Adaptative Level Theories

 Stimulus Load Theories

Central to stimulus load theories is the notion that humans have a limited capacity to process
information. When inputs exceed that capacity, people tend to ignore some inputs and devote more
attention to others (Cohen, 1978). These theories account for responses to environmental
stimulation in terms of the organism's momentary capacity to attend to and deal with salient
features of its environment. Generally, stimuli most important to the task at hand are allocated as
much attention as needed and less important stimuli are ignored. Our attention is basically like a
switch. We can control our attentional capacity according to the demands that we face from the
environment. The benefit of this quality of attention is that humans can meet the changing demands
of the environment where whereas the downside of this quality of attention is that it becomes
limited when environmental demands are too high.

Example
For example, while driving during rush-hour traffic a great deal of attention is paid to the cars,
trucks, buses, and road signs around us, and less attention is paid to the commentator on the car
radio, the kids in the back seat, and the clouds in the sky. If the less important stimuli tend to
interfere with the task at hand, then ignoring them will enhance performance, (e.g., ignoring the
children's fighting will make you a better and safer rush hour driver. If, however, the less important
stimuli are important to the task at hand, then performance will not be optimal; for example,
ignoring the road signs because you are attending to the more important trucks, cars, etc., may lead
you thirty miles out of your way in getting home (Figure below).

Sometimes the organism's capacity to deal with the environment is overtaxed or even depleted.
When this occurs only the most important information is attended to, with all other information
filtered out. Once attentional capacities have been depleted even small demands for attention can
be draining. Thus, behavioral aftereffects including errors in judgment, decreased tolerance for
frustration, ignoring others in need of help, and the like, can be accounted for by these theories.
For example, the exhausted rush hour driver eventually might reach the point where he or she
doesn't notice the traffic light turn from red to green (or worse yet, from green to yellow to red),
even though this is a very important stimulus. Additionally, decreased tolerance for frustration

19
may lead to "Laying on the horn" or "lane hopping" and motorists in the break-down lane may be
ignored, if not looked upon with dislike.
Read the following explanation given by an athlete about how he tries to limit the focus of his
attention on the track and you will understand how attention functions in the real world.

ATTENTION IN THE REAL WORLD

"I have learned to cut out all unnecessary thoughts... on the track. I simply concentrate. I
concentrate on the tangible - on the track, on the race, on the blocks, on the things I have to do.
The crowd fades away and the other athletes disappear and now it's just me and this one lane"
Stimulus load theories are also able to account for behavioral effects in stimulus-deprived
environments (e.g., certain behaviors occurring aboard submarines and in prisons). That is, this
approach suggests that understimulation can be just as aversive as overstimulation. So-called cabin
fever resulting from monotonous living conditions can also be seen as the result of
understimulation. Wohlwill (1966) has argued that environments should be depicted in terms of
measurements applied to the dimensions of intensity, novelty, complexity, temporal variation,
surprisingness, and incongruity, all of which contribute to stimulus load. Subsequent behaviors
can then be related to the stimulus properties of environments in systematic and comparable ways.
Let's look at these dimensions briefly one by one.
(i) Intensity:
It means the range of a stimulus for example if the music is loud it means that it is of high intensity
and if the music is of less volume it means that it is of low intensity. We will experience more
stimulus load if the music is high and versatile.
(ii) Novelty:
It is the uniqueness of a stimulus. For example, if there are 100 channels on the TV, often, the most
unique one will grab our attention and contribute to stimulus load.
(iii) Complexity:
It is how complicated or multi-faceted a stimulus is. For example, driving through rush hour.
Multiple cars, noises, and other traffic-related stimuli come into play and contribute to stimulus
load.
(iv) Temporal Variation:
This is specifically related to changes in noise level. For example, imagine that you are sitting on
a bus, and the AC of that bus is making a repetitive sound. In the beginning, that voice might
irritate you but slowly you will get used to it and will no longer be able to notice it as it will get
mixed up with other sounds. But suddenly the bus undergoes a jerk and the AC voice gets fixed
on its own, then you will automatically feel that something is missing from the environment and
you will finally notice the change. These noise variations also contribute to stimulus load.
(v) Surprisingness:
This is a stimulus that is quite rare so it invokes the emotion of surprise in a person. For example,
imagine that you come to know that a new restaurant has opened in town and that restaurant is
made up of ice and chocolate. You will be extremely surprised and feel motivated to visit that
restaurant. Such rare stimuli also contribute to stimulus load.
(vi) Incongruity:
This is a stimulus that holds together a unique pairing of two different stimuli that normally would
not exist together. For example, if you see a three-year-old baby sitting in a cage with a lion, you
will feel strange and question yourself how this strange situation came into being. Such unique
pairings of stimuli also contribute to stimulus load.

20
Stimulus to Behavior-A relationship
After studying these stimulus characteristics, you might be wondering what is the relationship
between stimuli and behavior. This automatically brings us to the implications of stimulus load
theories. Since stimuli impact human behavior, we have a lot of control that we can exercise over
human behavior by altering the stimuli around us. For example, offices and schools can be
designed in such a way that they foster positive and productive behaviors.

 Behavior Constraint Theories

Behavior constraint theories focus on the real, or perceived, limitations imposed on the organism
by the environment. An example of a real threat would be fear of failing in exams while an example
of a perceived threat is a student feels that he will definitely fail, even after all the preparation.
According to these theories, the environment can prevent, interfere with, or limit the behaviors of
its inhabitants (Rodin & Baum, 1978; Stokols, 1978). Humans and the environment can control
each other. For example, a student who is traveling on the train for the first time might feel that he
is in danger. However, he might try to negotiate with the environment by making some friends or
reading the travel guide for ease and certainty. Friday afternoon rush-hour traffic interferes with
rapid commuting; loud, intermittent noises limit effective communication (for example a teacher
might not be able to talk to students properly if there is too much noise in the classroom.); over-
regimentation (patients being rotated in far-off departments in hospitals for collaborative
treatment) in hospitals can interfere with recovery, excessively high ambient temperatures prevent
extreme physical exertion, and extremely cold temperatures limit finger handiness. In a sense,
these theories deal with situations where persons either lose some degree of control over their
environment, or they perceive that they have.

Brehm and Brehm (1981) assert that when we feel that we have lost control over the environment,
we first experience discomfort and then attempt to reassert our control. They label this
phenomenon as Psychological Reactance. (which is the reaction of the person to regain the lost
control over the environment. For example, a teacher might first feel discomfort in a noisy class
but then she will try to apply different classroom strategies to control the noise level). If the rush-
hour traffic interferes with getting home in a timely fashion, we may leave work early, or find
alternate, less-congested routes. Loud, intermittent noises may be dealt with by removing their
source or by changing environments. Extreme temperatures are handled by adjusting the
thermostat. All that is needed is for individuals to perceive that they have lost some degree of
control, or for that matter, to anticipate the loss of control, and reactance will occur. If repeated
attempts to regain control are unsuccessful, learned helplessness may develop (Seligman, 1975).
People begin to feel as though their behavior does not affect the environment. They begin to
believe they no longer control their destiny, and that what happens to them is out of their control.
These feelings can eventually lead to clinical depression, and in the most extreme form can lead
people to give up on life, and die.

On the opposite side of the coin, perceived control over one's environment (even when real control
does not exist, or is not used) can alleviate the negative outcomes that the environment might
otherwise bring about. Perceived control over noise (Glass & Singer, 1972), overcrowding (Langer
& Saegert, 1977), and over one's daily affairs (Langer & Rodin, 1976) has been shown to influence
positively a variety of behavioral responses. For example, residents of a nursing home who were
given greater control over, and responsibility for their well-being displayed enhanced mood and

21
greater activity in comparison with residents who were not given control. Similarly, people who
had control over the thermostats in their working and living environments reported fewer health
complaints during the winter months than those who did not have control. These results occurred
even though they did not manipulate the thermostats and kept their environments at ambient
temperatures similar to those without control (Veitch, 1976). Behavior constraint theories thus
emphasize those factors (physical as well as psychological; real as well as imaginary) associated
with the environment that limits human action.

 Adaptation-Level Theories
Adaptation theories are similar to stimulus load theories in that an intermediate level of stimulation
is postulated to optimize behavior. Excessive stimulation as well as too little stimulation is
hypothesized to have deleterious effects on emotions and behaviors. For example, a dull home
interior might make a person feel depressed and a highly stimulating interior might make a person
restless. An optimal and calm home environment will make people feel comfortable. Major
proponents of this position include Helson (1964) and Wohlwill (1974). While all environmental
psychologists emphasize the interrelationship of humans to their environment, adaptation-level
theorists speak specifically of two processes that make up this relationship—the processes of
adaptation and adjustment. Organisms either adapt (i.e., change their response to the
environment) or they adjust, (i.e., change the environment with which they are interacting). For
example, if political figures are in prison and are deprived of the number of social interactions that
they used to have in their daily life, they might adapt and adjust by calming down and focusing
their energies on reading and writing about their political journeys. Adaptations to decreases in
ambient temperature include piloerection (hair on the body standing up or what is commonly called
getting "goose pimples"), muscle rigidity, increased motor activity, and vasoconstriction;
adjustments include throwing another log on the fire or turning up the thermostat. Either process
brings the organism back to equilibrium with its environment.

This perspective values the recognition of personal adaptation levels, meaning how much
excitement or activity a person is used to and looks for in their surroundings. This idea helps us
understand why two people might react differently to the same situation. For instance, someone
who enjoys lots of excitement might find a noisy party fun, but it could be too much for someone
who likes things calmer. In the same way, while some might enjoy the busy feeling of shopping
right before Christmas, others might not like it when the store gets too crowded. These personal
preferences for excitement can lead to very different choices. A person who likes a lot of
excitement might go to lively parties, while someone who doesn't might stay away or find a quiet
spot if they do go. We've all noticed people who are the center of attention at a party and those
who prefer to keep to themselves. The way they act can often be linked to their comfort with
different levels of excitement.

22
Lesson 6
Ecological Theories and Comparison of Theories

We start this lecture by discussing environmental stress theories in detail

Environmental Stress Theories

Stress theories emphasize the mediating role of physiology, emotion, and cognition in the
organism-environment interaction. Environmental features are seen as influencing, through the
senses, the organism, causing a stress response when environmental features exceed some optimal
level. For example, initially, a guitar is at rest. But when you start to play the guitar, your finger
movement causes stress in the strings. This can be imagined as a disturbance in the homeostasis
level (or in other words, the “rest” level) of the guitar. The organism then responds in such a way
as to alleviate the stress. For example, before feeling hungry, your body is steady (homeostasis is
balanced). When you feel hungry the homeostasis of your body is disturbed (i.e., release of gastric
juices in the stomach, body weakness). To alleviate this stress, you look for food. After eating the
food again your homeostasis comes back to normal. Part of the stress response is automatic.
Initially, there is an alarm reaction to the stressor, wherein various physiological processes are
altered. Resistance then follows as the organism actively attempts to cope with the stressor. Finally,
as coping resources are depleted, a state of exhaustion sets in (Selye, 1956).

Types of stress:

There are two main types of stress:

1. Eustress:
It is a positive force that provides a sense of well-being. This stress is up to an ideal degree. For
example, a girl is participating in a college debate. She feels very anxious and starts
imagining/visualizing again and again that she has to go in front of people. This image disturbs
her homeostasis. Her physiology, emotions, and cognitions are disturbed and she enters a state of
an unbalanced mind. Suddenly she starts to think of strategies through which she can well prepare
for her public speaking assignment. It is Eustress that motivates her to prepare for her task. After
good preparation and a successful debate her unbalanced mind again becomes balanced and
homeostasis is restored.

2. Distress:
It is a negative force that can lead to a decline in well-being. This stress is up to an unsafe degree.
For example, the girl in the above example goes to the college debate and faints in front of people,
runs away from the hall, or starts experiencing a panic attack in the hall. It is distress that leads to
her failure in the college debate.

Let's look at these reactions to stress proposed by Hans Selye (1907-1982) in greater detail:

1. Alarm Reaction: This is the first reaction to stress when an organism first acknowledges
or perceives stress in the environment. It is the mobilization of resources to confront the
stress. For example, a child is happily playing in the park. Suddenly he sees a dog. His first
reaction (Alarm reaction) to this stress will be that he will start feeling nervous. This

23
 nervousness will prepare his body to deal with the stress and his physiological/mental
resources will come into play.

2. Resistance: This is the stage where an individual decides his strategy for dealing with the
stress. The threat to the environment will lead to more energy consumption. To acquire
more energy the physiological reserves of energy will be used and energy consumption
will keep on increasing according to the demands of the stressful situation. For example, a
man suddenly hears a loud sound. He comes to know that a loin has escaped his cage and
sees it coming after him. His resistance reaction will be that he will start to run while
continuously consuming his energy by sweating, breathing heavily, muscle movement, or
consumption of body glucose.

3. Exhaustion: Now imagine that the lion follows the man for 5 hours. This will lead him
towards the exhaustion stage. Exhaustion is when stress continues for long periods. Energy
is used but it is not refilled. A perfect example would be war/combat between two countries
that has continued for 2 years. All the soldiers have constantly faced life-threatening
situations for two years and they are being exposed to extreme stress. There is a shortage
of food, manpower, and ammunition. So, their resources are not re-filled. At one point they
will experience exhaustion or you can say that they will enter into survival mode.

How do we know that we are experiencing stress?

Stress has two common indicators:

1. Physiological: Physiological indicators of stress are critical markers for assessing the
body's response to stressors. According to a review article, common physiological
indicators include changes in blood pressure, heart rate, and levels of blood fats such as
cholesterol and triglycerides (Iqbal et al., 2021). Additionally, variations in blood sugar
levels, particularly in the evening, and alterations in appetite, which can contribute to
weight gain, are also noted as physiological responses to stress (The Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2021).

2. Emotional: Emotional indicators of stress are key to understanding how individuals react
to stressors. Research has shown that common emotional responses to stress include
feelings of irritability, anxiety, and depression (Katana et al., 2019). These emotional states
can significantly impact daily functioning and are associated with various mental health
outcomes (Sarrionandia et al., 2018).

Ecological Theories

Central to the thinking of ecological theorists (Barker, 1963, 1968) is the notion of organism-
environment fit. An example of a career would be perfect here. A person with excellent analytical,
organizational, and mathematical skills will be fit for the job of a banker or a software engineer.
Another example would be the selection of a partner for marriage. Two people courting each other
might come to know that they are a perfect fit for each other because they have similar values,

24
outlooks, and understanding in life. Environments are designed or grow to accommodate certain
behaviors. Behavior settings, as Barker termed them, are evaluated in terms of the goodness of fit
between the interdependent environmental features and the behaviors that take place. For example,
a schoolyard, a church, a classroom, an office, or an entire business organization might be
considered a behavioral setting; each would then be evaluated in terms of how suitable it is for the
play behavior of children, how well it accommodates the religious rituals, or how well it serves
the functions of the business.

While any number of behaviors can occur within any physical setting, cultural purpose is defined
by the interdependency between standing patterns of behavior and the physical setting. Standing
patterns of behavior represent the collective behavior of the group rather than just individual
behavior. The standing pattern of behavior in a classroom would include lecturing, listening,
observing, sitting, taking notes, asking questions, and taking tests; the physical environment of this
behavior setting would include the room and such accessories as a lectern, chairs, chalkboard,
microphone, overhead projector, and slide screen. Because this standing pattern of behavior occurs
primarily in this behavior setting, social ecologists would suggest that knowing about the setting
helps us predict what will occur in it. Once individuals making up this classroom leave this
physical setting, most of the physical characteristics of the environment remain unchanged, but the
behaviors likely will change dramatically in other words, the students will move to a new physical
environment eliciting a different standing pattern of behavior.

Examples:

1. The initial concept kept in mind when designing prisons is that this is a place where people
are confined as a punishment for crimes. Prisons are also built away from housing and
commercial buildings so that criminals are kept away from general people to prevent them
from harm. However, a lot can change if we start looking at prisons in a different manner.
Prisons must not only be considered as “punishment houses” but also as “correctional
facilities”. Criminals are people with psychological problems due to which they commit
different crimes. It was us who had a wrong perception of them. They are not to be hated.
This viewpoint about prisons and prisoners may lead us to change the total structure of
prisons. Physical settings can be designed in such a way that different standing patterns of
behaviors can be produced in them. Hospitals can be built inside prisons to provide
prisoners with complete care. Prisons can organize regular psycho-education lectures,
exercise sessions, career guidance, and counseling as well as on-prison working
opportunities for prisoners. All this might help them become better citizens after they are
released from prison.

2. An environment conducive to agitation and crime will only lead to agitation and crime.
Imagine a crowded traffic square of a South Asian country where there is a lot of noise,
smoke, chaos, and traffic. Ask yourself. In this environment, there will be more crime or
less crime/ more agitation or less agitation. There will be more agitation which will lead to
increased frustration and increased chances of crime.

We will continue with additional details regarding Ecological Theories in the next lecture.

25
Lesson 7
The present framework and future directions in Environmental Psychology (I)

We will begin this lesson by continuing the topic of Ecological theories

Ecological Theories: undermanning (understaffing)/ overmanning (overstaffing)

According to Barker and Gump (see Gump, 1987), if the number of individuals in a setting falls
below some minimum, some or all of the inhabitants must take on more than their share of roles if
the behavior setting is to be maintained. This condition is termed understaffing. In an
environmental context, understaffing is when there are too many resources/duties in the
environment and a lesser number of organisms. For example, the college roommate of one of your
authors went to a very small high school, which in many ways exemplifies an understaffed setting.
This roommate played football and, like most high schoolers, played before fans on Friday night.
Also, like most high schools, there was a high school band that performed at half-time. Your
author's roommate, however, was also the best trumpet player in the school; so, at half-time, while
the rest of the football players were obtaining instructions as to what they should be doing the
second half, he was out marching with the band. In understaffed settings, inhabitants often have to
assume a variety of roles.

If the number of participants in a setting exceeds, the capacity for that setting, then the setting is
considered overstaffed. In an environmental context, overstaffing is when there are fewer
resources and too many organisms. More or less the population in a geographical environment
disturbs the ecosystem. It causes a positive or a negative impact on the standing pattern of behavior.
Too many swimmers waiting to get into the pool on a hot summer afternoon, commuters on the
five o'clock train, football fans at the Super Bowl, and shoppers in department stores at Christmas
time might all represent overstaffed settings.

Comparison of Theories
Theories Approach
Arousal General
Stimulus Load Specific
Adaptation Level Specific
Stress Approach General
Behavioral Constraint Specific
Ecological Approach General

** General in scope: The scope of a theory means the kinds of problems that the theory addresses.
Theories that are broad in scope try to understand numerous phenomena all at once. Their natural
framework is so vast and so general that it can accommodate a bulk of information. For example,
generalists in biology might engage in surface-level research on a wide range of topics.
** Specific in scope: Theories with a narrow or focused scope specifically try to understand a
particular thing. For example, a specialist in cell biology might conduct research on cells only.

26
In the comparison of theories, we discuss what is the area of prediction of these theories. Whatever
these theories address they can predict something about those behavioral patterns. We can use this
predictive ability to exert control over our environment. Now let's look at the key statements of
these theories and their areas of prediction.

Theory Key Statement Area of prediction

The Arousal Approach The arousal approach is the Increases or decreases in
most general in identifying stimulation produce
physiological and affective corresponding changes in
mediators of environment- physiological and psychological
behavior relationships arousal and, in turn, produce
predictable variations in
behaviors such as task
performance and aggression.
The Stimulus Load The stimulus load approach is Yields predictions regarding the
Approach synaptic, focusing on cognitive social/behavioral consequences
information-processing of over/under-stimulation—
abilities. excessive attentional demands
have differential effects on the
performance of primary versus
secondary tasks and the
likelihood of attending to various
social stimuli.
The adaptation level An intermediate level of Predicts consequences of a
approaches stimulation is postulated to particular stimulation level
optimize behavior. Excessive depend on the specific level to
stimulation as well as too little which a given individual has
stimulation is hypothesized to adapted.
have harmful effects on
emotions and behaviors
The Stress approach The stress approach The approach has the further
incorporates elements of all of advantage of predicting
the above. That is, stress can be behavioral coping and the
characterized in terms of consequences of adaptive and
objective physical and social maladaptive coping mechanisms.
environmental conditions that
deviate from some optimal
level (e.g., a noisy and crowded
subway) and are thus
potentially disruptive to human
functioning.
The Behavior Constraint The behavioral constraint When such conditions do exist,
Approach approach is the most limited of the concepts of reactance and
all in scope, (i.e., it is primarily learned helplessness yield useful
useful in situations where the predictions of behavioral
responses to such conditions.

27
 perception of loss of control or
threats to control are present).
The Ecological Approach The ecological approach has How behavior settings impact
the broadest scope with the behavior. however, this
concept of behavior setting, and generality limits the approach's
as such is a useful descriptive ability to account for individual
approach to understanding the differences in the behavior
behaviors of large numbers of setting.
people in different settings.
.
How these theories help in real life: The case of Amir
After a comparative analysis of these theories let's look at one real-life example to understand how
they may be applied in real life.

Let’s suppose that there is a young man named Amir. He is 20 years old and recently got
admission to a city university. He then moves to the city, leaving behind his village. Upon his
arrival, he discovers that the university is very big. The city is also very large and
commercialized, with heavy traffic jams, large shopping malls, parks, and open markets, and is
densely populated. He finds out that there is a lot of distance between his residence and the
university. To meet his living expenses, he also has to work a part-time job in the evening. He
wakes up early in the morning, does breakfast at a local café, and takes on different buses to
reach his university. After a hectic schedule of classes, he then again takes different buses to
reach his workplace in the evening. After his work, he again takes different buses to reach back
home where he barely finds time to have dinner. He then has to study and complete his
assignments. After which he is left with very little time to sleep. The next day this routine repeats
over and over again. Amir finds the entire environment very confusing, however, he keeps going
on with the routine due to his determination towards his studies. But after six months Amir
starts to experience headaches, nausea, and vertigo. He starts to dream of his village where he
lived a happy life and felt close and connected to people and nature around him. He then decides
to move back to his village.

After reading the case of Amir, keep the following questions in your mind:

1. How would you assess Amir’s life circumstances? Happy or Stressful?

2. What features of his physical and social environment influence the quality of his life? Is it
a positive influence or a negative influence?
3. What might you infer about his personality and thought processes that may interact with
the environment to influence his experiences? Is it a positive inference or a negative
inference?
4. Can you apply the concepts of arousal, stimulus load, behavior constraint, adaptation level,
and behavior setting to account for Amir’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors?

28
Just think of these questions from the perspective of an Environmental Psychologist and try to
understand how the theories of environmental psychology form the basis of all research
surrounding it.

The present framework and future directions in Environmental Psychology

 The main purpose of the present framework: The present framework for understanding
organism-environment relationships.
 Origin: It stems from several theoretical positions and databases established within the
domains of general and social psychology, as well as from the newly emerging area of
environmental psychology. It is developed from theories emphasizing the affective
components of the human experience, where overt behaviors, characterized as approach or
avoidance responses, are seen as being mediated by the emotion-arousing properties of the
environment.
 Target: To bring different theories and databases under the umbrella of a single model.
 Specific focus: Specifically, environmental factors (e.g., density, personal space, noise,
temperature, etc.) will be postulated to influence individual affective states, which in turn
will be asserted to influence overt behavior. For example, how much rise in ambient
temperature gives how much arousal.

Following are seven postulates relevant to the present and future framework of
Environmental Psychology.

First postulate:
A. The environment consists of both physical and social variables existing in reciprocal
relationships with behavior.
B. The physical and social environments can and should be characterized in terms of measurements
applied to their salient characteristics.

Second postulate:
A. The environment, physical as well as social, typically exerts a steady-state influence on the
behavior of its inhabitants.
B. When the measured values of the environment’s most salient characteristics undergo dramatic
change, the environment's influence on behavior can no longer be characterized as a steady state.
C. Disruptions of steady state occur when present perceptions do not correspond to the desired or
expected level of social and physical stimulation.

Third postulate:
The influence exerted by the environment is indirect i.e. Environment acts to influence people’s
emotional states, which in turn mediate their overt behavior.

Fourth postulate:

29
Environment-evoked emotions are best depicted in terms of three distinct dimensions: pleasure –
displeasure, degree of arousal, dominance –submissiveness.

Fifth postulate:
The environment–influenced behavior of the individual is dependent upon the extent and the
configuration of the dimensions of emotions aroused.

Sixth postulate:
Behavior is goal-directed. That is to say behavior in an environmental setting is performed to
increase or decrease the pleasure, degree of arousal, or dominance elicited by changes in the
environment in an attempt to return the environmental influence to a steady state.

Seventh postulate:
When the goal-directed behavior is ineffective or when great expenditures of energy are required
to maintain a steady state, the environment can be considered pathological and a disruptive
influence on human functioning. Let’s now look at all of these seven postulates one by one in
detail.

First postulate:
1A: The environment consists of both physical and social variables existing in reciprocal
relationships with behavior. Attempts to understand human/environment relationships that have
focused exclusively on either the human components or the environmental aspects have not met
with great success. Humans are not only influenced by their environment, but through their
behavior, they also alter that environment. The altered environment in turn produces subtle
changes in the environmental inhabitant and its behaviors; these behaviors again produce subtle
changes in the environment, and so on, indefinitely. For example, the classroom behaviors of
teachers and students alike are influenced by such physical properties of the environment as room
temperature, chalkboard space, windows (or the lack thereof), the arrangement of desks, available
light, and ambient noise level. However, the total classroom environment also includes social and
demographic variables (e.g., the age and gender of classmates, the friendship groups, the type of
activity being engaged in, and others). Each one of these factors, singly and collectively, influences
the behavior that is enacted in this setting. By the same token, the resultant behavior changes the
nature of that setting. For example, to enhance discussion, chairs may be moved, thus changing
the environment; these changes may lead to changes in friendship groups or to a change in the
ambient noise level. Teachers may now have to talk louder, perhaps also changing the tone of their
voices, making them appear grumpy; this perception may in turn lead students to avoid the space
around the teacher or may keep them from asking questions. Thus, the environment and its
inhabitants never stay the same; each is constantly changing as a result of its interactions with the
other. Any attempt to understand these relationships, therefore, requires a systematic approach
emphasizing the bidirectional, often symbiotic, nature of this interaction.

30
 Humans Enviroment

Humans

1B. The physical environment can and should be characterized in terms of measurement
applied to its salient characteristics. It is an obvious scientific advantage to be able to specify
relationships between or among variables in precise mathematical terms. The symbolic
representation of the effect x has on y is not as potentially ambiguous if x and y have properties
that can be measured by agreed-upon and reliable techniques. Further, the symbolic representation
of the effect can assume precise mathematical properties that permit greater precision in prediction.
Thus, ambiguity in the discussion of the relationships between variables is reduced by precise
measurement.

Statements like "high ambient temperatures may exert a detrimental influence on learning" carry
global, but not precise, meaning. How "high" must the temperature be to exert this influence? Do
variations in relative humidity combine with temperature differences to produce different effects?
Does the clothing the person is wearing moderate these effects? (Or for that matter, determine what
temperature is designated as "high"?) Is the length of time of exposure related to these effects?
What is meant by the term "learning"? Does it mean something other than "performance”? Arousal
levels are measured by self-report inventories as well as physiological arousal readings i.e., heart
rate, blood pressure, or blood sugar level can be measured by some instruments. However, the
problem here lies in the fact that the cause of these readings remains unknown. We do not know
whether the rise in blood pressure is due to the environmental stimuli that we are studying or due
to the personal health factors of an individual.

Second postulate:
2A: The environment, physical as well as social, typically exerts a steady-state influence on
the behavior of its inhabitants. This assertion is not unlike the claim of Ittleson, Proshansky,
Rivlin, and Winkel (1974) that the environment frequently operates below the level of awareness.
The environment is seen as being taken for granted—we operate within an environmental context
without paying much attention to it. "Normative" or "normal" behavior occurs in these
circumstances. We behave according to the cultural purpose of the setting. However, if the

31
environment changes (or we change environments), we become aware of it because it is at that
point that we must consciously begin to adapt or adjust.

Roger Barker's (1968) notion of "behavior settings" is also congruent with this assertion. The
arrangement of chairs at a table (Sommer, 1974) or desks in a classroom (Sanders, 1958), for
example, have very powerful but non-conscious effects on their users; in a very real sense, we
inherit the use of space. Thus, the environment influences our behavior even when its physical and
social characteristics are within a normal range, but under these conditions, we are typically
unaware of that influence. Thus, you were probably not aware of the fact that on your first day in
the room in which this class meets, your behavior of note-taking vs. ballroom dancing was
determined, in part, by the setting itself. Nor did you probably give much thought to the fact that
you were dancing instead of taking notes the last time you attended a nightclub.

2B. When the measured values of the environment's most salient characteristics undergo
dramatic change, the environmental influence can no longer be characterized as a steady
state. Helson's (1964) adaptation-level theory represents a general framework for the study of
diverse responses to any set of stimuli varying along some dimension. Put briefly, Helson
maintains that for any specified dimension of stimulus variation, individuals establish an
adaptation level (AL; a preferred or expected level of stimulation), which determines their
judgmental or evaluative response to a given stimulus located on that dimension. Deviations from
AL in either direction (i.e., either increases or decreases in stimulation level) are evaluated
positively within a certain range, but beyond these boundaries’ changes are experienced as
"unpleasant." There are also individual differences in levels of stimulation. For a person living in
Jacobabad, a temperature of 35C might be normal because his body has adapted to the temperature
of Jacobabad, and for a person living in Murree, a temperature of even 30C might be very high
because his body has adapted to the temperature of Murree.

When environmental-stimulus properties change to the extent that they have exceeded the AL
boundaries, the individual experiences "unpleasantness," and the influence of the environment is
no longer steady-state. It is only at this point that changes in the normative modes of behavior can
be expected, that the regularized, routinized behavioral-setting influence begins to break down.

If, as you sit reading these pages, your phone rings instead of the one four doors down the hall, or
someone walks into the room wearing an unusual perfume (or no deodorant), or the room
temperature increases to 85 degrees Fahrenheit or is reduced to 60 degrees Fahrenheit, or there is
a knock on your door, then the environment no longer can be characterized as steady-state. Your
response to the environment is now conscious and deliberate. You get up to answer the phone or
the door; you look up to see who is wearing the unusual perfume; you open a window or turn up
the thermostat (or put on or take off clothes) to return to a condition of thermal comfort. In other
words, you become aware of your environment and begin adapting to it or making adjustments to
it to achieve a new equilibrium.

32
2C. Disruptions from steady-state occur when present perceptions do not correspond to
desired or expected levels of physical and social stimulation. Disruptions in steady-state
influence are brought about by the processes of sensation, perception, and cognition. Sensation
involves those processes by which the world can be known to the perceiver. These processes
typically involve the following modes: touch, smell, taste, vision, and hearing. We know silk by
touching it, rotten eggs by smelling it, an orange by tasting it, and so forth. Another example would
be two students. For a careless student, 5 hours a day of study can be too much and he might not
be able to bear it but for a careful student hour, a day can be unto his satisfaction level. In other
words, a careless student needs less study stimulation and a careful student needs more study
stimulation.

Environmental cognition involves further processing of information (e.g., storing, organizing, and
recalling). It also involves appraisal processes. Is this environment good or bad, cold or hot, strong
or weak? It includes the emotional impact of environments, attitudes toward environments, the
preferences we have for some environments over others, and the categories we use to organize our
knowledge about various settings. Only human beings are capable of adding this element of
likeness and dis-likeness, computers cannot do that. Through these various processes, we appraise
environments and compare them with mental images of what we desire or expect them to be. Most
of the time, because we have planned well, environments are acceptable approximations of what
we expect. Under these conditions, the environment exerts a steady-state influence. Disruptions
occur when we learn through these processes that present conditions do not correspond to our
desired or expected levels of stimulation or are incapable of meeting the objectives of the plan
with which we entered the situation.

We will start our next lecture by discussing the third postulate in detail

33
Lesson 8
The present framework of Environmental Psychology (II)

We will begin this lecture by discussing the third postulate of Environmental Psychology in
detail.

Third postulate: The influence exerted by the environment is indirect i.e. Environment acts
to influence people’s emotional states, which in turn mediate their overt behavior. The work
by Baron and Bell also postulates emotion (affect) as a mediating link between the physical
environment and aggressive behavior (e.g., Baron & Bell, 1976; Bell & Baron, 1976). It has been
shown that such diverse environmental conditions as temperature (Griffitt, 1970; Griffitt & Veitch,
1971), crowding (Baum & Valins, 1973; Griffitt & Veitch, 1971; Valins & Baum, 1973), noise
(Bull, et al., 1972; Geen & O'Neil, 1969; Mathews & Cannon, 1975), air pollution (Rotton, Barry,
Frey & Soler, 1976), and radio news broadcasts (Veitch, DeWood, & Bosko, 1977; Veitch &
Griffitt, 1976) influence the affective state and interpersonal behaviors of individuals. If you feel
annoyed by the phone ringing you might answer it in gruff tones, or not at all; if you are gladdened
by the distraction, you will probably answer with greater civility. If you like the smell of an unusual
perfume, you are likely to strike up a pleasant conversation; if instead what you are confronted
with is the smell of stale cigarettes and body odor, your disposition is likely to be less shining, and
your overt behaviors less positive.

Fourth postulate: Environment-evoked emotions are best depicted in terms of three distinct
dimensions: pleasure – displeasure, degree of arousal, dominance –submissiveness. Russell
and Mehrabian (1977) have provided evidence to reconcile these two sets of research findings and
have reported that the three dimensions of pleasure-displeasure, degree of arousal, and dominance-
submissiveness constitute both the necessary and sufficient dimensions to describe all emotions.
(i) Pleasure and Displeasure:
For example, you remember a very sad event in your life. While thinking about that event you
might experience pleasure or displeasure based on whether the event was happy i.e. winning a
lottery or whether it was sad i.e. losing a mobile phone.
(ii) Degree of arousal:
When you remember the event in which you won the lottery, you might experience the same
physical symptoms that you experienced when you won the lottery i.e., the same adrenaline rush,
rise in blood pressure, or pupil dilation.
(iii) Dominance-Submissiveness:
Suppose you are a student who has topped the exam and after 6 months you remember this event.
You will suddenly feel that in that particular situation, you might have achieved anything (you will
generalize your self-confidence to other situations), and you might start to realize how much
control you were able to exert over the environment or how much power you were able to exercise.
When you attach this degree of control to the high level of arousal and attach this whole experience
with the element of pleasantness, you will feel excited, as if you are dominating the environment.
Now imagine the opposite, where you are a student who has failed, you will simply think that
everything that happened, is because of external environmental factors. You will feel that you were
not able to control the environment and ultimately feel your submissiveness at the hands of the
environment.

34
Results of their studies show that the larger number of dimensions obtained in verbal-report studies
can be accounted for by these three dimensions. Thus, self-reports of emotions that employ
different words (e.g., joy and happiness) may yield similar underlying configurations of pleasure,
arousal, and dominance, which differ primarily in the intensity of affect. Further, differences
between global emotional states can be best understood in terms of differences in the underlying
configuration of these three dimensions. Thus, the best available evidence to date suggests that the
emotional (affective) state of individuals can be adequately described by these three dimensions.

Fifth postulate: The environment–influenced behavior of the individual is dependent upon

the extent and the configuration of the dimensions of emotions aroused. In most of the studies
to date where the emotional state of the individual is seen as a mediating factor for behavior,
emotion has been conceptualized in a unidimensional manner. Typically, the one dimension
utilized has been pleasure-displeasure, although sometimes a variant of the
dominance/submissiveness dimension has been used (e.g., studies of control, constraint, and
reactance). However, researchers have seldom considered the interrelationships of these
dimensions. The current framework attempts to utilize a multiple-dimension approach to emotion
as a way of accounting for more of the reliable variance in the relationship between emotional
states and overt behavior.

We would expect different behaviors to ensue as a result of changes in the environment that elicited
displeasure, high arousal, and submissiveness ("anxiety") changes resulting in displeasure, high
arousal, and dominance ("anger"). A teacher experiencing the former, for example, may attempt
to "leave the field," whereas experiencing the latter may lead him or her to combat, or at the very
least, to attempt to change the environment. Aggression and excitement have the same
physiological arousal but their experience is categorized differently. Re-living the experience is
also different from the actual experience.

Sixth postulate: Behavior is goal-directed. That is to say behavior in an environmental setting

is performed to increase or decrease the pleasure, degree of arousal, or dominance elicited
by changes in the environment in an attempt to return the environmental influence to a
steady state. The underlying assumption is that steady-state environments are preferred and
actively sought (i.e., humans don't passively react to environmental stimulation, but rather attempt
to alter their experiences to maintain a state of equilibrium). They do this by altering their
evaluation, by altering the setting, or by changing settings altogether. For example, a student who
completes a very difficult assignment by considering work from an angle of entertainment.
In response to displeasure aroused by stimuli whose preferred values are exceeded (in either
direction), the behaving organism attempts to decrease the unpleasantness. For example, the
temperature of a particular environmental setting exceeding AL (adaptation level) elicits
discomfort. Simultaneously, the degree of arousal and dominance/submissiveness will also be
influenced. If the organism experiences great displeasure, high arousal, and high dominance, then
aggressive behaviors may occur, which might be directed at removing the social source of that
emotion. On the other hand, if displeasure is not felt, if the degree of arousal is low, or if
submissiveness is felt, submissive behavior might occur. This could involve withdrawal to a
different setting more conducive to the desired emotional configuration.

35
Seventh postulate: When goal-directed behavior is ineffective or when great expenditures of
energy are required to maintain a steady state, the environment can be considered
pathological and a disruptive influence on human functioning. What are the long-range effects
of exposure to a given environment featured by a particular level of intensity, complexity, and
inappropriateness of stimulation? According to adaptation level theory, the individual's AL will be
shifted to a value corresponding more nearly to that of the environment. This, of course, is what
adaptation is. However, for adaptable humans, it is still possible that the range of environmental
stimulation could be such that the energies expended in adaptation would have detrimental effects
on the individual, or that the behavioral repertoire of the individual is too limited, thereby making
adaptation impossible. It is under these conditions that the environment can be considered
pathological. Evidence (to be detailed in later chapters) concerning the effects of prolonged noise
exposure (e.g., Glass & Singer, 1972; Weybrew, 1967) exemplify this state of affairs, as does the
work of Calhoun (1962) who looked at the long-term effects of increased population density on
social adaptive behaviors of Norway rats. Another example can be year-long dessert or winter
survival courses. The excitement for adventurers is usually high on such training but with time the
excitement level dies down and survival becomes difficult.

Model: How do the seven postulates of the environmental framework interact with each
other?

Environment Moderators Cognition Steady State

• Noise Social situations: • Expectations. What is the
• Pollution • Relationships • Attaching effect of the
• Weather between emotional environment
• Crowing different meanings to on the
• Mountains/Desserts people. environmental human? Is it
• Architecture • Classroom stimulus. helping them
settings. • Goals gain a steady
• Moods state or is
Personal Variables: • Sentiments causing
• Adaptation • Personal disruptions
level. (A expressions in their
person in behavior?
Murree will
feel a
temperature
of 35C
differently
than a person
in Jacobabad
due to their
different
adaptation
levels of
temperature)

36
Let's understand this table in the form of a reactive diagram:

Perception
Positive or
Enviroment Negative

Moderators (Indirect Environmental

Steady-State (Yes or No)
impact on behavior) Impact

Cognitions Goal directed behavior

Human
Behaviour

This course has also been divided into chapters. Chapter one consists of (Lesson1-Lesson8).
From the next lecture we will start chapter2.

37
Lesson 9
Chapter 2: Environmental Perception and the use of natural environment.
Lesson 9: Elementary Psychophysics/Perception and its Cognitive Bases

In elementary psychophysics, we try to understand how human beings can psychologically detect
physical stimuli (Stimulus Detection). For example, if a student is deeply involved in studies, he
might not notice any other sound in the environment such as the sound of the fan in his room or
the ticking of the clock. Elementary psychophysics tries to understand at what time and how
physical stimuli gather such momentum, that they can be interpreted psychologically by a person.

Objectives of Elementary Psychophysics:

There are four objectives of Elementary Psychophysics:

1. Stimulus Detection:
What is it? For example, suppose that you are walking through a dark street at night. At the end of
the dark street, you saw something that felt like the figure of an animal. But you are not too sure
about it because light is very little. You might dilate your pupils or try to use your depth perception
cues in an attempt to detect the stimuli.
The basic objective of stimulus detection is to understand what is happening around us. In
Psychophysics this relates to the different types of energy changes that are taking place in the
environment. Our receptors can read those energy changes.

Changes:
Electromagne�c
Changes:
Lightness or Darkness
Objective due to changes in
Electromagne�c Energy.
Mechanical Energy:

• Sound waves.
• Touch receptors.
Detecting the • Movement.
energy changes • Muscle Tension.
in the Thermal:
enviroment
Temperature and heat
intensity.

38
Every stimulus is detectable up to a certain point but beyond that range it becomes undetectable.
All five senses have their ranges in between which they can be detected. The minimum intensity
required by a stimulus to be detected is called the absolute threshold.

2. Stimulus Recognition:
Is this stimulation different from that one? For example, when you have accommodated your
physiological systems and sensory receptors according to darkness then that information goes
inside your brain. That is the time when you perceive those current images and you match those
images to the previous images of such things that exist in your mind and then as a result of that
matching you try to recognize what the stimulus is about i.e. being able to differentiate a human
shadow from an animal shadow.

Task Difficulty (Obstacles in

S�mulus recogni�on):

Novelty of the Context:

Where did you hear the
Objective explosion sound. At home
or in the marketplace? The
place where the sound is
heard will make a difference
in the meaning of that
sound.
What the Stimulus is?
Number of available
alterna�ves for the
percep�on of that s�muli.

Perceptual sets.

There are also minimum or maximum ranges for stimuli to become recognizable i.e., is this the
picture of an animal or a tree. For example, you are studying and you hear a loud sound outside
your home. Now you have to recognize whether it is the sound of a car crash, a cylinder blast or
an actual blast. The novelty of the context and available meanings you can give to the explosion
sound in that particular situation determines how you can recognize the explosion sound.

3. Stimulus discrimination:
How to differentiate between different stimuli? For example, you may need to differentiate
between similar stimuli to come to the final decision of what that stimulus actually is. In the
explosion sound example, you may think of the sound of a car crash, cylinder blast or bomb blast

39
and do a comparative analysis of these sounds in your mind to make the final decision about what
sound it was. This brings if to the concept of Just noticeable difference (JND):

Just noticeable difference (JND): An increase in the intensity of a stimulus above its original
level required for a person to notice a difference in the level of intensity. The intensity of the sound
will increase or decrease concerning the person’s distance from the place where the sound is
coming from. A person standing near the explosion sound will have more requisite information to
perceive that sound accurately/to create such a noticeable difference as compared to the person
who was far from the explosion sound.

Weber’s Law:
High-intensity stimuli require a proportionately larger increase to produce the Just noticeable
difference (JND). For example, if you are listening to music in less volume, even a little increase
in the volume will be noticed by you but if you are already listening to loud music, a little increase
in the volume will not be noticed by you. You need to increase the loud music much more to create
the Just noticeable difference between the two loud music sounds.

4. Stimulus Scaling:

How much of a certain stimulus is there? For example, when you are passing through a dark street
and you look at something that looks like the figure of an animal, scaling would be when you try
to find out that is the animal big or small and what type of animal this is. Then you would
appropriately design your reaction towards it. It is a process for effective commerce with the
environment. The magnitude of the stimulus, as scaled by the perceiver, determines the magnitude
of the response deemed necessary to deal with it. For example, if the sound of the explosion is too
loud, the person standing near the explosion sound will have a different reaction according to it.
The same is the case with low-intensity explosion sound.

Perception

Perception means to look at, to understand, and to know about the world around us.
Perception is a sudden realization or an insight experience of our ability to navigate the
environment on our own. For example, when a 5-year-old child rides a bicycle for the first
time in life without the support of his/her father, he is suddenly surprised and starts to realize
how much he/she is capable of. When we think of perception we usually think first of visual
perception. This is probably because we gather so much information from the environment via this
sensory system. Except listening to speech, the vast majority of our everyday activity is guided by
vision. Vision guides our motor behavior (getting us from here to there while avoiding running
into things on the way), providing us with information concerning what is out there and where it
is. Additionally, much of our interpersonal behavior is guided by the visual information we receive.
Our judgments of the emotional states of others (and ourselves, for that matter), and our intentions,
likes, and dislikes, are determined in good part by what we see. No wonder we rely so heavily on
our sense of vision to inform us of the world that we inhabit! There is an old adage that "seeing is

40
believing," and when it comes to conflicting cross-modal information, we do indeed tend to believe
our eyes over the other senses.

Despite this great reliance on vision, perception is more than just sensory input to the visual system.
Often, we must depend on other systems when interacting with the environment. For example, we
cannot see heat, so we must depend on thermal receptors on the skin's surface to warn of the
dangers of placing the hand on a stove; we cannot see natural gas and must depend on olfactory
cues and odorous additives to warn of a gas leak in the home; we cannot see the Civil Defense
siren warning of an impending tornado, and therefore must rely on our sense of hearing. But
perception of the environment is even more than the summation of all these sensory inputs. It
involves labeling, describing, and attaching meaning to the world around us. Perception, in
addition to being sensory, is also highly cognitive.
(i) Labeling:
It means to identify what is happening around us. Or what the stimulus is about? For example,
after looking at a smiling facial expression, we can identify is it a happy smile or a sarcastic smile.
(ii) Describing:
It is the interpretation of details about the context of the stimuli. For example, if we know that a
person is smiling because of happiness, our next step would be to look for further details i.e. why
is the person happy? Is he happy because he received an increase in his salary or is he happy
because he is going on a vacation?
(iii) Attaching meaning to the world around us:
It means to make the world around us meaningful. For example, while teaching a child how to
cross a road, we also need to teach him the dangerous outcome i.e. fatal accidents that may happen
if he does not follow the road rules. The whole experience gives a bulk of information to the child
at one time. In other words, we need to go beyond then the present stimuli so that a person can
make sense of perceptual experiences.

Environmental Perception (Cognitive Bases of Perception):

All environments carry a set of meanings acquired through their specific physical, social, cultural,
aesthetic, and economic attributes. Let’s look at them one by one:
An example of a beautiful picture of a waterfall with one-man swimming in it.
(i) Physical attributes: This means the physical setting of the stimuli. For example, upon
looking at a beautiful picture of a waterfall, we might focus on the color of the water,
the plants on the waterside, or the mountains behind it.
(ii) Social Attributes: This is the social scenario around the perception of the stimuli. For
example, if only one person is diving in the waterfall, a happy person might say that
this person seems peaceful and happy enjoying himself and a lonely person might think
what a lonely person he is! Diving alone in the waterfall.
(iii) Cultural attributes: This is the content of the stimuli in relevance to the person
perceiving it. For example, while looking at the waterfall picture we might question
ourselves that does this waterfall exists in Pakistan or if is it a scene from a western
country.

41
 (iv) Aesthetic attributes: These are the personal ways we find beauty and meaning in
stimuli. For example, a person with a high aesthetic sense might look at the picture of
the waterfall and think “I feel full of life when I look at this picture” or “I feel like
revisiting my childhood after looking at this picture”.
(v) Economic Attributes: This is the assessment of economic resources required to
interact with the stimulus. For example, a man might look at the picture of the waterfall
and think “How can I visit this waterfall”, “How much expense will it take to dive into
this waterfall” “How much travel cost will it take to visit this waterfall. For example, a
Pakistani person might immediately think of travel costs if he looks at the picture of
Niagara Falls which is located in Canada.

These meanings are extracted from the environment by the perceiver in terms of his or her
attitudes, beliefs, values, and physical limitations. We may admire an apple orchard in spring for
its floral beauty and its aromatic fragrance, while simultaneously realizing its worth in terms of
the honey that will be produced by bees from its nectar and the apples to be harvested in the fall.
Additionally, we may see the orchard as symbolic of the economic power of its owner, his or her
ability to buy and sell, and ultimately the political influence that person is likely to exert in the
community. Finally, we may see it as representing the outcome of years of research in the
development of hybrid apples. We perceive all of these meanings and respond to them to some
degree as the sight and smell of the spring blossoms reach our eyes and noses.

 Assessment of Environment:
Our assessment of the environment is achieved within the context of three broad but not always
congruent ways of viewing the world.
(i) Culture: First, we develop attitudes as a result of living within a culture. For example,
in Pakistan, the culture is different from one city to another city. Our culture defines
our norms and values, which, in turn, dictate our general behavioral patterns. As we
studied previously nomadic cultures promote independence and how agricultural
culture promotes obedience. Now, a person from a nomadic culture, when visiting an
agricultural societal environment, might assess the environment as being “suffocating”
or” controlling” for its rules like obedience and staying in one place for a long time.
(ii) Needs and Preferences: We also assess the environment according to our needs and
preferences and behave accordingly. For example, imagine that you are feeling very
hungry and the food is not ready. Now, this frustration caused by hunger and non-
availability of food will provoke you to think “What a bad day it is today” and you
might start watching cooking shows on TV while waiting for your food. Cooking shows
also come on TV at specific times before or near dinner time to get more views.
(iii) Future: We also assess our environment in terms of how it will affect us in the future.
For example, a housewife might think of separating parents’ room from their children’s
room because near future children will grow up and require their personal space. Not
only is the question of "What's in it for me?" asked, but also, "What effect will my
presence and interaction have on the environment being viewed?" If trees are seen only
in terms of the apples they will produce and care is not taken to preserve them, soon

42
 there will be no apples and eventually no trees. This view of the environment is much
like the ecologist's view.

Contextual and Social Bases of Perception

It is important to emphasize that perception is contextual. Cultural, social, gender, and individual
differences all influence what we do and do not see in our environment. Looking within the context
of gender, there are characteristic differences in the ways in which males and females tend to
appreciate certain things. This is the reason that cars are designed differently for males and females.
For instance, consider how exposure to green spaces (natural environment) versus urban concrete
jungles (built environment) affects people's stress levels, attention, and overall well-being. Another
example would be how an individual's identification with larger social units (such as community,
nation, or world) strengthens in-group solidarity and empathy, influencing their support for
environmental protection.

Thus, perception is not simply a matter of the individual responding to sensations created by energy
from stimuli impinging on the sensory organs. Rather, this process is embedded in a cultural
context, and various social factors have been demonstrated to produce differences in the ways two
individuals perceive the same stimulus. Individual differences in backgrounds, experiences,
values, and purposes can have a profound influence on the result of the processing of information
from the world around us. These differences, however, do not detract from the fact that perception
is a fundamental psychological process in which all humans engage.

43
Lesson 10
Perception and its Cognitive Bases/Theories of Environmental Perception

Complex Perceptual Processes

The exercise below illustrates the complexity of processes taken for granted and engaged almost
automatically when perceiving individual stimuli in the environment. As indicated, such processes
are critical, and psychologists have exerted considerable effort to understand them. However, the
primary concern of environmental psychologists is understanding how people perceive molar
aspects of the environment. In addition to understanding how discrete stimuli or objects are
perceived, environmental psychologists attempt to understand the processes by which whole
environments are perceived. In a sense, they are interested in the forest, not just the individual
trees. Further, a discussion of these processes will follow since it is important to account for the
relationships among the perceptual, cognitive, and evaluative processes that affect experience and
determine behavior. Although highly interdependent, they will be discussed separately, making
note of their interrelationships where appropriate.

 Exercise:
Below is a saying by Masaru Ibuka, a Japanese man who was the founder of an Electronic
Company, in 1991.
We worked furiously [to realize our goals]. Because we didn't fear, we could do something
drastic.
When you initially read this saying it almost seems like an automatic activity. But from a research
point of view, the human might go through the following complex perceptual processes when
reading the above saying.
1. We Start reading it with a specific purpose.
2. We Screen out other stimuli.
3. Our Eyes translate the light waves reflected off to screen into neural energy.
4. Our sensory pathways transmit a series of electrical impulses to the higher brain centers.
5. The brain organizes and interprets the input.
6. The brain matches the present patterns of sensation with previous images.
7. Finally, Words and phrases became coherent and meaningful.

Theories of Environmental Perception

 Gestalt Theory:
Much research and theory exist regarding the basic processes involved in perception. Among the
earliest and most significant contributors to this area was a group of German psychologists
working within a framework known as Gestalt theory (e.g., Koffka, 1935; Kohler, 1929). These
theorists emphasized the active role of the brain in searching for meaning in stimuli.
(i) The Principle of Good Form:
The term Gestalt means "good form" and Gestalt theorists proposed that the brain is organized in
such a way as to construct meaning from stimuli, and even to impose meaning where it might not
appear to exist objectively to achieve this "good form. For example, read the following sentence:
THE QUAK BRON FAX JUNS OUER THA LEZY DAG
Many people can read this sentence correctly as “The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog”.
It is because of the principle of good form that our brain constructs meanings from any stimuli

44
even where they might not appear to exist. This entire sentence was incorrect in spelling but we
were still able to read it correctly. Good Form has its benefits as when it helps us to make sense of
even a disorganized environment, however, it is negative in a few places as well. For example, a
teacher might mark wrong answers as correct due to good form and students might receive
unjustified benefits. Good form may be harmful or even dangerous if it interferes while performing
detail-orientated tasks like performing heart surgery. Any little mistake to wrong meaning
construction by our brain due to good form can lead to heart failure. Due to this good form may
also be called a “False Positive” or False Negative”. It is not uncommon for students, when
proofreading their term papers, to "read" words that do not exist on the paper. The sentence "The
bear climbed up a tree" might be read, "The bear climbed up the tree."

(ii) The Holistic Orientation:

A second characteristic of the Gestalt approach is its holistic orientation (i.e., the assumption that
the perceptual process must be understood in its entirety rather than broken down into discrete
elements). This assumption is often expressed in the statement that in perception, "the whole is
greater than the sum of the parts." For example, we do not say “I am watching a show on a box
which has a screen, buttons, and a black outline” We simply say “I am watching a show on TV”.
We perceive things as a whole in one part. Look at the following figure:

We know that this image is that of a star (because of good form) even though there are some blank
spaces left in it. Good form does not only imply physical stimuli but applies to our cognitive
processes as well. For example, a student who has passed college remembers her school days as
the best days of her life. However, she might not remember every detail. She forms a complete
image of her school time as a happy image, ignoring the little positives or negatives that come
along the way.

(iii) Size Constancy:

Another illustration of the tendency to impose meaning on sensory inputs is the principle of size
constancy, in which changes in the size of the retinal image of an object are interpreted as changes
in distance rather than changes in the size of the object. In this case, the brain is actually
"overriding" sensory inputs to maintain a Gestalt. For example, look at the following image:

45
Now, due to the principle of size constancy, you might perceive that the hand on the left side is far
away and the hand on the right side is near to us. In a literal sense, the size of both hands is different.
However, our brain knows that they are the hands of the same person so they will be the same.

 Functionalism:
A theoretical orientation that differs from the previous approach views perception as a much more
direct process. It involves less mediation by higher brain centers to perceive meaning in the
environment.
1. It is argued that meaning already exists in the environment and that our sensory
mechanisms are "prewired" to respond to meaningful aspects of our environment. For
example, due to our past experiences, we might assume the content of the book just by
looking at its title. Another example is the generational experience example. Due to the
experiences of our ancestors, we naturally perceive our environment. We have pre-formed
meaning. So, there is no need to use higher brain centers and perception occurs in sensory
areas or organs directly. Due to this, the perception process seems automatic.

2. This approach is related to ecological biology, which studies organisms' adaptation to their
environment. For example, the concept of an ecological niche refers to the instinctive
tendency observed in animals to seek out that area of their environment that affords them
the greatest chance of survival. For example, animals have the same methods of hunting
that they used 100 years ago. Due to this reason, tigers live in environments where there is
a widespread landscape and other animals are co-habituating so that they have plenty of
area to search and hunt and there is plenty of prey, ultimately, increasing their chances of
healthy survival. But this is not true for humans as our behavior constantly keeps on
changing. For example, the working ratio in today’s world is different than it was in the
time of our grandparents. They used to work in the day and the rest of their time was for
their families. However, nowadays people do not have much time for their families, and

46
 multitasking is highly appreciated. There was a time when a movement named “Ethology”
started in Psychology. In this movement, psychologists attempted to study instinctual
behavior in humans. For example, the instinct of aggression or the will to power. But with
time it became evident that humans cannot be studied in terms of instincts. Because we
know that instinctual behavior is constant, and human behavior keeps on changing.

3. Gibson (1979) applied this notion to human perception. She suggests that humans are
innately endowed with the ability to perceive those aspects of our environment that have
functional value for them. Thus, according to this view, an infant should be born with the
ability to perceive its mother's face, since this stimulus has obvious survival value. Because
as compared to animal babies, human babies depend a lot on their mothers to survive and
to learn to function in their environment. In other words, mothers have a high functional
value for children and most children recognize their mothers as soon as they are born

47
Lesson 11
Learning Theory/Probabilistic Functionalism and Environmental Cognition

Learning Theory:
Much research on human perception concerns the role of experience in perceptual development.
From this perspective, our perceptions are not innately determined, but rather we must learn to
perceive critical aspects of our environment. For example, the principle of size constancy referred
to above is not seen as an inborn perceptual ability, but one that develops only through the
experience of seeing many objects from a variety of distances. Gradually the infant learns that the
objects are not growing or shrinking, but remaining a constant size regardless of their distance.
This happens even though the retinal images, and thus the neural impulses sent to the brain, vary
dramatically.

Gestalt and Learning perspectives have a lot in common. According to the Gestalt theory,
Perception is done almost within seconds along with the involvement of higher brain centers
because it holds the belief that perception is done directly via sensory organs and receptors as well
as with the help of information we hold from past experiences. Learning theory also places a lot
of emphasis on direct information processing, past experiences, and specialized interpretation of
information. Functionalists on the other hand are different in the sense that they do not focus on
the involvement of higher brain centers and place more emphasis on mechanical instinctual
behavior.

Learning theorists propose that an important result of experience and learning in perception is the
development of assumptions about the world around us. For example, youngsters might look at
cool and handsome heroes in movies. They might develop the assumption that cigarette smoking
will make us look like a man, it will make us look stylish. Due to this assumption, they might start
behaving similarly and start to smoke. However, this assumption is quite misleading, and usually
such youngers end up facing the hazardous effects of smoking on health.

These assumptions facilitate our interactions with the environment because they save us time and
effort in coping with new stimuli. That is, we do not have to approach new situations as though we
have never encountered them before. We assume that many elements of the situation are similar to
those of situations that we have previously experienced. For example, our responses to the word
mother are usually like “Mothers are kind” or “I love my mother”. In other words, they are our
assumptions about the word mother. Gestalt Psychologists also embrace the concept of
assumptions because according to them perception process is very fast. Sensory receptors might
process information in seconds and they believe that it is assumptions that make perception process
faster.

Thus, we bring to the present situation learned assumptions in the form of expectancies about what
is likely to happen. These expectancies are usually correct, making for easy processing of
information and adaptive functioning. In these ways, learning theories are not unlike those of the
functionalists.

Our assumptions, however, can sometimes be misleading, resulting in misperceptions or illusions

(e.g., Ames, 1951). For example, look at the following image:

48
By looking at this picture you might think that the person on the right-hand side is bigger and the
person on the left-hand side is a kid. However, this is just an optical illusion and has no contact
with reality. Now, look at the following picture:

This is the actual reality of the people shown in the first picture. The room is designed in such a
way that the backspace is a bit tilted. It naturally makes the person in the white shirt stand a bit
forward and bent down so he appears bigger. And it also naturally makes the other person in the
green shirt stand at the back, making him look smaller like a kid.

Probabilistic Functionalism
Given the complexity of environments, the goal stated earlier that environmental psychologists
must account for the processes by which molar environments are perceived is an exceedingly
difficult one to achieve. Therefore, one of the most important learning theories of perception, and
potentially the most fruitful for environmental psychology, is Brunswick’s lens model (1956,
1969). Brunswick’s approach provides a model for mathematically describing individuals'

49
perceptual processes when making judgments in response to molar environments containing
multiple stimulus dimensions. Let's look at the following figure:

FIGURE: Brunswick’s probabilistic theory illustrates one way of relating the information available
from the environment to the way the individual perceives the environment. Let's break down a few
concepts of this diagram.

 Ecological validity: It is what information we focus on. It shows the relationship between
information x and environment y. It means in a certain environment; a certain stimulus is
more important and our perceptual lens would automatically concentrate upon that
particular information.
 Functional validity: The information on which our perceptual lens focuses has certain
functional validity. It means the relation between perception and environment that is
checked through action. For example, children learn to walk in a certain style or by using
certain balance mechanisms. Children’s’ perceptual lens focuses on these techniques which
have helped them to learn to walk.

Brunswick argues that complex stimulus patterns are processed as though through a "lens" (see
Figure above), where the scattered stimuli are "focused" into a single perception of the
environment. An example would be being stuck in traffic where the environment is giving a bulk
of information and our perceptual lens is focused on the information that is important to us. In this
way we manage to reduce the complexity of our environment by filtering the various available
stimuli through the lens, discounting or ignoring some perceptual cues while emphasizing others.
We do this not only to simplify judgmental tasks, but because we learn from experience that some
sensory information is misleading (in Brunswick’s terms, they are lacking in ecological validity),
and other cues are of minimal value, (i.e., of low ecological validity) in correctly perceiving the
true state of the environment.

Environmental Cognition:
All previous theories were about environmental perception. However, now we are going to discuss
Environmental Cognition. Let’s first look at the difference between the two:

 Difference between Perception and Cognition:

Perception is the process in which we use our sense organs to gather information about the
environment and that information gets into our mind and helps us direct our behavior. For example,

50
imagine you're walking in a garden and you see a rose. You notice its deep red color and its sweet
fragrance. This immediate sensory experience of the rose is an example of perception. Cognition
is a step ahead of perception which means that we are making a proper sense of the environment
over here. The packets of incoming information here become a part of our working strategy,
helping us build our insights. For example, Now, suppose you start thinking about the rose,
recalling memories of roses you've given or received in the past, or considering the symbolic
meanings of roses in different cultures. This process of thinking, understanding, and interpreting
the rose is an example of cognition.

The term, cognition, refers to thought processes. Thus, environmental cognition concerns thinking
about the environment (i.e., how individuals process information and organize their knowledge
about the characteristics of their environment). Also, of interest is how this knowledge is acquired,
or learned, as well as how individuals differ in their knowledge of the environment. Finally,
environmental cognition concerns how variations in the environment affect the ability to
understand the setting. For example, important differences in knowledge exist between familiar
versus novel environments. We will consider novel environments first.

 Responses to Novel Environments:

From the participant's point of view, the environment is typically neutral and enters into awareness
only when it deviates from some adaptation level. Your first few days on campus can be thought
of as a non-neutral situation, one that from your perspective at the time deviated from the norm
and made you self-consciously aware of your new surroundings. Ittleson, Proshansky, Rivlin, &
Winkel (1974) claim that in situations of this kind, six different but interrelated types of responses
occur: affect, orientation, categorization, systemization, manipulation, and encoding. While in
the following paragraphs, we will discuss each of these in the order just presented, these responses
are probably not made serially. Each tends to blend with the other as we attempt to bring the
environment and ourselves into a state of equilibrium.

 Affect: The nature of our affective response to new environments will depend on many
factors, some of which will be discussed later in this chapter. At a minimum, the effect will
consist of a heightened degree of awareness and arousal occasioned by the need to know,
predict, and therefore to feel in control of and secure in an unknown setting. Affect is our
emotional response. For example, you might enter into a new building and say that I feel
happy/secure here or I feel sad/insecure here. Aside from this general reaction, several other
feelings may emerge because of the particular characteristics of a new setting. Discovering
that the tennis courts are close to the dorm may lead to happiness, whereas finding that you
live adjacent to the cemetery might lead to fear and nervousness. The thought of long walks
to the library through a grove of oak trees might conjure romantic images and feelings of
love, or graven images of rapists and muggers, leading to fear and anxiety. Such affective
responses, both general and specific, may govern the direction that subsequent relations
with the environment will take. First impressions (feelings) about places can and do have
enduring consequences.

 Orientation. Individuals in a new setting actively seek to find their place, their niche. This
is primarily a cognitive process and involves scoping out a place. For example, a student
goes to the USA for studies. On his first day in university, the excitement will be followed

51
 by insecurity which prompts him to learn about his environment so that he can find out his
role in it and adjust to it.

Six steps come under our responses to novel environments: affect, orientation, categorization,
systemization, manipulation, and encoding. Affect and Orientation have been discussed in this
lecture however all six processes will also be discussed in the next lecture again in detail.

52
Lesson # 12
RESPONSSES TO NOVEL
ENVIRRONMENTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL COGNITION

Responses to Novel Environments

A novel environment is an unfamiliar or new setting that a person encounters for the first time
or after a long period of absence. Ittleson, Proshansky, Rivlin, & Winkel (1974) claim that in
situations of this kind, six different but interrelated types of responses occur: affect, orientation,
categorization, systemization, manipulation, encoding. While in the following paragraphs we
will discuss each of these in the order just presented, these responses are probably not made
serially. In fact, each tends to blend with the other as we attempt to bring the environment and
ourselves into a state of equilibrium.

Affect
The nature of our affective response to new environments will depend on many factors, some
of which will be discussed later in this chapter. At a minimum, the affect will consist of a
heightened degree of awareness and arousal induced by the need to know, predict, and therefore
to feel in control of and secure in an unknown setting. Aside from this general reaction, a
number of other feelings may emerge because of the particular characteristics of a new setting.
Discovering that the tennis courts are close to the dorm may lead to happiness, whereas finding
that you live adjacent to the cemetery might lead to fear and nervousness. Such affective
responses, both general and specific, may govern the direction that subsequent relations with
the environment will take. First impressions (feelings) about places can and do have enduring
consequences.

Orientation
Individuals in a new setting actively seek to find their place. This is primarily a cognitive
process and to use a slang expression involves "scoping out" a place. You probably asked
yourself on those first days: Where, relative to my dorm, is the dining hall, the recreation center,
the library? Where do you go to buy books, to get athletic tickets, to pay parking fees? Which
dorm is the one that your cousin Fred lives in? Ittleson, et al. (1974) describe the process of
finding answers to these questions. Orientation, in short, expresses a person's desire to "know
where one is" physically in relation to the total milieu. Here we see the beginning of
environmental cognition, with the individual actively attempting to identify the location of
important stimuli in the new environment in relation to where one is at.

Categorization
In new situations, though, a person does more than just orient; he or she also categorizes. The
individual evaluates the new environment and imposes his or her own unique meaning to
various aspects of it. Not only do people ask where they can get a pizza, but they also ask where
to find the best or the cheapest pizza. Categorization is therefore the process of extending the
meaning of the environment by functionally relating its various aspects to one's own needs,
predispositions, and values. Thus, categorization represents a more sophisticated understanding
of the environment than simple orientation, in that the individual now knows several instances
of stimuli in a particular category and is able to distinguish among them in terms of their
relative utility to the satisfaction of one's needs.

53
Systemization
It is difficult to say where categorization leaves off and sys-temization begins, but at some
point individuals organize their environments into more meaningful and more complex
structures. They know, for example, the best time to go to the library, not only in terms of when
it is the quietest, but also when it is easiest to find a place to park, or when the most helpful
librarians are working, or when the latest issue of Sports Illustrated arrives.

Manipulation
Out of such systemization, individuals achieve a sense of order and understanding; they not
only know the new setting but they can predict it and make it work to their benefit. If people
have ordered their environment, they usually can manipulate it or control it to their advantage.
For example, If the cheapest pizza parlor in town is closed, they know how to get to the second
cheapest, or know their options with respect to having Chinese or Mexican food instead.

Encoding
Encoding represents the highest level of understanding about the environment, because the
individual is no longer tied to concrete perceptions of the setting. People can function more
effectively with this knowledge, and can also communicate with others about using shared
symbols. Encoding allows us to "think-travel" through environments (see Figure 2-5) and to
prepare us for changes in our interrelationships with our environments.

Characteristics of Cognitive Maps

A cognitive map is a mental representation of the physical environment. It involves perceiving,
storing, processing, and recalling spatial information using our brain’s cognitive abilities. It is
a vital skill that helps us navigate and interact with our surroundings A common approach to
studying spatial cognition is to ask people to draw "sketch maps" of environments. Research
indicates that sketch maps are a reliable method of data collection (Blades, 1990). Lynch (1960)
conducted one of the first comprehensive studies of the nature of cognitive maps when he asked
residents of three American cities (Boston, Los Angeles, and Jersey City) to draw maps of their
city environments. He analyzed these drawings for commonalities in the features of people's
mental images of their cities. This resulted in the identification of five major characteristics:

1- Paths
2- Edges
3- Districts
4- Nodes
5- Landmarks

54
Lesson # 13
CHARACTERISTICS OF COGNITIVE MAPS
A common approach to studying spatial cognition is to ask people to draw "sketch maps" of
environments. Research indicates that sketch maps are a reliable method of data collection
(Blades, 1990). Lynch (1960) conducted one of the first comprehensive studies of the nature
of cognitive maps when he asked residents of three American cities (Boston, Los Angeles, and
Jersey City) to draw maps of their city environments. He analyzed these drawings for
commonalities in the features of people's mental images of their cities. This resulted in the
identification of five major characteristics:

(1) Paths: Major arteries of traffic flow through the city (e.g., Main Street)
(2) Edges: Major lines (either natural or built) that divide areas of the city or delimit the
boundaries (e.g., river)
(3) Districts: Large sections of the city that have a distinct identity (e.g., "Chinatown");
(4) Nodes: Points of intersection of major arteries (e.g., the corner of Twelfth Street and Vine)
(5) Landmarks: Architecturally unique structures that can be seen from a distance and can be
used as reference points (e.g., a tall building). Thus, the objective physical setting comes to be
represented
as "cognitive space," organized and structured mentally in terms of distinct "regions" of the
environment.
According to the "anchor-point" hypothesis (the regionalization and hierarchical
organization of cognitive space is brought about by the active role of salient cues in the
environment. For example, primary nodes or other reference points "anchor" distinct regions
in cognitive space. These components or reference points provide the "skeleton" of the
individual's map. As we shall see, the degree and accuracy of the detail of the remainder of the
map is a function of both aspects of the environment and individual differences.

Factors Affecting Cognitive Maps

Environmental Differences:
Environments differ from one another in the ease with which people can develop cognitive
maps of them. Lynch (1960) coined the term legibility to refer to the extent to which the spatial
arrangement of a city facilitates a clear and unified image in the minds of its inhabitants. For
example, Boston provides a clear center, the Boston Common, around which people organize
their cognitive maps. On the other hand, Los Angeles does not appear to have any central core,
but sprawls out in all directions, which inhibits an organized mental representation. Milgram
and his associates (Milgram, Greenwald, Kessler, McKenna, & Waters, 1972) argued that
recognizable areas of an environment are important for developing accurate cognitive maps.
They proposed the following formula for predicting the recognizability of an area:
R=f (CxD).
This formula is read, "The recognizability of an area (R) is determined by its centrality to
population flow (C) and its architectural or social distinctive-ness (D)." Thus, environments
that have structures that stand out (such as a hilltop church) and are frequently passed by people
facilitate a clear picture of the setting in the minds of the inhabitants.
Both environmental differences can be understood in terms of the "anchor-point" hypothesis
in spatial cognition. That is, salient, objective physical cues in the environment facilitate the
accurate organization of cognitive space, and the absence of such reference points inhibits
accuracy.

55
Errors in Cognitive Maps:
The physical characteristics of a setting are not the only determinants of the accuracy and detail
of cognitive maps. People are prone to a number of cognitive errors in the process of developing
cognitive maps. Downs & Stea (1973) point out that most of us form incomplete maps, leaving
out both minor and major details; we tend to distort our maps, by placing some areas closer
together than they actually are and others farther apart than they actually are; and, we
sometimes augment our maps by
including elements that do not actually exist. Further, we often give under prominence to areas
of the environment that are personally meaningful or important to us. For example, Saarinen
(1973) asked students from different countries to draw maps of the world. He found that the
students tended to draw their own countries in the center of the map, drawing them larger than
countries that are larger than their own. Other recent studies have demonstrated errors in
estimations of the differences in elevation between locations (Garling, Book, Lindberg, &
Arce, 1990) and memory for turns of varying angularity encountered during pathway traversal
(Sadalla & Montello, 1989).
The above errors are most likely due to limitations in human spatial cognitive abilities, rather
than to objective environmental characteristics. As with any kind of information-processing
task, the accuracy of our spatial knowledge of the environment is unlikely to ever be complete,
and some tasks are easier than others. For example, Teske & Balser (1986) asked individuals
to identify various destinations in a city and their strategic ordering (i.e., plan itineraries), and
Veitch & O'Connor (1987) asked students to do the same on their college campus. Subjects
found planning itineraries more difficult because this requires a higher-level cognitive
organization. That is, while the former task requires knowledge only of the route from point A
to B, the latter also requires knowledge of the route from B to C and the interrelationships
among A, B, and C. Moeser (1988) has suggested such "survey maps" do not automatically
develop in complex environments. She reported that student nurses failed to form survey maps
of a hospital with a unique configuration, even after traversing it for two years. Further, these
students performed worse on objective measures of cognitive mapping than did a control group
of "naive" college students who were first asked to memorize the floor plans of the building.

Finally, Stanton (1986) investigated the relationship between "socio-spatial neighbourhood"

(the perception of a street network without continuous boundaries) and the experience of "home
ground" (defined as the mental form and geographical extent of those places that evoke a
feeling of being near home). She reported that only residents of city blocks that were no more
than 460 feet long were able to think of their home ground as an experiential network,
concluding that there may be a mental time limit to such cognitions. Thus, these studies all
suggest that general cognitive limitations of information processing • are involved in spatial
cognition as in any other type of complex task, and these limitations are a major source of
errors in cognitive maps.

Individual Differences:
Investigators have also suggested that some people seem to be better at forming cognitive maps
than others. For example, gender differences have been reported. Appleyard (1970) reported
that the cognitive maps of men are generally more accurate than are those of women. More
recently, Ward, Newcombe, & Overton (1986) examined how men and women gave directions
from maps that had been memorized. Male subjects exhibited higher levels of cognitive
organization, such as using more mileage estimates and cardinal directions (i.e., east, west,
north, and south) and made fewer errors of commission or omission than did female subjects.
Antes, McBride, & Collins (1988) reported that distance judgments of women were more
affected by a change in travel paths through a city occasioned by the construction of a new

56
connecting street than were men. They suggested that women based their judgments on
inferences from travel paths, while men approached the task in a more spatial manner. Orleans
& Schmidt (1972) reported that women's maps were more detailed for the home and
neighbourhood than were those of men, whereas men's cognitive maps were more
comprehensive and complete for the larger surrounding environment. Finally, some
investigators have reported socioeconomic differences, suggesting that the cognitive maps of
people low in socioeconomic status are also less complete and accurate than are those
individuals of higher socioeconomic status (Goodchild, 1974; Orleans, 1973).
Note that the individual differences listed above may not be due to differences in ability, but
rather to differences in familiarity. That is, there is much evidence that people draw more
detailed and accurate maps of areas with which they have had more experience (and thus are
more familiar to them) than areas where they have spent little time (e.g., Appleyard, 1970;
Evans, 1980; Holahan & Dobrowolny, 1978; Moore,1974). Of course, it stands to reason that
we would have better images of settings that are familiar to us than of unfamiliar places. Indeed,
some of the studies on errors in cognitive maps discussed earlier also indicated that the extent
of error can be moderated by experience.
Moreover, typically there are differences in mobility among the groups discussed above (i.e.,
in opportunity for travel through the setting). Thus, for example, if a husband works and the
wife stay at home, it is not surprising that the husband would develop a better cognitive map
of areas beyond the immediate neighbourhood while the wife would develop a more detailed
map of the local environment. Similarly, people of higher socioeconomic status have much
greater mobility to gain experience in the larger environment than do individuals of lower
socioeconomic status. These suggestions are supported by the research of investigators who
have controlled for mobility (e.g., Appleyard, 1976; Karan, Bladen, & Singh, 1980; Maurer &
Baxter, 1972). While the individual differences reported above could be due to inherent
differences in spatial ability, this seems unlikely to be the major reason. A study by Pearson
and lalongo (1986) measured spatial ability and environmental knowledge independently.
Spatial ability accounted for only 14 percent of the variance in environmental knowledge. Thus,
learning brought about by relevant experience in an environment is likely to be a more
important determinant of the accuracy of cognitive maps than are the individual or cultural
differences discussed above.

57
Lesson # 14
ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION

The question of how we come to evaluate an environment favourably or unfavourably is a

complex one, yet it is an important one for predicting behaviour. At a very general level, people
prefer and approach environments they evaluate favourably and avoid environments they
evaluate negatively. Environmental psychologists have dealt with the first question using a
variety of operational definitions. For example, a favourable evaluation could be viewed as a
preference for certain configurations of stimuli in some environments over that of other
environments, a cognitive judgment of beauty, or as a positive affective reaction to the
environment. Each of these approaches has led to the identification of different, though related,
aspects of the physical environment as determinants of evaluative responses. The answer to the
question "What aspects of the environment lead to a favourable evaluation?" is going to depend
on the answer to the question "What is meant by a favourable evaluation?" Consideration of
each of these approaches, as well as their implications for the relationship between
environmental evaluation and behaviour follows.
Kaplan’s Model of Environmental Preference:
Would you rather be here or there? Kaplan (1975) developed a model for predicting
preferences of some environments over others. This model provides a link between
environmental cognition and evaluation, in that it assumes an important dimension of
environmental preference to be the informational content of those environments. For example,
Kaplan (1979) suggested that one basis for preferences is the ability of the individual to "make
sense" out of the environment and the extent to which the environment involves the individual
by motivating him or her to try to comprehend it.
Basic Assumptions of Kaplan’s Model:
Individual base their preference for certain environments upon two factors:
➢ Can they make sense of it.
➢ Is there something in that environment that motivates them to learn more about that
particular environment.
Kaplan & Kaplan (1978) identified four important factors influencing our preferences:
1- Coherence:
The degree to which the environment is organized and harmonious, with clear patterns
and relationships among its elements.
2- Legibility:
The degree to which the environment is easy to understand and navigate, with distinctive
features and landmarks that help orientation and wayfinding.
3- Complexity:
The degree to which the environment offers variety and diversity of elements, colors,
shapes, and textures, without being overwhelming or chaotic.
4- Mystery:
The degree to which the environment invites exploration and discovery, with hidden or
partially revealed elements that arouse curiosity and interest.

Impact of the Four Factors:

➢ People prefer environments high on coherence and legibility to those that are low
on these factors.
➢ Greater degree of complexity and mystery produce a preference for a setting.

Kaplan (1987) has recently argued for a biological basis to such preferences.
Biological basis to Preferences:

58
 There is a survival value to preferring environments that offer informational advantages
over others.
The Kaplans' recent research points to the importance of mystery in predicting landscape
preferences (Kaplan, Kaplan, & Brown, 1989), but others have applied their model to
predict preferences for urban environments (Her-zog, 1989) and interiors (Scott, 1989).
Environmental Aesthetics:
Aesthetic is actually our sense to appreciate beauty. Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?
Apart from the intuitive appeal of the notion that beauty is a subjective and relative concept,
psychologists have attempted to identify objective dimensions of environments that lead to
judgments of their aesthetic appeal. The assumption is that although there may indeed be
individual differences in judgments of beauty, it is still possible to identify commonalities
in what most people consider to be beautiful. For example, most people consider the Grand
Canyon to be beautiful and a junk yard to be ugly. By researching a variety of settings, it
is possible to identify dimensions along which different environments judged to be
beautiful are similar.
We will discuss Environmental Aesthetics in detail in the next lecture

59
Lesson # 15
Environmental Evaluation (Affective Bases of Environmental Evaluation)

Environmental Aesthetics:
Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? Apart from the intuitive appeal of the notion that beauty
is a subjective and relative concept, psychologists have attempted to identify objective
dimensions of environments that lead to judgments of their aesthetic appeal. The assumption
is that although there may indeed be individual differences in judgments of beauty, it is still
possible to identify commonalities in what most people consider to be beautiful. For example,
most people consider the Grand Canyon to be beautiful and a junk yard to be ugly. By
researching a variety of settings, it is possible to identify dimensions along which different
environments judged to be beautiful are similar.
Berlyne (1960) conducted one of the first important series of studies along these lines. He
identified four basic collative properties of environments.

Collative Properties of Environment:

Characteristics of the environment that cause us to compare present settings to previous settings
we have encountered.
1. Complexity
It refers to the degree of variety in the elements of the environment
2. Novelty
is the extent to which stimuli not previously encountered or noticed are present.
3. Incongruity
Concerns the extent to which the environment contains stimuli that do not seem to "go
together" harmoniously
4. Surprisingness
It refers to the environment that contains elements that we do not expect to be present.

Berlyne Arguments 1974:

• Aesthetic judgments are most positive for environments at intermediate levels of
each of these dimensions.
• we judge either too much or too little complexity, novelty, incongruity, or
surprisingness of an environment.

Wohlwill (1976)
Wohlwill suggested that judgment of beauty increase consistently with increases in novelty
and surprisingness, as well as with decreases in incongruity.

Collative properties of Environment and Exploratory Behaviours

There are two types of exploratory behaviours:

1. Specific Exploration
Specific exploration increases as the level of uncertainty in the environment increases.
Presumably, uncertainty creates arousal, which leads to specific exploration to identify the
source of the arousal.
2. Diversive Exploration
Diversive exploration occurs when uncertainty-arousal levels are low. In other words, when
the collative properties of an environment are at low levels, we feel under stimulated or bored,
and we search the environment for ways to increase our arousal level.

60
Affective Bases for Environmental Evaluation
Affective responses to environment are determined by degree of discrepancy between current
levels of stimulation and the adaptation level (i.e. the level of stimulation, we have become
accustomed to).
Wohlwill’s Butterfly Curve Hypothesis:

Wohlwill proposed the butterfly curve hypothesis predicting a curvilinear relationship between
positive affect and discrepancies resulting in either increases or decreases in arousal from
adaptation level (see Figure above). That is, we view moderate increases or decreases in
stimulation from adaption level as pleasant. However, extreme deviations in either Direction
result in negative affect. This approach is useful in accounting for individual differences in
evaluations of a setting. Individual differences in adaption level result from living in different
environments, leading to what might be called the "one person's ceiling is another person's
floor" effect. That is, the same environment might be perceived as overstimulation to one
person while under stimulating to another. For example, a person raised in a small rural town
in Iowa might perceive a city of 20,000 people overwhelming, while the same city might be
perceived as boring to a person raised in Chicago. Note, however, that both individuals would
experience negative affect, because the discrepancies from their adaptation levels are extreme,
even though in different directions.
Mehrabian & Russell (1974)
The work of Mehrabian & Russell (1974) has added considerably to our understanding of the
relationship among stimulation levels, arousal, and positive/negative affective responses to
environments. Their model accounts for the relationship between these variables and behavior.
Mehrabian and Russell propose the concept of information rate to define environmental
stimulation level. Information rate refers to the average amount of information impinging on
the senses per unit of time. This concept can be used to integrate the various dimensions of
environmental stimulation discussed above, such as complexity, novelty, incongruity,
surprisingness, mystery, and coherence, in that all of these dimensions contribute to the
information rate of a setting. Mehrabian & Russell(1974) present a great deal of research
demonstrating that arousal is a direct correlate of information rate, and that approach behaviors
in an environment (i.e., seeking out or desiring to remain in a setting) are greatest for

61
intermediate levels of arousal. However, Mehrabian and Russell suggest that the curvilinear
relationship between approach and arousal is moderated by the degree of pleasure a person
experiences. Specifically, this relationship appears to hold only when pleasure is at an
intermediate level. When pleasure is extremely high, approach behaviors strengthen with
increases or decreases in arousal, and when pleasure is extremely low, both increases and
decreases in arousal lead to avoidance behaviors.
We will discuss remaining part of Affective Bases for Environmental Evaluation in detail
in the next lecture.

62
Lesson # 16
Environmental Attitudes

Russell & Pratt Model of Emotional Reactions to Environment:

Russell & Pratt (1980), proposed a model of emotional reactions to environments in which
arousal and pleasure are viewed as independent dimensions. This is illustrated in Figure below.
As can be seen, the model depicts all possible combinations of pleasure and arousal. Thus,
environments high in arousal can be perceived as pleasant (i.e./'exciting" settings, such as a
football game), as can environments low in arousal (i.e./'relaxing" settings, as a picnic in the
park). Note that we are likely to engage in approach behaviors to both types of environments.
The same can be said of avoidance behaviors to unpleasant environments high in arousal.

FIGURE: Circular ordering of eight terms to describe the emotional quality of environments
(from Russell and Pratt, 1980).
("Distressing" settings, such as a final exam) and low in arousal ("gloomy" settings, such as a
funeral). This circumplex model has been recently demonstrated to reliably differentiate
between people's experiences in and preferences for suburban parks (Hull & Harvey, 1989).

Environmental Attitudes:
The relationships among the processes of environmental perception, cognition, and evaluation
as well as their effects on behaviour can be best summarized in the notion of environmental
attitudes.
Attitude:
Attitude involves the way we think about, feel about and behave towards an object. Attitude
consists of a cognitive component, affective component, and behavioural component.

• Cognitive component:

63
 Processes by which we perceive our environment and how the perceptual processes are
involved in developing our cognition and understanding of the environment.
• Affective component:
It refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object,
person, issue, or situation.
• Behavioural component:
Particular characteristics of cognitions that have implications for one’s overall attitude
towards environment.

Environmental Attitude Formation:

Social psychologists have devoted considerable time and effort toward understanding
the processes by which attitudes are formed. We will consider environmental attitude
formation as a special case of the general process by which any attitude is formed. Most
explanations of attitude development invoke learning principles such as classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Each of these principles
will be discussed below, but we will first consider two important cognitive foundations
of attitudes: beliefs and values.
Beliefs:
The way people feel towards things. Beliefs form the basis of our understanding and
perception of the world.
Values:
Values are the characteristics patterns of behaving towards certain things. Values can
include concepts like fairness, integrity, and respect for others, and they influence how
people interact with the world around them
Daryl Bern (1970) has suggested that beliefs constitute the cognitive "building blocks"
of attitudes.

Types of Beliefs
1. Primitive beliefs
2. Higher order beliefs

Primitive beliefs:
Primitive beliefs are non-conscious (i.e., they are accepted as givens, and are seldom
consciously questioned). Primitive beliefs are either based on direct experience (e.g., the belief
in the validity of our sense impressions) or on external authority (e.g., the belief that if Mommy
says so, it must be true). The processes of sensation and perception discussed earlier are
involved in the development of primitive beliefs. Because we have faith in our sensory
impressions, if something smells or tastes bad, we will hold a negative attitude toward that
thing. Alternatively, if Mommy tells us that we will get sick if we eat something, since we
believe (at least as young children) that "Mommy is always right and never lies," we will also
develop a negative attitude toward that thing.

Higher order beliefs:

These beliefs involve the insertion of a conscious premise in the thought process of arriving at
the belief, i.e. the belief that air pollution is bad for health. For example, if I believe that air
pollution leads to respiratory illness, it is unlikely that I arrived at that belief through direct
experience or because Mommy said so. Rather, it is more probable that I heard a newscast
reporting the results of a study conducted by the office of the Surgeon General warning of the
health hazards of air pollution
We will discuss more about “Beliefs and its types” in next lecture.

64
Lesson # 17
Environmental Attitude Formation

Depth and Breadth of Beliefs

Depth:
Many premises leading to the same conclusion.
Breadth:
Many syllogisms/ deductive reasoning leading to the same conclusion.

To complicate matters further, although the language of syllogisms, premises, and conclusions
suggests that the process of arriving at higher-order beliefs is inherently logical and rational,
this is not necessarily the case. Bern invokes the idea of psychological to account for irrational
beliefs that are nonetheless internally consistent in the individual's cognitive structures.
Further, it is possible to believe that something is bad for you but still evaluate the thing
favorably. For example, I may know that smoking is bad for me, but simultaneously enjoy it
(or alternatively, I may believe that exercise is good, but I may hate it anyway!).

Values:
Values can be defined as basic preferences for certain end states (see Rokeach, 1968). For
example, equality is a value referring to an end state such as equal opportunity. Values serve
as the functional basis for attitudes. That is, holding a particular attitude is a means for attaining
a preferred end state. Thus, a person who strongly values equality is likely to be in favor of
civil rights legislation. Similarly, if one values clean air, then that person is likely to evaluate
actions to control pollution favorably. Indeed, Neuman (1986) has reported that values
pertaining to environmental quality are positively related to beliefs about the efficacy and
necessity of conservation and actual conservation behavior.

Affective Bases for Attitude:

Most social psychologists believe that the affective component of an attitude is learned. One
important theory of attitude formation is The Byrne-Clore reinforcement-affect model (Byrne,
1971; Byrne & Clore, 1970). This model is based on principles of classical conditioning.
Specifically, if an affectively "neutral" stimulus (called a conditioned stimulus) is paired with
a stimulus that does elicit an affective response (called an unconditioned stimulus), and then
the previously neutral stimulus will acquire the same ability to produce the response. The
affective response to the unconditioned stimulus is referred to as an unconditioned response,
because it occurs unconditionally (i.e., without the organism having to learn the response). The
acquired response is called a conditioned response, because the organism must be conditioned
to make the response in the presence of that stimulus (i.e., the organism must "learn" the
response through association). This model can be readily applied to the conditioning of the
affective component of environmental attitudes (see Figure below).

65
Do not think about the environment if the stimulation levels are within some optimal range).
However, if some quality of the environment changes to deviate from the optimal stimulation
level, a negative affective response automatically occurs. Through association, the entire
environment comes to elicit the same negative affect. For example, when you first encountered
your dormitory room, your affective response to the desk in the room (the "conditioned
stimulus") was likely to have been neutral. However, if when you sat down to study at the desk,
your neighbour turned rock music (the "unconditioned stimulus”) on his or her stereo at full
volume; you may have experienced negative affect (the "unconditioned response"). If this
happened repeatedly, you would develop a negative affective response to your desk (the
"conditioned response").

Behavioural Bases of Attitudes

Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1938)

Any behaviour that is followed by a pleasant consequence will increase in frequency.
Behaviours that lead to unpleasant consequences will become extinguished, that is, they will
not be repeated. The expression of a particular attitude is a form of behaviour, and can therefore
be operantly conditioned as any other behaviour. Thus, we learn to express attitudes that lead
to favourable consequences for us, and we avoid attitudes that pose aversive consequences. For
example, he used a specially designed box, known as the Skinner Box, to analyse the learning
behaviour’s of pigeons. In these experiments, pigeons were placed in the box and had to peck
at a disc to receive food as a reward. Skinner manipulated various conditions to study the effects
of different reinforcement schedules on the pigeons' behaviour.

We will discuss more about “Instrumental conditioning” in next lecture.

66
Lesson # 18
Social Bases of Attitudes

Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1938)

Operant conditioning is a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner that describes how
behaviors are influenced by their consequences. It's based on the idea that behaviors followed
by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative
outcomes are less likely to be repeated. Here's a detailed explanation:

How Operant Conditioning Works:

• Reinforcement:
This is any consequence that strengthens the behavior it follows. There are two types of
reinforcement:

• Positive Reinforcement:
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior. For example, giving a child a treat when
they clean their room.

• Negative Reinforcement:
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior. For example, buckling the seatbelt to
stop the car from beeping.

• Punishment:
This is any consequence that decreases the behavior it follows. Like reinforcement, punishment
can also be positive or negative:

• Positive Punishment:
Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, scolding a pet for
misbehaving.

• Negative Punishment:
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, taking away a teenager's
gaming privileges for not doing homework.

Social Bases of Attitudes

Another important way in which attitudes are formed is through observation of other people's
expression of attitudes and the consequences of their attitudes.

Social Learning:
The process of learning via observation of a model's behavior is known as social learning.

Vicarious Learning:
The means by which we are influenced by the consequences of the model's behavior is known
as vicarious conditioning.

If an individual observes another person expressing a particular attitude, and also observes that
the attitude led to favorable consequences, then the individual will imitate the model's behavior
in anticipation of incurring the same favorable consequences. For example, if a person who
works for an oil company observes a co-worker express opposition to a windfall profits tax,

67
and the co-worker is praised by the boss, then the individual is likely to imitate this opposition
in anticipation of also gaining the boss's approval.
Another way in which social influences can impact attitudes is through the dynamics of
interpersonal processes. Put simply, if my friends have pro-environmental attitudes, and I enjoy
my friends' company, then I am likely to adopt similar attitudes. Manzo & Weinstein (1987)
studied differences in active and nonactive members of the Sierra Club and reported significant
differences in commitment to environmental protection as a function of club-related
friendships. Thus, friends tend mutually to reinforce attitudes toward the environment.

Attitudes and Behavior

A major assumption of research on attitude formation is that attitudes mediate behaviors which
are consistent with those attitudes. Thus, if I hold an attitude favoring energy conservation, it
would be expected that this attitude would mediate behaviors such as walking instead of driving
to work, or turning my thermostat down during the winter and up during the summer. Although
this may seem like an obvious and reasonable assumption, in recent year’s research has led
social psychologists to question the degree to which attitudes do, indeed, reliably predict
behavior (e.g., Wicker, 1969). These studies have suggested that there is much less consistency
between measured attitudes and subsequent behaviors than had previously been assumed.

Attitude-Behavior Consistency
The major principle of consistency theories of attitude-behavior relationships (see Festinger,
1957) is that people strive to maintain logical consistency between cognitions about their
attitudes and cognitions about relevant behaviors in which they engage. Thus, if a person has
the opinion that air pollution should be brought under control, a logically consistent behavior
would be to vote for measures requiring utility companies to install pollution-control
equipment in energy plants.

Cognitive Discomfort:
Cognitive discomfort, often referred to as cognitive dissonance, is the mental stress or unease
experienced when an individual holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes
simultaneously. This state of tension arises when there is an inconsistency between what a
person believes and how they behave.
In context to the above-mentioned example of air pollution, If this person knows that he or she
voted against such a measure, the perceived attitude-behavior inconsistency would create a
state of cognitive discomfort, which would motivate the individual to attempt to restore
consistency. This would be accomplished either by changing the attitude (e.g., deciding that
pollution control is not as important as controlling the costs of energy production), or by
changing the behavior (e.g., by voting in favor of the next such measure).

68
Lesson # 19
Impact of Environment on Individual (Personality Development and Individual
Differences)

Personality:
“Personality consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought, behavior and
emotional response that characterize a person’s adaptations to surrounding circumstances.”
(Maddi 1976, Mischel 1976).
Personality can also be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by
a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various
situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin word persona, which means mask.
For example, someone might be described as outgoing, empathetic, and shy, indicating traits
that make up their personality.

Personality Development:
Emergence of distinctive style of thoughts, feelings, and behaviour that make each human
being a unique individual.

Two questions for Personality Psychologists:

1. Individual Differences
When several people encounter the same situation, why don’t they all react alike?
2. Environmental impact
What is the relationship between human behavior and environment?

Personality Research – Theoretical Frameworks

• Trait Theory
• Murray’s Theory of Personality
• Interactionist Perspective
• Metron’s Notion of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Trait Theories of Personality

Trait:
Relatively enduring way in which an individual differs from others.
• Personality traits are relatively stable over time.
• Personality traits are consistent over situations.
• Intensity of traits.

1. Gordon Allport Trait Theory:

Allport & Odbert developed the first trait theory, and they categorized traits into three levels
(1961).

Cardinal traits:
These traits dominate and shape a person’s behavior, so much so that they seem to become
synonymous with the person. These include the need for money, ambition, etc.
Central traits:
These traits are less dominating, and they are present in all human beings to different degrees.
For example, “honesty” or “intelligence”.
Secondary traits:
These traits are very specific behaviors or preferences that appear in certain contexts, say being
impatient while waiting.

69
 2. Raymond Cattell
Cattell reduced the size of Allport’s list to make it more manageable and created a science of
personality. In this way, he found out that personality consists of 16 distinct units, which he
called source traits (1978).
3. Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck felt that even five factors were too many. So, he created a three-dimension
model, which included extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck also claimed that
individual differences are biologically rooted: introverts have central nervous systems that are
more sensitive to stimulation and so avoid intense sources of excitement. (1967)

70
Lesson # 20
Murray’s Theory of Personality Development And Interactionist Perspective

Henry Murray and Psychogenic Needs

American psychologist Henry Murray (1893-1988) developed a theory of personality that was
organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs. Murray described a needs as a, "potentiality
or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances" (1938)
Theories of personality based upon needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a
reflection of behaviors controlled by needs. While some needs are temporary and changing,
other needs are more deeply seated in our nature. According to Murray, these psychogenic
needs function mostly on the unconscious level, but play a major role in our personality.

Murray's Types of Needs

Murray identified needs of two types:

1. Primary Needs
Primary needs are based upon biological demands, such as the need for oxygen,
food, and water.
2. Secondary Needs
Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need for nurturing,
independence, and achievement.

List of Psychogenic Needs

The following is a partial list of 24 needs identified by Murray and his colleagues. According
to Murray, all people have these needs, but each individual tends to have a certain level of each
need.

1. Ambition Needs
• Achievement: Success, accomplishment, and overcoming obstacles.
• Exhibition: Shocking or thrilling other people.
• Recognition: Displaying achievements and gaining social status.

2. Materialistic Needs
• Acquisition: Obtaining things.
• Construction: Creating things.
• Order: Making things neat and organized.
• Retention: Keeping things.

3. Power Needs
• Abasement: Confessing and apologizing.
• Autonomy: Independence and resistance.
• Aggression: Attacking or ridiculing others.
• Blame Avoidance: Following the rules and avoiding blame.
• Deference: Obeying and cooperating with others.
• Dominance: Controlling others.

4. Affection Needs
• Affiliation: Spending time with other people.
• Nurturance: Taking care of another person.
• Play: Having fun with others.

71
• Rejection: Rejecting other people.
• Succorance: Being helped or protected by others.

5. Information Needs
• Cognizance: Seeking knowledge and asking questions.
• Exposition: Education others.

Interactionism: The interactionist perspective on the situation vs. person

Traits and Situations interact to influence behavior - how else could it be? Its like the genetics
vs. environment issue, one cannot exist without the other). So, the trait and situationist
perspectives are too simplistic: reality is more complex. In reality, different situations affect
different people in different ways. Some situations allow expression of personality; other
situations provoke a narrower range of behavior. Thus, Behavior = personality x interpretation
of the situation It is vital to appreciate that there are individual differences in the personality-
situation relationship.
Research (Kenrid et al, 1990) has shown that a trait will show up only in a situation where it is
relevant. So anxiety may show up as a predictor of behavior some situations, and not others.
Also, some situations allow expression of personality; others provoke narrower range of
behavior.

Mischel’s Contention (1968)

Human behaviour across situations is unpredictable in terms of personal factors alone.
Walter Mischel's contention revolves around the interaction between individuals and their
environments. He suggested that behavior is not solely a result of internal traits but is
significantly influenced by the external situation and context. Mischel argued that an
individual's behavior is better predicted by understanding the specific circumstances they are
in, rather than relying on broad trait-based predictions.
Mischel's view challenges traditional trait theories that suggest personality traits are consistent
across different situations. Instead, he posited that there is a dynamic interplay between the
person and the situation, where the environment can shape behavior just as much as an
individual's personality traits can.
It emphasizes the role of situational factors in shaping behavior and suggests that modifying
the environment can lead to changes in behavior. Mischel's work encourages a more integrative
approach that considers both personal characteristics and environmental influence.

Behavior Contingency Units

Behavior Contingency Units are the close association between a person’s behavior and the
stimulus or cue properties of the setting in which it occurs. Substantial proportion of behavioral
variance is accounted for by situational variables.

Bowers, Bem and Allen’s Viewpoint

• Situations are as much a product of the person as the person’s behavior is function of
the situation.
• The individual’s capacity to shape the environment is evidenced quite clearly through
behavioral processes such as art, architecture and community planning.
• Cognitive processes also play significant role in structuring the environment.

Metron’s Self Fulfilling Prophecy Self Fulfilling Prophecy

Person’s expectations about other people that lead him to act in a way that brings out the traits
that he expects them to have. This is where interactionsit view of the environment and behavior

72
assumes a dynamic interchange between man and the environment in which people affect, and
are affected by their settings.

73
Lesson # 21
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND STRESS

Humans are incredibly adaptable; when not satisfied with their lot, they have the intelligence
and ingenuity to create new things, to adapt to what is available, and even to adjust or alter
their living environment to make it more congenial. But this flexibility is daily being
challenged. Forces from within the species (e.g., violent crimes, war, acts of terrorism, and
genocide), widespread natural catastrophes (e.g., famines, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and
volcanic eruptions), and ever increasing and dangerous technological developments (e.g., faster
automobiles, increasing numbers of aircraft attempting to occupy the same air corridors,
escalating numbers of chemicals, and the proliferation of nuclear devices) are coalescing to test
the limits of human adaptability. Additionally, interpersonal forces demanding more material
goods and greater and more efficient provision of services are increasingly straining limited
physical and human resources.
Thus, over and over again in the course of daily living, we witness threats to human
adaptability, feel pressure for increased ingenuity to provide protection from external forces,
and struggle to reconcile material possessions with individual desires. The operation of these
forces is inextricably tied to what has commonly come to be labelled stress.

Technological Advancements:
The rapid pace of technological progress, while offering numerous benefits, also introduces
new risks. The increase in high-speed transportation options, such as faster automobiles and
densely populated air corridors, has led to heightened potential for accidents and collisions.
The chemical industry's expansion has resulted in a vast array of substances entering the
environment, many with unknown long-term effects on human health and ecosystems.
Furthermore, the spread of nuclear technology raises concerns about safety, waste
management, and the possibility of catastrophic events.

But what exactly is stress?

Personal accounts of stress, scales for measuring it, instructions for coping with it, and
personality tests to see how well one can endure it have found their way into print and are
supplemented by TV and radio accounts featuring self-proclaimed "experts" in its early
detection and management.

Defining Stress: Theoretical Perspectives

Stress has been defined as a state that occurs when people are faced with demands from the
environment that require them to change in some way. Most researchers agree with this
definition. What they do not agree on is whether stress is the demand itself or the person's
response to that demand.

Theoretical Models of Stress

Several models have been proposed to explain the stress phenomenon:

• The James-Lange Theory of Emotion: Suggests that emotions arise from physiological
responses to events. According to this theory, stress would be considered the physical response
to a demand.

74
• The Cannon-Bard Theory: Posits that emotions and physiological responses occur
simultaneously but independently. Here, stress could be seen as both the demand and the
response.

• The Schachter-Singer Theory: Asserts that emotions depend on physiological arousal and
the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. In this view, stress involves an element of personal
interpretation or appraisal of the demand.

Response Based Definition of Stress

The response-based definition of stress emphasizes the physiological & psychological
reactions that occur when an individual is faced with demanding or threatening situations.
• Physiological Responses:
Response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results in, pleasant or
unpleasant conditions." According to this definition, stress is conceptualized chiefly in terms
of the body's physiological reaction to any demand placed on it, like galvanic skin response,
change in heart rate and blood pressure etc.

Key Physiological Changes During Stress

• Cardiovascular System: During stress, heart rate and blood pressure increase to supply
more oxygen and nutrients to the muscles, preparing the body for action.

• Respiratory System: Breathing becomes more rapid to distribute oxygen quickly throughout
the body.

• Musculoskeletal System: Muscles tense up, readying the body for physical activity.

• Endocrine System: Stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released, triggering the
body's alert systems

• Psychological Responses:
The psychological response to stress typically involves a range of emotional and cognitive
reactions. These can include feelings of anxiety, worry, or fear, as well as difficulty
concentrating, confusion, loss of individual control, and loss of self esteem.

Emotional Reactions Under Stress

• Anxiety: A heightened state of alertness that prepares an individual to face potential threats.

• Worry: Persistent concern over stressors that may be real or imagined.

• Fear: An intense emotional response to immediate threats, which can activate the fight-or-
flight response.
Cognitive Reactions Under Stress

• Concentration Difficulties: Stress can impair the ability to focus, leading to decreased
productivity and performance.

• Confusion: The overwhelming nature of stress can cause disorientation and indecisiveness.

75
• Loss of Control: A perceived inability to manage one's circumstances or outcomes.

• Self-Esteem Issues: Chronic stress can deteriorate an individual's confidence and self-worth.

Objections to Response Based Definition

A major problem with this approach is that these same responses occur as a result of very
different stimuli (e.g., heart rate may increase as a result of physical exercise, viewing a horror
movie, riding a roller coaster, or waiting for a blind date). Likewise, the psychological
manifestations of anxiety, loss of felt control, and lowered self-esteem.

Stimulus-Based Definition of Stress:

Environmental events that impact on any of several response systems either immediately or as
a result of prolonged exposure.
Other theorists have argued for a stimulus-based definition of stress. They argue for taxonomy
of environmental events based on their covariation with systemic, psychological, and/or social
disturbance, and include such events as noise, air, and water pollution, population density,
odors, loss of loved ones, and changes in life style.
A stressful environment, for example, is one where noise level exceeds some specified decibel
(dB) level, or where the carbon dioxide concentration equals or exceeds some agreed-upon
value, or where environmental occupants exceed some number.

Problems with Stimulus Based Definition

It can be seen that a major problem with this view is that any stimulus may or may not be
disturbing (stressful) depending on the personality of the individuals involved, the situation in
which the event occurs, other competing behaviors, and the rewards and costs involved in
dealing with the event. For example, a loud stereo can be enjoyable at a party, but very
disturbing (stressful) if you are preparing for final exams; likewise, both high population
density and isolation can be stressful or enjoyable depending on the amount of contact desired.

76
Lesson # 22
Stress As Cause and Effect

It is possible to think of stress as both something that is happening to a person and the person's
response to what's happening. It involves environmental and psychological events, the
interpretation of these events, and behavioral as well as physiological responding. Noisy
environments, for example, may be related to physiological, psychological, and behavioral
changes in those exposed to the noise. These responses, in turn, may change the nature and
interpretation of the noise itself (i.e., noise changes neural activity in the reticular activating
system, which subsequently changes the organism's perception of the noise; this altered
perception, in turn, influences reticular activating system activity, and so on). Stress,
therefore, is neither the stimulus nor the response; it is a process involving both, and, as
a process, it influences the ways in which environmental events are attended to,
interpreted, responded to, and changed. It is also the process within which the responder
also is likely to be changed.

The Cyclical Nature of Stress

• Environmental Stimuli: Situations like noisy environments act as initial stressors.

• Physiological Response: These stressors trigger changes in the body's physiology, such as
alterations in the neural activity of the reticular activating system.
• Psychological Interpretation: The individual's perception of the stressor is modified, which
can either amplify or diminish the stress response.
• Behavioural Adaptation: The individual's behavior adjusts in response to the altered
perception, potentially leading to a change in the environment itself.

While the specification of just what stress is has yet to be fully articulated, it is clear that such
a thing actually exists, and it appears to involve physiological, psychological, and behavioral
responding. It is also clear that at times it may even play a broader role by affecting human
social systems. Confronted by environmental events which pose threat, challenge or danger,
organisms respond physiologically, psychologically, and behaviorally. These responses not
only are helpful in meeting the demands of the changing environment, but may even alter that
environment, making it more benign (not always without cost to the organism).

Monat and Lazarus's Definition of Stress (1977)

They defined stress as any event in which environmental demands and/or internal demands
(physiological or psychological) tax or exceed the adaptive resources of the individual, his or
her tissue system, or the social system of which one is a part. Within this definition, change
becomes stressful only when it strains the coping capacities of the entire organism or
environment system to adapt to the change. This definition encompasses aspects of both the
stimulus and the response, and includes the organism as an active participant in the process. It
is therefore consistent with definitions utilized by most current researchers and is the one that
will be used when referring to stress throughout the remainder of this text.

The Role of Perception in Stress and Adaptability

Perception plays a pivotal role in the relationship between organisms and their environment.
Typically, the environment is perceived to be within the organism's "window of adaptability,"
allowing for a steady-state interaction where the organism can maintain equilibrium. However,

77
the definition of stress acknowledges that this balance is not always maintained and that states
of disequilibrium can arise, challenging the organism's adaptive capabilities.

Understanding Disequilibrium and Adaptive Resources

Disequilibrium occurs when environmental demands tax or exceed the adaptive resources of
an organism or its environment. This can lead to stress, which is a state of tension resulting
from adverse or demanding circumstances. The organism's perception of these demands plays
a crucial role in the stress response.

Appraisal:
Appraisal is the process by which an organism evaluates the demands of the environment and
assesses its own resources to cope with these demands. This cognitive evaluation is
fundamental in determining the level of stress experienced and the subsequent response to it.
Appraisal involves two key components:
1. Primary Appraisal: The process of recognizing and assessing the significance of an
environmental stressor.
2. Secondary Appraisal: The assessment of one's resources and options for coping with the
stressor.

Attitudes and Perception in Appraisal

Attitudes towards potential stressors play a crucial role in appraisal. For instance, individuals
who view nearby airports as economically beneficial are likely to be less bothered by the
associated noise compared to those who do not recognize such advantages. This illustrates how
positive attitudes towards certain elements can lead to a downplaying of potential threats.

Types of Appraisals
There are three fundamental types of appraisals
1. Harm or loss assessments
2. Threat Appraisal
3. Challenge Appraisal

Harm or loss assessment:

It typically involves analysis of damage that has already been done. The properties of a sudden
event such as a tornado may predispose people toward such appraisal because damage is done
very quickly and people are more concerned with the immediate consequences than the
possibility of more. Harm-loss evaluation in the wake of the loss of a loved one, although when
a loved one has been chronically ill for an extended period of time, bereavement may also occur
in anticipation of loss. In addition to the actual loss of a loved one, we may be concerned with
demands that will occur after death. Concern over these types of demands can be interpreted
as challenges or as threats, that is, "Let's get on with life," or, "How will I get on with life?"

Threat Appraisal:
It is concerned with future dangers. If a tornado is sighted, it may initially be appraised as a
threat and subsequently be appraised as something else. The stress of moving away to college,
of learning to live with a roommate, and similar events is largely anticipatory as a student
prepares to start school. Likewise, waiting to take an exam may be more stressful than taking
it or even failing it. The ability to foresee problems and anticipate difficulties allows us to solve
them or prevent their occurrence. At the same time, though, it may lead to the perception of
threat and, thus, anticipatory stress.

78
Challenge Appraisal:
It focusses not on the harm or potential harm of the event, but on the possibility of overcoming
the stressor. Some stressors may be beyond our ability to cope, but we all have a range of events
with which we are confident of our ability to cope successfully. Stressors that are evaluated as
challenges fall within this hypothetical range. The event may be seen as potentially harmful,
but we feel that we can prevent the harm from occurring. A person may have just lost his or
her job because of plant relocation. This stress can be seen as threatening (how are we going
to make ends meet; how will we survive?) or as challenging (what else can I do to make a
living; how can I make the best of a bad situation?).

Arousal
Arousal, refers to the physiological and psychological state of being alert and ready for action.
It is a necessary component of the stress response, preparing the body to face potential threats
or challenges.

Reticular Formation:
The reticular formation is a diffuse network of interconnected neurons located throughout the
brainstem, extending from the spinal cord to the thalamus. It plays a vital role in controlling
the overall level of consciousness and is involved in various functions such as regulating the
sleep-wake cycle, filtering incoming stimuli to the brain, and maintaining alertness.

Reticular Activating System:

The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is a crucial neural network within the brainstem that
extends to the midbrain and forebrain. It serves as a sentinel, filtering incoming stimuli and
regulating wakefulness and consciousness.
The RAS performs two primary functions:

1. Information Screening:
It screens information on its way to the higher canters in the brain, blocking irrelevant
information and allowing relevant information to pass upward where it can be processed and
acted upon.

79
 2. Alerting the Cerebral Cortex:
Activating the cerebral cortex into a state of alertness without specifying the nature of the alert.

According to Beck (1983) the reticular system works "something like a fire alarm that gets
people into action but does not really say where the fire is". Through this system the organism
is made vigilant and aware of what is happening in the environment, and is made ready for
action. Included in this readiness are "increased metabolism of carbohydrates to produce more
glucose and the release of fatty acids for greater energy, higher heart rate and oxygen
consumption, constriction of blood flow to peripheral areas of the body with greater supply to
the skeletal muscles, kidneys and brain" (Evans & Cohen, 1987; p. 576). This increased
readiness, coupled with appropriate information about bodily needs and environmental
demands, plays an important role in determining the ultimate expression of behavior.

80
LESSON 23
PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS
We will begin lesson 23 by reviewing lecture 22 and further discussing the following topics related
to Stress:
➢ Definition of Stress. (already discussed in detail in lecture 22)
➢ Cause and Effect. (already discussed in detail in lecture 22)
➢ Appraisal (already discussed in detail in lecture 22)
➢ Arousal from the perspective of the Physiology of Stress.
Physiology of Stress and Arousal
Stress is a natural response to various stimuli in our environment, whether positive or negative.
When faced with demands or changes in our surroundings, our bodies undergo physiological
changes to adapt and respond effectively. These changes are orchestrated by complex systems
within our brains and bodies. It is crucial to understand the physiology of Stress, as when we
experience stress, our body undergoes various changes such as increased heartbeat and blood
circulation. These bodily changes are reactions that prepare us to deal with environmental
stressors. This process is commonly referred to as arousal. So, let’s delve into arousal from the
perspective of the physiology of stress.
Arousal
Arousal refers to a stirred-up state of mind in which we are inclined towards certain types of
actions. In this state, we are either thinking about or being driven toward specific actions to address
a scenario. Arousal can result from excitement, anger, or fear, signaling that our body is ready for
action.
Adaptation: Hormones and Biological Systems
Arousal serves as our defense mechanism to cope with changes in our environment, preparing us
to deal with significant and drastic environmental changes. Therefore, there must be a system
within our body that triggers this entire mechanism. This system includes various organs and
components, such as:
• Different types of hormones.
• Different types of organs in the central, peripheral, and autonomous nervous systems.
The nervous system components involved in this process include the hypothalamus, cerebral
cortex, reticular formation, limbic system, and autonomic nervous system. These organs and
systems activate to prepare us to address environmental challenges.
Reticular Formation
The reticular formation plays a crucial role in the physiology of arousal. Its primary function is to
induce a state of readiness in the organism, indicating that the individual is prepared and quick to
act. For example, before the start of a race, athletes assume their positions and await the starting
signal. At this moment, they are in an increased state of readiness, with their bodies primed for
action. Inside their bodies, the reticular activating system (RAS) functions are triggered, resulting
in heightened metabolism rates and increased heartbeats to supply energy to the muscles. In such

81
situations, blood flow is directed towards the muscles, while blood flow to internal organs like the
kidneys or liver decreases. This physiological response prepares the athlete to address the scenario
effectively.
Levels of Arousal
As arousal refers to the state of readiness or activation level of the body and mind in response to
environmental stimuli. It can vary from low to high, with each level affecting our ability to perform
tasks effectively. Understanding these levels is essential for optimizing performance and managing
stress.
Increased Readiness: Extreme events or stimuli trigger a heightened state of arousal,
characterized by increased heart rate, tremors, and heightened physiological responses.
Medium Level: This optimal state of arousal enables individuals to perform tasks efficiently and
adapt to environmental demands without feeling overwhelmed or fatigued.
Lowest Level: A state of low arousal may lead to feelings of lethargy and disengagement,
hindering performance and motivation.
The Role of Arousal in Performance
A crucial aspect of arousal is its impact on performance. While moderate levels of arousal can
enhance performance by promoting alertness and focus, excessive arousal or stress can impair
performance and lead to negative outcomes. Striking a balance between arousal and performance
is essential for achieving optimal results.
Examples: Every time we experience stress, our body undergoes similar responses, entering a
state of increased readiness. This heightened state prepares us to deal with actions in our
environment. For instance, imagine driving along a main road when suddenly, a car speeds towards
you, threatening a collision. Your reflexes kick in, and your body reacts swiftly to avoid the danger.
In such moments, your heart races, and your body trembles. However, extreme readiness, akin to
soldiers facing life-threatening situations, can also impair performance.
On the other side both extreme readiness and extreme lack of readiness negatively impact
performance. Demoralized students lacking motivation represent one extreme, while soldiers
facing imminent danger represent the other. Both scenarios hinder optimal performance. Consider
a demoralized student who, with proper motivation, moves toward the middle of the readiness
continuum. Here, motivation to study increases, leading to improved performance. Conversely,
extreme readiness, akin to the state experienced during an imminent accident, hampers
performance due to overwhelming emotion. Therefore, maintaining a balanced state of readiness
is crucial for optimal performance, whether in academic or life-threatening situations. Maintaining
a middle-level arousal is essential for peak performance, through maximum focus and
concentration it can be achieved.
It is important to note that the Reticular Activating System (RAS) triggers these mechanisms, with
readiness being both biochemical and psychological. On one side Motivating students to boost
morale and move them toward the middle of the continuum is vital which is the psychological
aspect. Additionally, mood significantly affects performance, highlighting the role of cognitive
perception in behavior. On the other side, damage to the RAS leads to a comatose state, while

82
drugs like amphetamines increase RAS activity and barbiturates depress it. So, it is important to
study every aspect of arousal, whether it is neurochemical, psychological, or cognitive.
Hence, Arousal is closely related to stress and alerts organisms to changes in bodily needs and
environmental demands. Understanding how arousal translates into goal-directed behaviors is also
crucial for comprehending human behavior's influence by the external environment.
Arousal and Goal-Directed Behavior
We behave in certain ways to achieve our goals or objectives, and the environment plays a
significant role in this process. For example, when entering a mall, the environment, such as
billboards, induces an arousal state in individuals, directing them towards their goal, such as
shopping.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Stress is not inherently negative; it is our adaptive reaction to the environment, enabling us to
either change ourselves or the environment to establish a better equilibrium between the two.
Structures of Cerebral Cortex
The limbic system, housed inside the skull, comprises four important parts:
Thalamus: Relays information from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus: Regulates feelings of fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression.
Amygdala: Influences motivation, emotional control, fear response, and interpretations of non-
verbal emotional expressions.
Hippocampus: Plays a role in emotions, memory, and comparing sensory information to
expectations.
In conclusion, our sensory organs process information, converting it into neurochemical energy
that is transmitted to the relevant brain centers for processing. Additionally, glands, such as the
pituitary gland, play a vital role in performing various bodily functions. Both systems are crucial
for our body's functioning.
Pituitary Gland:
Situated within the brain, the pituitary gland serves as a crucial producer of human growth
hormones and plays a pivotal role in regulating other hormone-producing glands. Referred to as
the "master gland," the pituitary gland integrates incoming information from various sensory
organs within the body. This information undergoes processing in the brain, which subsequently
issues instructions. These instructions are then carried out with the assistance of glands, which
produce different secretions to influence the functioning of internal organs.
The pituitary gland, as the master gland, not only activates other glands but also regulates the
secretion of growth hormones, ensuring consistent growth from birth onwards. Growth is a
fundamental physiological function that the pituitary gland oversees. Additionally, the pituitary
gland controls the hormonal secretions of other glands, maintaining hormonal balance in the body.

83
The nervous system and glands work in tandem as a cohesive unit, preparing the body to respond
to environmental changes and stimuli. This collaborative effort ensures that the body can adapt
and function optimally in varying environmental conditions.
In the next lecture, we will study the General adaptation system in detail.

84
Lesson 24
General Adaptation Syndrome
In today's lecture, we'll delve into the intricate world of environmental psychology, focusing
specifically on the physiological responses to stress and arousal considering general adaptation
syndrome. Let's break down the key concepts that will be discussed in detail:
• Physiology of stress (Studied in lesson 23 in detail)
• General Adaptation Syndrome
Stimulus-Response Pattern: A Closer Look
When we encounter stimuli, whether positive or negative, our brain evaluates the information
received through sensory organs. This evaluation triggers certain feelings and thoughts, leading to
action. However, this process is not simplistic; it involves multiple stages, including stimulation,
feelings, thoughts, and ultimately, action.
Hans Selye's Adaptation Syndrome
In 1976, psychologist Hans Selye introduced the concept of adaptation syndrome, proposing that
stress unfolds in three distinct stages:
1. Alarm Reaction
2. Stage of Resistance
3. Stage of Exhaustion
1. Alarm Reaction
In response to any stressor, either physical or psychological, the hypothalamus is activated,
mediating the secretion of large amounts of ACTH by the pituitary. This ACTH, in turn, stimulates
the adrenal cortex to secrete increased amounts of adrenal corticoids. In general, these hormones
activate the organism (as discussed in the previous section) allowing it to deal more adequately
with its environment. This phase is called the alarm reaction.
2. Stage of Resistance
In the second stage, the organism recovers from the initial stress and begins to attempt to cope with
the situation, mobilizing the body physically as well as psychologically to meet the demands of
the environment. The organism, in a sense, is resisting the demands of the situation. This stage
was, therefore, labeled by Selye as the stage of resistance.
3. Stage of Exhaustion
If the organism is unsuccessful in its attempts to cope, or if the stress persists, the stage of
exhaustion is reached. At this stage the adrenal gland can no longer respond to the stress by
secreting adrenal corticoids and the organism has exhausted its ability to cope with the stressor.
Important issues for consideration in this area are: how the stress of overpopulation is related to
increased adrenal activity and to adrenal hypertrophy; how this has an inhibiting effect on gonadal
functioning resulting in a decline in reproductive fitness, and ultimately to a decline in population
and population density.

85
Evans and Cohen (1987) suggest that chronic exposure to a variety of environmental and/or social
psychological conditions can in and of themselves be stressful, that the process of coping with
them can be stressful, and that the " energy available for dealing with these conditions is limited.
Thus, like Selye, they suggest that prolonged stress will eventually deplete the individual's adaptive
resources.
Both approaches imply that stress produces a physical "wear and tear" on the system, and when
coping abilities are exhausted, the individual becomes vulnerable to a variety of physical and
psychological disorders. For further discussion and a comparison of the psychological and
physiological models of stress see Baum, Singer, & Baum (1981), Cohen, Evans, Stokols, &
Krantz (1986), and Evans & Cohen (1987).
Organisms, including humans, undergo stress in the context of the greater environment of which
they are a part. At any given moment the environment/ organism system can be in a state of
equilibrium on some dimensions, but in disequilibrium concerning others. It is therefore important
to be able to identify potential sources of stress and to determine the levels of those sources likely
to lead to disequilibrium.
There is growing awareness of the importance of psychological factors (i.e., cognitive, and
emotional processes) in response to the environment. Additionally, such factors as beliefs,
attitudes, and perceptual sets may, themselves, act as threats. For these reasons, researchers
concerned with understanding stress are increasingly considering the impact of psychological
variables and are incorporating them into stress theories as both mediators of physical stressors
and as stressors (Frankenhaeuser, 1978).
Psychology of Stress: Primary and Secondary Appraisal
Moving on to the psychology of stress, appraisal plays a crucial role in shaping our response to
stressful situations. There are two types of appraisals:
1. Primary appraisal
2. Secondary appraisal
1) Primary appraisal: Interpretation of threat
Primary appraisal involves interpreting the situation and assessing its potential threat. This initial
evaluation influences how individuals perceive and react to stressors.
Appraisal of potential stressors depends on several factors including attitudes toward the source of
noxious stimulation. Our attitudes and perceptions significantly influence how we perceive and
respond to stress. Cognitive perspective also plays a crucial role, as our interpretation of a situation
can either exacerbate or mitigate its perceived threat. For instance, individuals exposed to
authoritarian parenting may adopt submissive attitudes towards authority figures, while those
encouraged to express their talents and opinions may adopt assertive approaches.

86
2) Secondary Appraisal: Selecting Coping behaviors and evaluating their effectiveness.
Secondary appraisal occurs when individuals assess their resources and coping strategies to
manage the stressor. They weigh the potential costs and benefits of different responses and choose
coping strategies based on their past experiences.
Lastly, our ability to cope with stress relies on various resources, including:
• Psychological
• Social
• Genetic factors
These resources encompass our personality traits, social support networks, and genetic
predispositions, all of which influence our resilience in the face of stress.
In the next lecture, we will discuss other areas of stress.

87
Lesson 25
MEASURING STRESSORS
In the last lecture, we discussed General Adaptation Syndrome and the Psychology of stress while
in this lecture we will talk about:
➢ Hens’ adaptation model (discussed in detail in lecture 24)
➢ Researching and Measuring Stress

Researching Stress

Studying stress scientifically is crucial for gaining insights into its nature and effects. One of the
primary objectives in this endeavor is to understand how to effectively measure stress. To achieve
this, it is essential to first establish a clear definition of stress. By defining stress, we can identify
various aspects or components that can be measured, thus facilitating accurate assessment of stress
levels.
Stress in environmental context: Organisms undergo stress in the greater context of their
environment. Environment impacts the individual, either its people around them or other
environmental elements that affect them. Organisms stay in balanced condition with the
environment. But this balance does not always stay as change is the only constant. This imbalance
state is considered as stress/distress. In case of this disequilibrium of how we react, our primary
and secondary appraisal helps us to measure it.

Measuring Stress

There are two perspectives on measuring stress:

1. Qualitative differences
2. Quantitative differences

Qualitative differences

Qualitative measurement of stress involves assessing the subjective experience and perception of
stressors. Unlike quantitative measurements that focus on numerical data, qualitative
measurements delve into the qualitative aspects of stress, including emotions, feelings, thoughts,
and coping strategies.
To measure stress qualitatively it is important to classify the sources of stress. There are the
following sources of stress:

1) Stressors
Stressors can vary in duration and intensity. Daily hassles, cataclysmic events, major life changes,
and ambient stressors all contribute to the overall stress experience for everyone.

2) Conditions
One thing for a person can be pleasant in one condition and unpleasant/painful in other
conditions/circumstances.
For example: Loud music is a great source of stress during studying and pleasant in the time of
parties.

88
 3) Chronic Stressors vs Acute/Recurring Stressors
Chronic stress persists over a prolonged period with lower intensity, while acute stress is
characterized by higher intensity but shorter duration.
For example: Pollution is the source of chronic stress around us as it increases gradually with low
intensity but for a prolonged time while in the parallel universe, this pollution is the source of acute
stress for a person who belongs to hilly areas where there is no pollution and when they visited big
cities it is the source of acute stress for them they perceive it with high intensity and for short
period.

4) Controllable vs Uncontrollable
Few stressors can be controlled and there are few which cannot be controlled. For example, the
temperature of the air conditioner can be controlled in your house but while traveling in a bus it
cannot be controlled which causes flu or sore throat for some people.
So, stress can also be measured in the aspect of control as we can adjust the stressor according to
our needs.

Evans and Cohen's typology of stress

Evans and Cohen compiled a typology of stress in 1987. There are 3 dimensions of this typology:
• Duration
• The magnitude of the required response
• Number of people affected.
In light of these dimensions, there is a need to study a few daily life stressors that are the sources
of stress.

Daily Hassles

The category that includes some of the most chronic environmental stressors has been labeled daily
hassles. These are present during most of our daily lives and include such conditions as job
dissatisfaction, neighborhood problems, crowding, pollution, and noise (Glass & Singer, 1972). For
example, the daily life of a student from going home to school and coming back comprises a lot
of stressors every day but when we talk about whether these stressors are chronic or acute then we
can say that these daily life hassles are chronic as they build up gradually but for persistent time
and we get used to it.

Cataclysmic Events

Great natural upheavals that turn down our lives are called cataclysmic events, for example,
Earthquakes or Floods. Their impact is huge and affects every person.

Major Personal Life Events

A third group of stressors includes those events powerful enough to individually challenge our
adaptive abilities. These events include illness, death, or significant loss (psychological or
economic).

89
Ambient Stressors

Environmental background conditions represent relatively stable, continuous, and intractable

conditions of the environment and are labeled as ambient stressors such as work overload, job,
poverty, family conflicts, and air pollution. They represent the relatively continuous, stable, and
intractable conditions of the environment (Cambell, 1983).

Noticing Stress

The main question in the stress part is now when people start noticing stress. Stressors may go
unnoticed until they interfere with some important goal or directly threaten one’s health.
For example, environmental pollution.
Stress and Predictability
The predictability of stressors also plays a significant role in how individuals respond. Regular
stressors allow for better preparation, while unpredictable stressors can intensify the stress
response.

Quantitative differences

Measures stress quantitatively physiological responses, help as our body helps to deal with the
situation, and in that case physiology of our body changes. To measure stress quantitatively 4
elements are most important.
• Intensity
• Duration
• Rate
• Controllability

Intensity: The intensity of the stressor refers in some sense to the "power" of the stimulus. Intensity
can be "measured," for example, in terms of the magnitude or frequency (loudness or pitch) of
sound, the concentration (parts per million) of a population, the velocity of the wind, or the
temperature or relative humidity of the atmosphere. It can also be measured in terms of its physical
effects; for example, the number of homes destroyed in a flood, the number of persons killed by a
tornado, the number of victims hospitalized because of a nuclear accident, or the number of birth
defects resulting from water contamination.
It is generally assumed that the greater the intensity of the stressor, the greater the resulting stress
response.

Rate. While some stressors occur once, others may be recurring. Their periodicity can be regular
or irregular, predictable or unpredictable, and short-phased or long-phased. For example, the
temperature of every month in these we can find a pattern that summer comes once a year.
Duration. Independent of the intensity of the stressor is its impact concerning time. The immediate
presence of a tornado, for example, is relatively short (perhaps only a few minutes), but its intensity
is great. On the other hand, an airborne pollutant (such as asbestos) might have a low concentration
yet be ever-present. Duration and intensity, it can be seen, are independent dimensions. All other
things being equal, we can expect stressors of long duration to have a greater effect on the stress
response than stressors of short duration. However, the accumulative effect of low-level stressors

90
over long periods may result in deceptively severe consequences. Any consideration of the
potential effects of an identified stressor, therefore, must consider both the duration of the stressor
and its intensity.

Controllability. Stressors vary concerning the degree of control humans have over them. It is
possible to exert some control over the temperature of our indoor environments, over the noise level
of our offices, and even over the traffic we must drive in. We do this by turning the thermostat
either up or down, by putting sound-damping or sound-absorbing equipment in our offices, and by
choosing the times of the day and the routes to take to avoid traffic. It is not possible to exert control
over other stressors. We cannot stop hurricanes; we cannot prevent earthquakes. There are still other
stressors where it is possible, theoretically, to exert control, but practically we are unable to (e.g., the
loud stereo in the adjacent apartment or the litter in the streets below). Researchers have shown
that the lack of control over environmental stressors where it is possible to have it can exacerbate
the stress response.
In our discussion of environmental stressors throughout this text, we will, again and again, be
looking at potential stressors in terms of their intensity, duration, rate, predictability, and
controllability, and we will be calling for additional means of measuring these characteristics.

In the next lecture, we will discuss the immediate response and long-term Response.

91
Lesson 26
Measuring Stress
In this lecture, you will study about following topics:
• Psychological and Somatic Responses
• Measuring Organisms Immediate and long-term Responses
• Models of Adverse Health
Psychological and Somatic Responses
Psychological responses can pertain to our feelings, attitudes, cognitions, and behavioral patterns
because psychology is the study of mind and behavior. Moreover, psychological responses affect
somatic patterns. When we pass through stress our body must go through many changes to prepare
itself and many physiological reactions take place. And if the stress is short-term, then the
physiological reaction will be for a short period. Moreover, if these responses are for the long term,
then they can hamper activity and create cause kind of danger to the body.
Measuring Immediate Response to Stress
It means to measure galvanic skin responses, the level of hormonal secretions, and measure level
of secretion in blood regarding adrenaline and non-adrenaline (which are two hormones that help
us to deal with emotional states).
Long term Response
We have little control over long-term stress and must live with it for a longer time. For example,
people living in refugee camps.
When the condition of stress persists then these physiological reactions also continue for longer
periods and this leads to certain kinds of physiological diseases.
Bio-medical Model
To understand disease bio-medical model tells us that there are 3 ways for a person to get ill.
• Illness results from a specific physiological dysfunction.
• Invasion of foreign substances.
• Some diseases do not fit the traditional bio-medical model and are named diseases of
lifestyle (heart diseases seem to be correlated to the patterns of lifestyle).

Adverse Health Models

Dohrenwend & Dohrenwend Victimization: Model A

Dohrenwend & Dohrenwend (1981) have conceptualized the possible processes where
stress induces adverse health changes (see Figure 5-4). In this figure, Model A contains no
intervening processes. Rather, it postulates a simple and direct effect of stressful events on
adverse health changes. It further suggests that the effects of stressful life events are

92
cumulative, thus accounting for studies of extreme situations, such as combat or
incarceration in concentration camps. Other severe stresses over which an individual has no
control, such as the death of a loved one, are also accounted for by this model. This model is
called the victimization hypothesis.

Model B: Stress and Strain Hypothesis

Model B, the stress-strain hypothesis, postulates that psychophysiological strain mediates
the impact of life events on subsequent health and illness. Evidence in support of this
hypothesis comes from studies that show that if the effects of symptoms of
psychophysiological straining are eliminated, correlations of stressful life events scores
and measures of illness are significantly reduced (Bloom, 1985). This model is most
closely related to the conceptualization of stress in this text.

Model C: The vulnerability!

The vulnerability hypothesis, suggests that there are preexisting personal dispositions and
social conditions which moderate the causal relation between stressful life events and
health. It is this model that suggests to researchers a search for such mediating factors as the
strength of social support systems, and personal conditions.

Model D: additive burden hypothesis!

By contrast, postulates that personal dispositions and social conditions make independent
causal contributions to the occurrence of pathology. This model suggests that personality
variables and/or social conditions are a potential source of added burden to the individual
in the precipitation of illness and is thus called the added burden hypothesis.

Model E: Chronic burden!

Proposes that transitory life events have no role in precipitating illness, but rather that
stable personal characteristics and social conditions by themselves cause adverse health
changes. This model is called the chronic burden hypothesis.

Model F: Event Proneness Hypothesis

Finally, Model F portrays stressful life events as exacerbating already existing health disorders.
It is called the event proneness hypothesis because stressful life events are thought to
characterize individuals who are already ill.

93
94
Measuring Stress Psychologically
When we talk about psychological assessment, we note down all factors that
contribute to behavioral patterns. Psychological measurement of the stress
response has focused on various psychiatric symptoms and has utilized a variety
of standard psychiatric symptom inventories. The common denominator among
the various scales seems to be the extent to which respondents perceive themselves
to be in an intractable situation marked by negative affect and a degree of
uncertainty.

Measures of Coping

The level of stress a person experiences and the extent to which deleterious effects
occur because of exposure to a stressor will depend, in part, on how well the
individual copes with the stressor. Whereas Behavioral coping responses can be
categorized according to individual differences. Every individual will cope with
stressful events differently.

In the next lecture, you will study moderators of stress response.

95
Lesson 27
MODERATORS OF THE STRESS RESPONSE
After a review of the previous topics, lecture 27 will comprised of the following:
 Moderators of Stress Response

Moderators of Stress Response

By response, it means that a person is pitched against a stressful scenario and what type
of response comes out of him. This response pattern is important to understand and study
for psychologists to find out how they can build up a person's capacity even further to
deal with the stressors. The extent to which a stressor produces a response is moderated
by many factors:

• Attitude toward the source of stress

• Control

• The Hardy Personality

• Social support

• The Relaxation Response

All these factors will increase or decrease a stressor's impact, we turn now to a discussion
of them.

1) Attitude toward the source of stress

As mentioned earlier, responses to stressors are necessarily related to how a stressor is perceived.
Attitudes toward the source of the stress are important psychological factors and act as filtering
devices that moderate the perception of the stressor.
Example: Let's consider the case of a student who may not perform well in his mid-term exams.
This suggests that they are struggling to align their study routine with their academic goals. Despite
making efforts, they find it challenging to adapt. At this juncture, it's crucial to engage with the
student and understand their perspective on their academic routine. Sitting down with them, we
can inquire about the difficulties they face in their studies. Perhaps they find attending morning
classes challenging, or they feel overwhelmed by peer pressure, or they perceive the course
material as too difficult. By assessing various stressors that students encounter at school, we
simultaneously delve into their perceptions of these stressors. Do they believe they can overcome
these obstacles, or do they feel incapable?
The student's perception holds significant weight. If they express a belief that they can't meet
academic requirements, it's essential to connect with them on an emotional level and understand
their underlying concerns. Recognizing their mental state, we can work on bolstering their
confidence and resilience.

96
Once the student develops a positive outlook towards their academic challenges, we can then
identify specific problems and work towards solutions. Now Let's also discuss phobias in the light
of perception. Phobias are instances where individuals feel intense and irrational fear toward
specific objects, situations, or activities. These fears can vary widely among people, but certain
phobias, such as the fear of traveling, are more commonly observed.
It's important to note that phobias stem from irrational fears, and individuals' perceptions of these
fears play a crucial role. For example, someone with a fear of flying may harbor negative thoughts
and beliefs about air travel, leading to avoidance behaviors. When faced with their phobia,
individuals may experience physical symptoms like rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, and
nervousness. These reactions stem from the negative perception they hold towards the source of
their fear.
Addressing phobias involves shifting these negative perceptions towards a more positive outlook.
Psychologists often employ techniques to gradually expose individuals to their fears in a controlled
environment, helping them build resilience and overcome their phobias. For instance, individuals
may be guided through relaxation exercises while imagining themselves in a feared situation,
gradually desensitizing themselves to it. This process aims to move individuals from extreme fear
(10 on a scale) to a more manageable level (1).
Therapists may also accompany individuals on real-life exposures to help them confront their fears
directly. By addressing the negative perceptions associated with phobias, psychologists work
towards empowering individuals to regain control over their lives.
So, to these above examples, people’s perception of stress is very important, and it is also vital to
control it.
2) Control
Another crucial aspect to consider is the perceived control over the stressor. The level of control
one feels they have over a stressful situation plays a significant role in how they respond to it.
When individuals feel they have some control over a stressor, they are better equipped to cope with
it. However, when they perceive the stressor as beyond their control, it can become overwhelming.
A poignant example can be found in the experiences of prisoners of war during World War II. Held
in Nazi concentration camps, these individuals faced unimaginable hardships and lacked control
over their circumstances. This lack of control contributed to chronic stress and various
psychological disorders among them.
Similarly, in discussing phobias, the perception of control is crucial. If someone believes they can
control their fear, it's possible to gradually build their resilience to it. Conversely, if they feel
powerless/uncountability against their fear, intervention is necessary to address this perception.
Moreover, an individual's overall physical fitness level plays a significant role in their ability to
withstand stressors. Physically fit individuals possess higher energy reserves, enabling them to
endure challenging situations for longer periods. Conversely, those lacking physical fitness may
find themselves more vulnerable to stressors, as their energy and resilience diminish.
Note: Understanding stress from multiple angles is essential. However, it's important to note that
discussing stress does not aim to make individuals more vulnerable to it. Instead, it underscores

97
the importance of resilience in navigating stressful circumstances. Ultimately, how one responds
to stressors determines their success or failure in overcoming them.

The Hardy Personality

In the realm of leadership, the concept of a hardy personality emerges as a significant factor. Think
about your favorite leaders. They could be historical figures like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, renowned
poets like Allama Iqbal, or even sports icons who led their teams to victory. What sets these
individuals apart as heroes?
When we envision a hero, we often picture someone who confronts daunting challenges with
unwavering determination. Regardless of the adversity they face, they remain steadfast in their
commitment to their goals. This resilience stems from their strong character, refusing to succumb
to the pressures of their circumstances. Many heroes throughout history faced setbacks and
failures, yet they persisted in their pursuit of their objectives. Some even sacrificed their lives
before achieving their goals. Their heroism lies not in their immediate success, but in their
unwavering resolve to overcome obstacles.
Consider the example of those who fought for independence or social justice. Despite enduring
hardships and setbacks, they remained dedicated to their cause, inspiring future generations to
continue their struggle. In this context, a hardy personality emerges as a beacon of hope amidst the
challenges of stress and adversity. Hardy individuals possess a sense of resilience and
determination that enables them to navigate difficult circumstances without losing sight of their
objectives. The key components of a hardy personality include a strong sense of commitment, a
perception of challenges as opportunities for growth, and a belief in one's ability to exert control
over their life. When faced with setbacks or failures, it's natural to experience feelings of self-
doubt or frustration. However, reframing these experiences as opportunities for learning and
growth can help mitigate negative feelings.
Next time one encounters a setback, consider redefining it as a learning opportunity rather than a
mistake. By adopting this mindset, we can cultivate resilience and develop the resilience needed
to overcome challenges. Consider reframing mistakes or challenges as opportunities for growth.
Every problem you encounter presents a chance for personal development. While it's natural to
feel daunted by challenges, approaching them as opportunities allows you to harness your
intellectual and mental capacities. View each problem as a canvas upon which you can paint your
journey of growth. By tackling challenges head-on, you not only overcome obstacles but also
enhance your skills and resilience. Reflect on your experiences and mistakes as opportunities for
learning. Embrace the equation: Mistake plus learning equals growth. Every error becomes a
stepping-stone towards personal development when accompanied by insights gained from
experience.
Conversely, failure to learn from mistakes stuns growth. Remember, mistake minus learning equals
stagnation, a state antithetical to personal progress. Understanding the concept of hardiness is
essential. It encapsulates resilience and determination in the face of adversity, forming the
cornerstone of personal growth. As we conclude this discussion, remember to approach life with
an open mindset, embracing challenges as opportunities for growth.
In our next lecture, we'll delve into our next topic.

98
Lesson 28
Environmental and Cultural Variances
In this lecture, we're delving into how the environment and culture influence human behavior, and
how human behavior, in turn, shapes the environment and culture. Here's an overview of what
we'll cover in this chapter:
➢ First, we'll examine the intricate relationship between behavior and environment,
summarizing how they interact with each other.
➢ Next, we'll explore phenomena like conformity and obedience, including a case study to
illustrate these concepts.
➢ We'll then analyze the factors influencing conformity and individual behavior within
groups.
➢ We aim to understand how individuals conform to certain ideas, become obedient, and
adapt to different environments.
➢ Moving on, we'll discuss attributing behavior to both personal dispositions and situational
factors. This section will help us grasp how people interpret and attribute behavior.
➢ A detailed exploration of group behavior follows, covering topics such as group pressure,
conformity, and the reasons behind group influence and mob behavior.
➢ Our final focus will be on culture. We'll investigate how the environment shapes culture
and how individuals learn about and adapt to the cultures they inhabit. Key processes like
enculturation and acculturation will be explored, along with the roles of language, symbols,
and rituals in cultural formation.
➢ We'll view culture as a dynamic force, constantly evolving and influencing individuals and
society. Finally, we'll touch on the measurement of culture and briefly discuss subcultures.
Relationship between environment and human behavior
We've come to grasp the intricate relationship between human behavior and our surroundings. Our
environment can significantly shape our actions, sometimes to the extent that we might attribute
our behavior solely to external influences. Yet, we mustn't overlook the undeniable impact of the
environment on our choices and actions. This dilemma echoes the age-old debate: is it the
environment or human free will that predominantly governs our behavior, or is it a complex
interplay of both? There are instances where individuals act in ways they never anticipated,
highlighting the profound influence of environmental factors. It's a nuanced interaction between
the environment and individual agency that ultimately molds human behavior, posing a perpetual
conundrum for psychologists and philosophers alike.
Human behavior often defies expectations, showcasing a remarkable adaptability to various
situations and environments. Consider individuals who typically exhibit calm and peaceful
demeanors suddenly becoming aggressive under certain circumstances, or those who are naturally
aggressive displaying unexpected submissive behavior. Moreover, there are instances where
introverted individuals become talkative and extroverted in specific situations. These examples
underscore the significant role played by environments and situational factors in shaping behavior.
Yet, amidst this complexity, the question persists: is it ultimately the exercise of human free will
that guides behavior, or does external influences/environment wield greater control?
To understand this concept more deeply a case study will help us.

99
My Lai Massacre Case Study
In March 1968, three platoons of American soldiers, non-collectively as Charlie Company, swept
into the South Vietnamese village of MyLai, and killed several hundred unarmed civilians, women
and children, and old men. Most of the soldiers joined in shooting those who did not fire, not one
attempted to stop the slaughter. Some of the men of the Charlie Company reported that they
followed the orders of their leader, a lieutenant of the US Army.
Others said they simply followed the example of others. The gruesome, isn't it? The question is,
why would the soldiers behave so savagely? There are certain other details. The soldiers of the
Charlie Company had joined in Vietnam about two to three months before this incident took place.
They mentioned that they were being constantly attacked. They were fighting a guerrilla war over
there because they were in the enemy area, and there was insurgency taking place over there. They
were under extreme stress, of course. And they received the orders that in the My Lai village, the
American army suspected the armed men of the Vietnam army, and they had to launch an operation
to go there and get those men. And they simply went in there. Just like one of the soldiers said, “I
was just fulfilling my orders over there”.
However, the types of pictures that we have seen are extremely gruesome, because there were few
men, and all those men were old men, and there were ladies and children. If the troops had to enter
that village, the question is, why would they behave so savagely?
We understand that the training of the army is very, very extensive. This is not only physical
training, but this is also a lot of mental training. Soldiers are raised to become civilized citizens.
Thou, their job is to fight wars, is to defend against the enemies of the country. However, their
training is made sure that they learn a lot about how to become civilized citizens. The question is
that any person who enters such sort of a situation would be behaving the way the American
soldiers behave. Because normally, ordinarily, normal people do not tend to see these types of
situations. However, when we come to think of it, can you say that we can forgive those soldiers
because they were under extreme stress? See, it is a question that relates to the same debate. Was
it the environment? Was it the situation? Or was it the free will of the people? Students, we have
some more information about this my life massacre. However, before that, we would like to tell
you what one of the Charlie Company soldiers said. He said, I looked around and saw everyone
shooting. I did not know what to do, so I started shooting. This sounds more like this soldier was
under the grip of the circumstances. The environment was impacting upon him very, very heavily.
And what he did, he did what the rest of the people were doing. Environment and behavior. Social
environment and behavior. This means the social environment and the social dynamics of that
place at that time just prompted the soldier to do the same way as the other members of the group
were doing. So, is it a justification?
Let us give you some questions to think about this massacre. The question is, is the way people
think and act the production of their inner dispositions? If you take this question to understand the
My Lai massacre, the question would be, do you think what people did over there? What
Americans would have stood over there was based upon their inner disposition because they were
the people like that. Or because they were in that situation where somehow the circumstances made
them behave in a certain way. The next question is, does the situation play a role? Was it only
because of the situation that soldiers behaved savagely the way they did? The next question is, do
environmental factors contribute to the way people think, feel, and act? The way those soldiers
were thinking, feeling, and acting, was because of the environment. Was it because of the situation

100
that made them do that? And finally, the question is direct, why did the soldiers in my life behave
savagely? Why did the people behave very, very savagely over there?
Of course, as psychologists, we can look at this phenomenon and we can bring in all the
technology, the behavior technology that we have learned to understand this entire fiasco of
dreadful human behavior. However, let us give you some more information on the My Lai
massacre. The remaining information is something like this. While the massacre was taking place,
a helicopter happened to be passing by that village. This is what this all. A helicopter pilot from an
aerospace team witnessed many dead and dying civilians as he began flying over the village. He
landed in his helicopter and asked the surgeon he encountered there if he could help get the people
out of the ditch and the surgeon replied that he would help them out of their misery. Later, he told
his crew that if the US soldiers shot at the Vietnamese while he was trying to get them out of the
bunker, they were to open fire at these soldiers. Now, students, this is entirely antithetical behavior
to what was going on from the soldiers of the same army. From the same army, few soldiers were
engaged in the massacre while from the same army, there came a few other soldiers who did not
want those soldiers to engage in that massacre and they were so charged for that that they would
even fight against their fellow soldiers. These soldiers were later given medals for their bravery.
Once again, the question to you is? these two divergent types of behavior Is the environment
playing upon these people to behave in two different ways or is it the people themselves that are
trying to interact with the environment or they are trying to control the environment in different
ways? Once again, let me remind you what that soldier said. I looked around and saw everyone
shooting, I didn't know what to do so I started shooting. Is that enough reason for that? Of course,
this is a question that you would be thinking. At this point students and based upon this soldier’s
interview and what he said in that, I would like to give you the definition of conformity.
Conformity
Conformity means a tendency to shift one's opinions or actions to correspond with those of other
people because of implicit or explicit social pressures. Conformity is a phenomenon here.
Conformity is pervasive in society, influencing career choices, among other things. For instance,
in our country, many gravitate towards careers like medicine or engineering, following societal
norms.
Why do people conform? Often, it's to align with prevailing standards. We may sacrifice our true
desires to fit in. How many aspire to less conventional paths, like philosophy or poetry? Society
molds our aspirations, nudging us towards conformity.
Ultimately, conformity reflects the tug-of-war between societal norms and individual autonomy.
It's a complex dynamic that shapes behavior in profound ways.
Let's revisit the My Lai case and the question of why the soldiers behaved savagely. Similarly, let's
consider why young people often conform to societal norms when choosing their careers.
It's tempting to label the soldiers as bad or the conforming students as lacking in courage.
Asch’s Experiment
But let's examine how people conform to social norms through a simple experiment.

101
In this experiment, subjects were shown two sets of lines and asked to judge their lengths while
working in a group. Seven subjects participated, but only one was real—the rest were confederates
instructed to give obviously wrong answers. Despite the subjects being able to clearly see the
correct answer, 37% still conformed to the group's incorrect responses.

Factors Influencing conformity.

There are the following factors that influence conformity:
Agreement amongst participants
Dissenters
Anonymity

1) Agreement among participants

Why did they conform? This experiment, known as the Asch experiment, sheds light on the factors
influencing conformity. One key factor is the agreement among participants. When everyone else
in the group gives the same wrong answer, individuals often succumb to groupthink, even if it
contradicts their perceptions.
For 37% of the participants, the pressure to conform outweighed their ability to trust their
judgment. This highlights the powerful influence of social norms on individual behavior.
Let's revisit the scenario of the American soldier in Vietnam who said, "I looked around, everybody
was shooting, so I started shooting." Similarly, imagine a conversation with a young person today
who chooses a career path based on societal influence, like, "My dad said computer scientists make
great money, so I'm going for it. Plus, lots of my friends are studying computer science." In both
cases, individuals are following the crowd, conforming to social norms.
2) Dissenters
Now, let's examine this from a different angle. Think about dissenters—those who go against the
group's thinking. Picture a scenario where a group is unanimously leaning towards one option, like
going to a certain place, but one person suggests an alternative. This dissenter challenges the
group's consensus, opening new possibilities. Research, including the famous Asch experiment,
shows that dissenters can significantly reduce conformity rates compared to groups without
dissenters.

102
 3) Anonymity
Another factor to consider is anonymity. When individuals feel anonymous, they may express their
true opinions more freely. In experiments where subjects remained anonymous in aloof rooms,
they were less likely to conform, indicating the impact of social pressure on conformity.
4) Self-confidence vs self-doubt
Additionally, self-confidence versus self-doubt also plays a role. Confident individuals are more
likely to resist conformity, while those plagued by self-doubt may succumb to group pressure more
easily.
Reasons for conformity
What is the reason that moves people to confirm with the group? One of the great reasons is often
involves people outwardly agreeing with the group while inwardly retaining personal opinions.
This internal conflict can be stressful, leading individuals to eventually adopt the group's viewpoint
to reduce discomfort—a process known as internalization.
Process of Conformity
➢ In confirming people first go through the process of Identification.
Identification means they want to go along with the group.
➢ In the second step, they go through the process of Internalization.
Internalization comes when they start believing in the group's point of view. They kill their own point
of view.
Now, Consider historical examples like World War II and the rise of the Nazi party. Despite initial
resistance, many individuals eventually conformed to Hitler's ideology due to social pressure and
the suppression of dissenting voices due to group norms. It was also because dissenters were not
treated rightly.
Ultimately, the interplay between environmental factors and individual agency shapes behavior.
While social influence can be powerful, individuals with strong convictions and confidence may
resist conformity, paving the way for dissent and change. So, is the environment more powerful,
or is human will? It's a question worth exploring scientifically, as we seek to understand the
complexities of human behavior.

In the next lecture, we will study Attribution Theory.

103
Lesson 29
Attribution Theory
In this lecture, after reviewing the previous lecture you will study the following topics:
➢ Attribution Theory
➢ Attribution Errors
➢ Internally vs Externally caused Behaviors.
Attribution Theory
Our perceptions and judgments of people's behavior are heavily influenced by our assumptions
about their internal state, a concept known as attribution theory. For instance, we might come to
start thinking that this gentleman is a person who is a bad guy because he is trying to demean us,
or he is trying to embarrass us in front of the crowd. Or a certain person comes to us, and he just
becomes friendly, gives you a nice shake, introduces himself, and starts talking to you. You might
say that he is a nice guy because he is behaving like a nice guy. And when we look at both people,
we try to see what is the state that is inducing this type of behavioral pattern. If you come to find
out that this type of thing is being done by the person because he internally actually plans to do
that to you, then you would consider that person bad. However, if you come to think that that
person was doing, just throwing a joke to make everybody laugh at the party and make you laugh
also at the party, then you might come to interpret the same thing from a very different point of
view.
Attribution theory is a theory that helps us to understand 2 things:
1. How do we explain people's behavior
2. How do we come to attribute people's behavior to their internal states
Let's consider an example. Syra, a student of business administration, seems shy in class but
talkative with friends. Is she inherently shy, or is her behavior situation-dependent? If we observe
her only in class, we might conclude she's shy. But if we see her with friends, we might see her as
confident. This illustrates how our judgments can be influenced by the context in which we
observe behavior.
Attribution theory has been developed to explain why we judge people differently based on the
meaning we attribute to their behavior. We attempt to determine whether behavior is internally or
externally caused. It's crucial to consider whether someone's actions stem from their personality
or the situation they're in.
When someone's behavior is internally caused, we hold them responsible for their actions.
However, in some cases, external factors can influence behavior. For example, someone might
behave differently in stressful situations. It's essential to consider these factors when making
judgments about people's behavior.
However, as we discussed in the last lecture, sometimes it happens that people in certain situations
behave in a queer sort of way. In one situation they are cool and calm. And when you capture them
in an aggressive mode, you might come to say that this gentleman is very, very aggressive.
However, you need to see that aggressive behavior is internally caused or externally caused. If
that behavior is externally caused according to your perception, then you might say that this
gentleman is behaving aggressively only in this situation. However, if you come to think that this
behavior is internally caused, then you would say that this gentleman is aggressive. In either case,
our perception might be wrong because you do not have complete information on that.

104
Attribution Errors
There are 2 types of attribution errors.
➢ Fundamental Attribution error
➢ Self-Serving Bias

Fundamental
Attribution Self-serving Bias
Error (Success- external
factors)
(Failure: internal
factors)

➢ Fundamental Attribution Error

Fundamental attribution error means that we are always making wrong judgments based on our
assumptions. Understanding the influence of external factors and overestimating the influence of
internal factors. That is the fundamental attribution error.
For example, assuming that a person is late all the time because he or she is not interested in the
work rather than finding out that the shift starts when the parking is full. We assume that something
is wrong with this person as he is always late which means that the behavior is internally caused.
However, there could be a major reason for that person to be late every day.
However, instead of finding out why this person comes late every day and helping this person out,
we might simply build up an assumption without getting enough information that this person is a
habitual latecomer. This person is lousy, he just wants to drift away from the responsibility. So,
fundamental attribution error is an error that we commit when we try to underestimate the
influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors. So, we
underestimate and overestimate the influence of internal and external factors. This is the
fundamental attribution error that we are constantly making.
➢ Self-serving bias
Self-serving bias means that we attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors.
Like they say, nothing succeeds like success and failure has many excuses. When a person is
successful, that person is successful and that means that success becomes part of that person and
we do not say that this person is successful because of certain external factors. We simply say that
that person is successful, and we come to think that that person might be very, very intelligent. So
self-serving bias is attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors. We might
come to say that I failed because I faced these difficulties and if you are successful, we would say
I am successful because I worked very, very hard for it. So, we try to tailor the opinion according
to our choice. We try to tailor our perception of the situation in such a way that we appear to be
heroes in that situation and this attribution fundamental attribution error is called self-serving bias.

105
Internally VS Externally Cause Behaviors
We believe that internally caused behaviors are under an individual's control. Externally caused
behaviors are motivated by external forces. So, when we say that someone has done something
because of his intent, then we tend to attribute the entire blame to that person. We would say that
this person behaved in this way because this person is bad, or this person is good, or whatever that
person is. However, when we find out that there are reasons for a certain behavior that is externally
caused, we attribute the behavior to external factors, and this is the time that we usually try to
forgive people.
So, we are trying to determine and one of the most important things out of these is that when we
are trying to find out that the behavior is internally caused or externally caused is distinctiveness.
As, how we determine the source of behavior is determined by three factors.
➢ Distinctiveness.
➢ Number two is consensus.
➢ And number three is consistency.
Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness means How much a person's behavior is unique. How much a person's behavior
is distinctive? “Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behavior in
different situations”. If the distinctiveness is high, if the behavior is very, very distinct, then your
attribution towards that behavior would be very high towards external factors. If the
distinctiveness is low, then your attribution towards the external factor would also be very, very
low because this behavior is not distinct at all. As we discussed in a previous example, if the
employee comes late one day, then that behavior is very, very distinctive because it does not
happen all the time. If the employee is coming late every day, then that behavior is not distinctive
at all because this is something that happens every other day. And if that happens every other day,
then that means you might come to say or attribute his behavior to internal factors. So, if we see
that the person's behavior is distinctive, then we may say that this is externally caused. If this
person's behavior is not distinctive, we may say it is internally caused. And internally caused
means the person is penalized. Consensus
“If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the
behavior shows consensus”.
Example: If most of the students in a class let us say 90% of the students in a class fail in
mathematics. Who is responsible for that? Is it the students or the teachers? Just make a general
understanding of it. Just pass on the judgment right now 90% of the students in a class fail in
mathematics. Is there something wrong with the students, or is there something wrong with the
teacher? Based upon the consensus point of view, we will say that since 90% of the students are
failing in the class, then that means something is wrong with the teacher because everyone is
failing in this class. Hardly anyone passes. So, what are the teachers teaching in this class? Maybe
there is something wrong with their teaching methodology. We see a consensus in most people's
behavioral patterns, and then we say that this is understandable. You might have heard a lot of
people who come say that I could not progress in life because I was born into a very poor family
and my parents could not send me to a good school. And based on the poverty, I could not progress
in life. And then you would say that most of the people who are in poverty are not able to progress
in life. So, is it poverty that is responsible for their failure, or is it the people themselves who are
responsible for their failures? Who is at the helm of the affairs? Poverty or the people themselves?
Is it poverty that makes people fail, or is it the failed people who produce poverty? This is along
the bay. However, based on the consensus principle, we might say that this is the poverty that is

106
making those people poor. However, there might be some leaders who might say that this is not
poverty. Another leader might say that it is the people who are responsible because they are poor.
Because I was born in the same society, I was born in the same locality, I come from the same
country, and I am not poor anymore. I worked hard in my life. And these people who did not work
hard in their lives are poor. However, if we go by the principle of consensus, we will find out that
if the behavioral pattern is common with most people out there, we might say that this behavior
is externally caused, this behavior is not internally caused. An external cause of this behavior is
poverty, not the people who are failing.
Consistency
When we observe people, we look for consistency in their actions. That people behave the same
way in many different situations. That someone's behavior is consistent over time. When
someone's behavior is consistent over time, it means that they have established this behavior.
Because they are consistently behaving in the same fashion.
Example: There is a student who fails in every class. He has been failing in every class for the
last five years. He hardly passes any exams. And every time the exam comes, this student is upset
about it because he knows that he's going to fail it. Who do you think is wrong? Is it the student
who's wrong? Or is something happening with the student that's making him do the wrong, which
is failing in the exam? Who's wrong here? If we look at the student's behavior, we can say that his
behavior is consistent over time. He has been failing for the last three years. And there is
something wrong with this chap. So, you say that this chap is poor. You might start commenting
upon his intellectual ability, upon his intelligence. You might say so many things to find out the
reason inside that person. However, let me tell you that most of the great scientists that have a
great name in history were bad students, were the students who were failing consistently. So based
upon this perceptual thought, we always say that when a behavior is consistent over some time,
then that person is responsible. We do not try to find out the reason in the external environment in
the external scenarios.
These are the three important points of attribution theory and individual behavior.

Interpretation Attribution of Cause

Observation

Internal

External

Internal

External

Internal

107
And the three processes that we discussed are distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. If the
distinctiveness is high, then we would attribute the cause to external factors. If the distinctiveness
is slow, we will attribute the cause to internal factors. Similarly, if the consensus is very high, we
would attribute the cause to external factors. And if consensus is slow, we will attribute the cause
to internal factors. And the same is the case with consistency. If someone's behavior is consistent
over a long period, then we would say that this behavior is caused by external factors. And in other
situations, we would say that this behavior is caused by internal factors.
Judgmental Shortcuts
We make certain shortcuts in making judgments. Now, what are those shortcuts that we make when
we judge people? These are called judgmental shortcuts. There are the following 5 judgmental
shortcuts:
• selectivity
• zoomed similarity.
• stereotyping
• halo effect.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy.
Studying these judgmental shortcuts is very, very interesting in the sense that we try, we understand
that most of the time that we are trying to learn about people, we are trying to explain their
behavior, then we are making certain shortcuts that help us understand their people. But these
shortcuts are not always right. These shortcuts give us extremely misleading information about the
people. And since that misleading information is going into our minds, and we are building up our
opinions and attitudes accordingly, chances are that we would negatively react to our environment
in a way that is probably not very conducive for our adjustment over there.
In our next lecture, we will talk about all these judgmental shortcuts.

108
Lesson 30
Judgmental Shortcuts and Culture
In this lecture, we will continue the last lecture from judgmental shortcuts and will also discuss
culture.
There are 5 types of Judgmental Shortcuts.
1) Assumed Similarity
In this assumed similarity shortcut, we try to find out about others through our own
perception of ourselves.
Example: When delivering a presentation, it's common to experience nervousness, a feeling
shared by most people. During our initial presentations, this nervousness can be
particularly intense, often causing physical shaking. However, as we gain experience,
confidence typically grows. Similarly, if we observe someone exhibiting physiological
signs of anxiety before a presentation, we may assume they are nervous, reflecting a
perceived similarity based on our own experiences.
2) Stereotyping
We start perceiving a group of people in a certain way.
Example: If a person is heightened and muscular we think about him in a particular way
that they will be good at sports and think about chubby people in other ways. These
judgments can be right or wrong.
3) Halo Effect
We pick one characteristic of a person and start thinking that all characteristics of a person
will be good.
Example: In an interview by seeing the color of the tie interviewer makes the judgment
that the person will be materialistic and bad for the company.
4) Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
When our beliefs or expectations about a person influence their behavior, it's known as a
self-fulfilling prophecy. For instance, if you initially perceived your friend as struggling in
mathematics, but later believed their skills improved after tutoring, you might seek their
assistance. Consequently, they may also feel more confident in their abilities and willingly
assist you, aligning their behavior with your beliefs and expressions about them.
5) Selectivity
When assessing others, we tend to prioritize traits or interests that resonate with us
personally. For instance, if you enjoy playing golf, you might inquire whether someone
shares this interest. If they don't, you may subconsciously view them as less compatible or
not meeting your standards.

109
 Culture

The study of culture is a challenging undertaking because its primary focus is the
broadest component of social behavior – an entire society.
To comprehensively study society, it's essential to grasp the collective behavioral patterns it
comprises. Culture can be dissected into three primary components:
1) The component of beliefs
2) The component of values
3) The component of customs
Belief Component
In the Pakistan movement, the driving force was a belief component that a different country for
Muslims. Muslims are those who have a certain set of beliefs and spend their life accordingly.
Belief and Value Relationship: The beliefs and values component of our definition refers to
accumulated feelings and priorities that individuals have about things and possessions as well as
ideas.
Values Component
Values are culturally acceptable behavioral patterns. Values are those preferences according to
which we conduct or monitor our behavior.
Customs Component
Overt modes of behavior that constitute culturally approved or acceptable ways of behaving in
specific situations. Customs consist of the everyday routine behavior of the people.
Example: Talking to elders respectfully is our custom.

How Culture is Learnt

Culture is learned by making use of two processes:

1. Enculturation
2. Acculturation

Enculturation
Learning one’s own culture is called Enculturation. Learning about our own culture helps us to
adjust. The more we learn the more we get appreciated and adjusted.

There are two ways of learning our own culture:

• Formal (parents taught us)
• Informal (Through literature or media)

110
Acculturation
The learning of a new or foreign culture is called Acculturation. Culture is a dynamic process,
and it evolves and changes. Nowadays a lot of information comes through computers, which helps
with acculturation, and we learn about other cultures.
Example: From 1857 to 2009 a lot of changes have been made in our culture. For instance, before
that, there was no microwave oven but now in 5 minutes, we can cook food. It has changed our
life and culture to evolve like this persistently.
In our next lecture we will study Population and its impact on our Culture.

111
Lesson 31
Population and Culture
➢ In our last lecture, we discussed that many factors affect culture like; New
technologies, Population shifts, Resource Shortages, Wars, Accidents, Natural
Disasters, Changing Values, beliefs, and Customs borrowed from other cultures.
➢ In Today’s lecture, we will talk about population in detail.
But before that, we talk about a culture that preserves itself as it is without any change.
Amish People
They have preserved their values, beliefs, and customs without any change. They believe
worldliness can keep them from being close to God and can introduce influence that could be
destructive to their communities and to their way of life. They do not permit the use of tractors in
their fields. They do not own or operate automobiles. They also do not use electricity.
They wear plain clothes without designs so named as plain people.
But except for them, 99% of the time in the entire world culture is constantly changing and there
is one force behind it and that is the force of population. We are experiencing a population
explosion in our cultures.

Population and culture

World Population trends

Current trends in world population point out that by 2030 the world population is likely to be 10
billion and by the end of the 21st Century the numbers may rise to 30 billion. Populations in Sub-
Saharan Africa and The Himalayan regions of Asia have already exceeded the immediate capacity
of the area to sustain life.
Pakistan Population trends
Pakistan’s population is likely to be doubled by 2050.

112
Our population is increasing because the birth rate is high, and the death rate is less. So, the growth
trend increases.

In the above diagrams, life expectancy and density are given for Pakistan’s population.

113
Factors Affecting Earth
1) Environmental Indicators and population
Based on the population more people use more resources, use more gadgets, and as a result carbon
dioxide emissions increase. Stats are given below for these trends.

Vehicles are the biggest danger to the environment. More cars mean more carbon dioxide, so it
means that our land fertility decreases and intense damage to the earth. The level of raising up
crops decreases.

2) Resource depletion and environmental deterioration

Natural resources start depleting slowly. Resource depletion means the erosion of agricultural soil,
Stalinization of highly productive irrigated farmland, deforestation, and Lake Acidification (more
prevalent in the USA). This includes extensive loss of tropical forest, permanent soil degradation
(Amazon Rive Basin) regional water shortages, and deteriorating water quality.

114
 3) Public Policy and the environment
Public policy must Preserve the carrying capacity of the earth, major policy changes coupled with
government business and individual actions can do much to alleviate these problems. Important
measures need to be taken such as mandating reforestation after cutting, detoxification of chemical
by-products before disposal, judicious soil management, energy and material conservation, and
industrial and household recycling.

Important facts about Pakistan need to be taken under consideration:

1) Pakistan’s urban population to equal rural by 2030: UNFPA

Pakistan’s urban population is likely to equal its rural population by 2030, according to a report
titled ‘Life in the City: Pakistan in Focus’, released by the United Nations Population Fund
(UNFPA) here on Wednesday.
2) Rural-urban migration (females)
According to the report on Pakistan, the proportion of females is lowest in rural-to-urban migration
and highest in rural-to-rural migration. The same pattern has been observed in India. In the rural-
urban stream, the share of females is 51 percent in Pakistan. A relatively large fraction of rural-
urban migrants’ cross provincial boundaries. The perception that “the urban migrant is invariably
a male” is incorrect; females make up a considerable proportion of migrants.
3) Slum Population
At least one in every three city dwellers in Pakistan lives in a slum. Many migrants, who move to
cities to find jobs and have a better life, may not find jobs in the formal sector or any kind of
decent shelter with a minimum of basic amenities. The informal sector employs most migrants,
and they gravitate to squatter colonies where they build some kind of shelter for themselves. As
a result, slums and marginal human settlements have spread in most urban localities, particularly
in urban agglomerations.
4) Increase in Urban Population
The report also shows the share of the urban population increased from 17.4 percent in 1951 to
32.5 percent in 1998. The estimated data for 2005 shows the level of urbanization as 35 percent.
The level of urbanization in Pakistan is the highest in South Asia.
More than 60 percent of the population of urban Sindh lives in Karachi and this concentration has
increased over time. Approximately three-quarters of the total urban population of Sindh is
concentrated in just three urban centers: Karachi, Hyderabad, and Sukkur.

In Punjab, 22 percent of the urban population lives in Lahore, and half of the total provincial
urban population lives in five large cities.

Peshawar has a population of approximately one million without counting the Afghan refugees,
which is 33 percent of the urban provincial population. The share of Quetta in the total urban
Baluchistan population was 37 percent.

More than half of the total urban population of Pakistan lived in 2005 in eight urban cities:
Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Multan, Hyderabad, Gujranwala, and Peshawar.
Between 2000 and 2005, these cities grew at the rate of around 3 percent per annum, and it’s
projected that this growth rate will continue for the next eight to nine years.

115
By 2015 it was estimated that the population of Karachi will exceed 15 million, while Lahore and
Faisalabad will cross eight million and three million respectively.

This process is called “Urban Blight” The population is very Fast moving from rural areas to urban areas.

In the last part of the video lecture lesson 31, interviews with a few Officials from the society have also been
conducted for your better understanding in the light of Pakistan and population.

116
Lesson 32
Impact Of Environment on Its Incumbents
In this chapter following topics will be discussed:
➢ Firstly, we'll delve into the relationship between human population growth and the
environment.
➢ Nature and Environmental Changes in Rural and Urban Areas
➢ Urbanization
➢ The city as an unnatural habitat
➢ Crowding
➢ Rural Areas
➢ Impact of Environmental Changes on Industrial and Geographical Development
➢ Catastrophes and Human Adjustment
Human Population Growth and Environment
The human population of 6000 B.C. was estimated to have been about 5 million people. By
A.D 1650 our numbers reached 500 million and in the succeeding two hundred years we had
doubled our numbers to 1 billion. In 80 years, by 1930, we had doubled them again.
The current rate of population doubling is approximately 35 years (Ehrlich, 1968); that is, at
current growth rates, we can expect the number of human beings inhabiting the earth to double
every 35 years and to quadruple within the expected life span of any given individual.
Growth rate = Total Births – Total Deaths
Put differently, the world's population of humans is currently growing (total births minus total
deaths) by an average of over 100,000 people per day (that's approximately one new city of
Chicago each month). By the year 2030, barring unforeseen catastrophes, the number of humans
vying for space on our planet will exceed 10 billion. The problem is humans do not scatter but
make clusters and live in the same place rather than scattering on Earth evenly.
People move toward urbanization as they move towards cities more. So, population growth
follows the trend of Urbanization. The number of cities with populations over 100,000 has
quadrupled in the last 20 years and is expected to quadruple again in the next 20 years.

URBANIZATION

As noted in the chapter's introduction, most of our population lives in or near large cities. Thus, it
is not surprising that considerable effort has been expended toward describing and understanding
the experience of urban life.

Pakistan Situation
Pakistan’s urban population is likely to equal its rural population by 2030.

Life in the City: Pakistan in Focus’, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

Urbanization in Pakistan
Sindh: The share of the urban population increased from 17.4 percent in 1951 to 32.5

117
 percent in 1998. The estimated data for 2005 shows the level of urbanization as 35 percent.
The level of urbanization in Pakistan is the highest in South Asia. Sindh is the most urbanized
province with 49 percent of the population living in urban areas.
NWFP: is the least urbanized province with only 17 percent of its population living in urban
areas (according to the 1998 census).
The urban population in Punjab and Baluchistan in 1998 was 31 and 23 percent respectively.
The urban population in Baluchistan and Islamabad has been increasing at higher rates of 5.1
and 5.8 percent respectively.

Urban Centers of Pakistan: More than 60 percent of the population of urban Sindh lives
in Karachi and this concentration has increased over time. Approximately three-quarters of
the total urban population of Sindh is concentrated in just three urban centers: Karachi,
Sukkur, and Hyderabad. In Punjab, 22 percent of the urban population lives in Lahore, and
half of the total provincial urban population lives in five large cities.
Peshawar has a population of approximately one million without counting the Afghan
refugees, which is 33 percent of the urban provincial population. The share of Quetta in the
total urban Baluchistan population was 37 percent.

Urban Population Concentration

More than half of the total urban population of Pakistan lived in 2005 in eight urban
agglomerations: Karachi, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Multan, and Hyderabad.
Gujranwala and Peshawar between 2000 and 2005, these cities grew at the rate of around 3
percent per annum, and it’s projected that this growth rate will continue for the next eight
to nine years.

Urbanization Growth Rate

By 2015 it is estimated that the population of Karachi will exceed 15 million, while Lahore
and Faisalabad will cross eight million and three million respectively. According to the
UNFPA global report, more than half of the world population, around 3.3 billion, will be
living in urban areas by 2008 and the number will swell to around five billion by 2030.

Country representative of UNFPA, Dr France Donnay said that the growth of cities would
be the single largest influence on development in the 21st century. But little was being done
to maximize the benefits of urban growth or reduce its harmful consequences. “Between
2000 and 2030, Asia’s urban population is to increase from 1.36 billion to 2.64 billion and
Africa’s from 294 million to 742 million”.

Urbanization results in the formation of slums and affects cities' infrastructures and resources.

Slum Formation

At least one in every three city dwellers in Pakistan lives in a slum. Any migrants who move to cities
to find jobs in the formal sector or any kind of decent shelter with a minimum of basic amenities.
The informal sector employs most migrants, and they gravitate to squatter colonies where they build
some kind of shelter for themselves. As a result, slums and marginal human settlements have spread
in most urban localities, particularly in urban agglomerations.

118
“Katchi Abaadi” or Slum Statistics
In Pakistan, the urban population living in “katchi abadis” varies between 35 and 50 percent. The
growth of these informal settlements in the two megacities, Karachi, and Lahore, has particularly
been massive. In Karachi, these settlements increased from 212 in 1958 to more than 500. In
Lahore, there are more than 300 katchi abadis in Faisalabad, at least 40 percent of the population
lives in these abadis.

Effects of Urbanization
There can be the following effects of urbanization:
• Physical Effects
• Social Effects
• Psychological Effects
When urbanization increases, people start moving to the suburbs of the city and all of this remains
unplanned, and this urbanization keeps moving like a vicious cycle. As a result, following physical
effects occur:

119
Psychological Effects
In cities, people become busy and don’t find time to become friends with others, start feeling lonely
and problems increase.
Anonymity increases as people don’t know each other and hence loneliness increases as well as
the crime rate increases, and privacy is compromised here.

120
Lesson 33
Effects of Urbanization
In this lecture, we will continue the psychological and physical effects of Urbanization.
Physical and Psychological Effects of Urbanization
Then there are problems related to crowding. Crowding means that more people are sharing a
certain area. That means people might be closer to each other than this is comfortable for them.
An example could be one gentleman who has been living in probably some rural area and moves
to Karachi and starts living in an apartment building, he finds out that people are very close for
comfort. And they are scooped up into small little dingy apartments where everybody is living
their lives.
So, these people might find out that their privacy is being confiscated.
Secondly, because of urbanization pollution also rises. When pollution rises, then some physical
diseases and disorders are also in their eyes.
There would be more food required and the supply chains for such food probably might not be
very well in third-world countries.
So, starvation might also be one of the negative outcomes of the big cities. With this drug and
alcohol abuse has been found more in the bigger cities than in the rural communities. And there
has been family disorganization. It's been said that in Western countries, the institution of families
is deteriorating, and families are disintegrating. People living as a family are much fewer than they
were used to in the past. This has been seen that as people move into the urban areas, some kind
of family disintegration starts taking place because families go too far for the comfort of the people.
They are constantly working; they are constantly taking different types of pressures. So, family
disintegration becomes one of the major negative outfalls of urban lives. However, it does not
happen so frequently.
So, students, these were some of the physical and psychological factors that people suffer from in
urban areas.

Problems of Population/Urbanization
There were two main problems:
• One is that the population is growing very fast,
• And second is population is following the trend of urbanization.
Now we will understand these problems under multiple theoretical frameworks.
Theories of Urban Effects
1. Wohlwill’s Adaptation Level Theory
2. Milgram’s Information Overload Theory
3. Proshansky, Ittleson, Rivlin- Behavior constraint Theory

1) Wohlwill’s Adaptation Level Theory

Adaptation level theory means that human beings function best when their level of arousal is on
an intermediate scale.
This means that they are not too much aroused, that they are not too under-aroused. When we
apply this theory to city life then we find out that there is a lot of population in the city. There are
so many entertainment places.

121
Then so much is going on all the time in the city. A gentleman who comes from a far-off village
to a city in Karachi or Lahore might say that this city never sleeps. Even at two o'clock at night,
you could find cars on the roads, you could find out the food hangouts are open, and a lot of activity
is going on throughout the night. So, apply the adaptation level theory. You will find out that in
the cities, people are constantly stimulated. Low-income, constant stimulation will be here.
Or if stimulation will be here constantly, that means the arousal level is up. And when the arousal
level is constantly up, then what happens?
An arousal level increase means that a lot of hormonal activity is going on. People might bump
into a fight-or-flight reaction. So, you can find out the problems like low concentration, and low
performance level.

2) Milgram’s Information Overload Theory

That means if more information is coming our way, then we can handle it, then our behavior, and
we simply start missing out on that information. This means that we are so loaded with information
that we don't know how to find a way out of it, how to analyze it, or what to do with this. According
to the information load theory, the quantity and rate of stimulation that urbanites are exposed to
exceeds their capacity, resulting in information load. So, another way to understand the city would
be that concerning information load, you will find a lot of people who complain about information
load. Because the city is constantly stimulating them, the city is constantly providing them with
something.

3) Proshansky, Ittleson, Rivlin - Behavior constraint Theory

The demands of city life limit an individual's freedom, leading to behavioral constraints that can
produce feelings of loss of control, leading to behavioral constraints. For instance, a boy living in
the village moved to the city because he must study at a university now. When he comes to the
university, he finds out that situations are so complicated, he must work very hard to find his way
into it and way out of it. Eventually, he bumps into behavioral constraints, which means that for
some time, he would start feeling that he's kind of losing control over the situation. And when
people are losing control over the situation, what kind of psychological feeling do they go through?
That means they're feeling frustrated. That means they're feeling depressed about the entire thing.
Because the entire situation, the entire environment becomes so complicated for them, and it is
charging so heavily upon their senses that they find it hard for themselves to kind of control it.
And that type of feeling creates frustration, anger, and remorse, dejectedness, depression.
Now, can you correlate these feelings with the incidence of crime somehow? Do you think that a
satisfied person who's happy about himself, do you think a person who's calm about things and
who has control over the things around himself, has some inclination towards crime, the possibility
is very less? Compared to people who are going through extreme psychological feelings, the
incidence of crime in such a state of mind might be more prevalent. There's more possibility for
the crime to take place when a lot of people are going through such a mental state. So, we can
apply this theory also.
At this point, it is also interesting for you to note that a gentleman, a psychologist whose name is
Baker, said cities are overmanned. In cities, there are so many people living together that the city's
infrastructure chokes. And when the infrastructure chokes, then people bump into negative

122
behavior patterns. And when people bump into negative behavior patterns, that might be
devastating not only for themselves but also for the people around them. These are some of the
theories that we can apply to understand the urban effects.
Urban VS Rural
Number one is urban-rural comparisons. Number two is social behavioral effects. Number three is
beneficial effects.
Find out a friend of yours or a cousin of yours who lives in a big city and ask him what charges
him. Ask him about his routine. You will find out how urban and rural life differs. Urban life seems
to be more complicated. People seem always to be on the run. Urban life can be the lowest income
in the years of the year. When you get into the villages, you find out that rural life is kind of simple.
This is why if you have spent a long time in the city, you probably might point out yourself to be
very peaceful in village life. You have different facilities that you are so used to using in the cities
that are not available to you in the village. You might bump into a different type of reaction. You
might not actually like that place. However, environmental psychology is the subject. This study
the effect of the environment on human behavior. In this very comparison, we can find out that the
environmental features in urban life and rural life are two distinct and different types of features.
And they impact human behavior differently. So, it is very natural that we can always compare
urban life with rural life.
And for the start of it, when people compare both lives, they bring up their own points of use into
that. They might say that rural life is very good, calm, and serene. And then there might be people
who might say that urban life is wonderful because you have all the facilities and entertainment
available to you. We start our comparison with the physical and health diseases that are found
prevalent in the people of rural areas and the people of urban areas.
1) Physical and Health diseases
Statistics show that there is probably not uniformly worse physical and ornamental health in cities
compared to rural life. There is a higher rate of respiratory diseases in the cities. That is
understandable because in cities there is a lot of pollution. The minimal differences in the incidence
of stress-related illnesses such as heart disease and hypertension. This research was carried out in
old research (Hay & Wantman, 1968).
Then it is seen that alcoholism and drug addiction are more common in cities than in rural areas.
It has also been found that the incidence of psychosis is higher in urban areas than in rural areas.
This research was conducted by Doran Mann and Doran Mann. So, students, when we compare
urban and rural areas concerning the health and disease factor we find out that there is not much
significant difference over here. Certain diseases are more specific to city life and there might be
certain diseases that could be more specific to urban life.
2) Social and behavioral effects
Differences between urban and rural settings can be observed concerning two important
psychological factors. Number one is affiliation and number two are pro-social and anti-social
behavioral patterns.

123
Affiliation
When it comes down to affiliation we find out that urbanites are less affiliative towards strangers
than are people in the rural areas. This research was conducted by Macaulay, Coleman, and Defuso
in 1977, then Milgram and Newmann, and Macaulay once again studied it in the same period.
They also found out that urbanites tend to avoid eye contact with strangers and are less likely to
reciprocate friendly gestures than rural dwellers. That means people living in the cities are very
bad because they have a lesser affiliation towards other people than the people living in the rural
areas. Well, these are the statistical findings. This is some of the research that has been conducted
and these are two different behavioral patterns. It does not mean that people living in the city are
bad or people living in the rural areas are good or bad either. It means that both people are exposed
to two different types of environments and since they must survive that environment, different
behavioral tactics work in one place and different behavioral tactics work only in the other place.
In rural areas, few people know each other, and usually, the threat to the community or the fabric
of the community is very, very strongly woven. In the cities, the threat or the fabric of the
community is not very strongly woven because there are people from all over the country who are
living in the cities. As we discussed in our last lecture, people also might be suffering from the
feelings of anonymity and people might be feeling that there are a lot of strangers living in this
place, they might have been using this type of behavioral pattern as a protective measure to survive
in the city. This is exactly what these two researchers found out.
Pro-social Behavior
It has been observed that urbanites are less likely to help a stranger. This research was conducted
by Galphand, Hartman Welder, and Page, then Kurt and Kerr as well as Melkram. Urbanites are
less likely to help a stranger. What does it mean? Urbanites are selfish people or people living in
urban areas are not good ones. It could mean so many different things. But it has been found that
since in the city, a lot of people are living together and people are from different areas, the level of
anonymity is high. The level of feeling stranger is kind of very high. And then simultaneously in
the city, the stimulation level is also very high. People are constantly aroused. There could be the
application of behavioral constraint theory. People tend to lose control over the scenario. And since
they are already losing control over the scenario, they might not use extra energy for the strangers.
If you apply the stimulus adaptation level theory, you might find out that so many stimulants are
available to the people in the city that little energy is left for the stranger. Then of course in the city
a lot of trainers are living and then people are from so many different places, you don't know about
them. You probably would not be able to trust them so easily. So, this is one type of behavioral
pattern that is found concerning pro-social behavior.
Anti-social behavior
Anti-social behavior is the exact opposite of pro-social behavior. Pro-social means that you are
pro-people. You are towards the people. You affiliate with them. You connect with them. You relate
to them. And what is anti-social behavior? Anti-social behavior means that you are against people.
You don't want to connect with them. Or you want to take advantage of them. So, when we talk
about anti-social behavior, you will start a behavioral pattern that will be used in your crime.
Statistics: Clear differences have been reported between herbal and ruined areas in the incidence
of crime. This research was conducted by a courtsman, and Levy, fisher, and Zimbardo. They have
found out that in urban areas, the incidence of crime has been quite high. And in the rural areas,

124
the incidence of crime has been quite low. Now what can be the reasons? The factor of anonymity
might play a role in the crime. Then if you apply the adaptation level theory, we understand that
people are constantly stimulated. Their arousal level is constantly high or constantly low. They are
not performing very well. And when they are not performing very well, probably their efforts
towards achieving certain objectives are also not very successful. That leads to frustration and
dejection that might lead to the incidence of crime also. Then if you apply the behavior constraint
theory, loss of control over things. A young boy comes to the city and wants to be a rich man. He
probably does not find good opportunities. He gets so frustrated and upset. And he thinks that I
don't know anyone here. And this is why so many different people are living. It might decide to
bump into a crime. So, in city life, it has been found that the incidence of crime has been higher
than in rural areas. And there are some understandable facts about that also.
There is everything negative about the cities. Is that so? Now do not mean to say that. There is, it
is not like that that everything is negative about the city. The city life is kind of different. Otherwise,
if you ask most of the people, they will not say that they want to live in the cities or they want to
live in the urban centers.
Beneficial effects of city: There is an interesting fact to note, which was researched by Malton
and Hargrove says the city provides you with all the infrastructure where you could become a more
sophisticated person in your career. There are so many different options available in the city, the
business is going on. In the city, all the opportunities are available to you. So that is why cities are
places where people find more opportunities. When they find more opportunities, they can express
their inner potential and their inner talent. And once they can express their inner potential and
talent, probably that might be a satisfaction for them. And of course, people make more money in
the cities. So, they say that rural scenes are substantially more likely than urban scenes to be
described as pleasant turns. Rural inhabitants are more likely to be perceived as friendly. This was
research that was conducted by Malton and Hargrove in 1987.Looks like this research once again
is telling us that cities are bad places because a lot of people find out that the rural scenes are more
beautiful. They find out that the rural people, rural inhabitants are more friendly than the city
inhabitants. How do you understand this research? This research is simply a comparison that
compares people from rural or urban areas concerning behavioral patterns. So, as we discussed
when you look at the city from the positive point of view, we find out that much of the research
starts with a biased and pessimistic assumption that cities are bad. Most of the research has
probably been carried out with a certain bias in the mind of the researcher that the city is something
bad. It’s a bad place to live. And this fact was researched by Friedman and that's also quite old,
way back in 1975.
According to a Gallup opinion index, most of the respondents indicated they preferred living in
cities. So, there are some positives also attached to the cities. Life in the city makes an individual
more versatile and adaptable and gives a broader perspective on life than is afforded in rural life.
So, these are some of the ways rural areas and urban areas can be compared.
Crowding
Considering the above-mentioned topics, we will study crowding in detail under the following
topics:
• Animal Studies
• Human Correlational/survey studies

125
 • Human Experimental Studies
• Social Affective Responses
• Crowding in everyday setting
Crowding means a lot of people are living in little space. When more people are living in little
space, then that means their privacy has been hampered. That means they are probably not feeling
comfortable with each other. So crowding is an artificial state where people are too close for
comfort. Crowding means that you are too close to comfort with the people. This means the density
of the population is ticking and people are so close for comfort with each other that they are not
feeling comfortable or peaceful with each other anymore.
Animal Studies
Naturally, we can use many ways to do our studies or our research. However, it has been found
that whenever we are doing psychological research, since it involves human beings, sometimes
conducting experiments becomes very, very dangerous. So, the experiments are conducted on
animals. Huge caution needs to be taken from animal study skills that are generalized to human
beings. Secondly, animal studies have a direction to do this. It gives us a strong hypothesis that is
almost there to be proven that this is the way human beings can also actually act. Animal studies
are very difficult to understand. We can use them in 2 lines to understand the research.
Naturally occurring population cycles: This is how we can naturally do population cycles.
Experimentally controlled population cycles: This means the population is experimentally
controlled. There are certain conditions. There are experimentally controlled species of a certain
animal. There is another group that is not being applied to any kind of independent variable, which
means that no changes have been imposed upon this group's growth of population. They let it
happen very, very naturally.
1) March to the Sea Study (Natural Population Cycle Study)
This research was conducted by Dubos in 1965. Whenever we want to understand what happens
concerning a population of human beings, this becomes very, very interesting research to code.
You can see an animal that closely resembles a rat. This is a Norwegian Lemming. Norwegian
Lemmings are small rodents resembling the field mouse but having short tails and covered feet.
They live primarily in the Scandinavian Mountain regions. Lemmings can be used by the natives
that about every 3 or 4 years they appear to migrate or march to the sea with many of them
drowning as a result. This is very, very strange behavior. Lemmings are growing up, and up to a
certain extent they grow, and then they certainly decide to commit suicide. They simply move
towards march towards the sea and drown themselves up so that they can balance their population.
So, what exactly is this? Do you think Lemmings committed suicide? Because they are too many
in number and some of the people, some of the Lemmings decide to sacrifice themselves. What is
happening over here?
When we do a closer observation, we find the Lemmings when they are marching toward the sea,
this moment is not very orderly. This is rather full of frenzy. So, what is going on? Is it suicide or
an accident? They find out that certainly Lemming’s bump into a frenzied activity or helter-skelter
on the Lemmings are just madly running towards the sea or in some Lemmings simply drown
themselves in the sea. So closer observation reveals that this is not an organized thing. This is a
disorganized thing. This is some kind of madness that the Lemmings are experiencing, or the

126
Lemmings are going through. Lemmings are prolific reproducers. Every three or four years they
reach considerable numbers. This increased population density acts to influence brain and adrenal
functioning which in turn is overly manifested in non-directed activity. They found out that when
Lemmings reach a certain level of population then in Lemmings a very heightened level of adrenal
activity starts taking place. Adrenal activity is very closely related to frenzied behavior. So
biological pre-programming means that they simply bump into frenzied because of the adrenal
gland glandular functioning and then in that frenzied, they don't know where they are going, and
they don't know what they are doing, and they simply commit suicide, or they simply die and
drown themselves into the sea.
The question is do human beings do the same thing? Human beings are taken as lemmings and
the population becomes more and they are jumping into the sea. Are there any Lemmings humans?
Does the population create some impact on us? Well, we can give you another interesting study.
That will take the story forward. And this interesting story is called Dear Die Off on James Island.
Dear Die, Off on James Island
This research was conducted by Christian Figer and Davis in 1960. In 1916 4 or 5 deer were
released on James Island in Chesapeake Bay off the coast of Maryland. By 1955 this small herd
had grown to 280-300 deer. In 1958 half of the herd died. This was something very alarming what
happened with all these deer? How come they die? They had crossed their population level up to
a certain extent and then they simply started dying. What happened to them? They found out that
the herd stabilized on the threshold of 80 members. From 1958 onwards they maintained the level
of threshold of 80 members. So, what was happening with these deer? A closer examination was
conducted by Christian Scrope and this is what they found. Scientists John Christian Fliger and
Dave Devas studied 18 after surviving deer. They performed a detailed histological examination
of the deer's adrenal glands, thymus, spleen, thyroid gland, kidney, liver, heart, lungs, and other
tissues. The care cast was found to be in excellent shape throughout. The only abnormal finding
was an increase in the size of the adrenal glands. In most severe cases, adrenal glands were found
to be 10 times the size of the base rate samples. They found out the deer were in excellent shape.
There was nothing wrong. Their heart spleen, they were, everything was functioning fine, and they
had the right amount of fat in their body which shows that they were healthy deer, but they found
only one abnormality, and that abnormality was died der had 10 times bigger adrenal glands. The
adrenal gland is the gland that controls the thinking activity that controls the behavioral activity
of an animal. So, if the adrenal gland is 10 times thicker than the normal adrenal gland which is
found in most deer, then what is the reason for that? You would find out that the Christian's crew
came up to be forming a very interesting conclusion. They said they determined that while they
were in good nutritional condition, their physiology indicated hyperstimulation from the stress of
crowding and attributed the many deaths to this. You remember Wahlbl's theory, adaptation level
theory, that when people perform best at the normal level of arousal, at a medium level of arousal.
In this case, the deer is overstimulated, which means he is not performing at the normal level. Deer
are overstimulated because of the overcrowding. They are too close to each other probably. And
that creates stress. That stress leads to these biological deformities and eventually, the deer dies.
We find out one thing about the animals, that the animal’s instinctually controlled behavior is
usually very, very huge. However, when we come down to human beings, we find out that there is
reason and logic. That is why human beings are more adaptable, they adapt more and more. They
change more and more. They just want a human being that is surviving. So, however, these studies

127
point out one thing that more population, if there is more population, that is some kind of
discomfort.
How are we going to deal with this? We can talk about this in the next lecture.

128
Lesson 34
Problems Related To Crowding

Crowding-related issues are significant topics of investigation within the field of environmental
psychology. Research on animal behavior in crowded conditions provides valuable insights into
the impacts of population density on various aspects of physiological and behavioral functioning.
Animal Studies of Crowding
Animal studies concerning crowding can be categorized into two primary streams of inquiry.
Firstly, investigations focus on naturally occurring population cycles, while secondly, researchers
experimentally control population concentrations.
a. Naturally Occurring Population Cycles
Examples of it include studies such as the lemmings' phenomenon of migrating towards
the sea, as observed by Dubos (1965), and the die-off of (Sika) deer on James Island, as
documented by Christian, Flyger, and Davis (1960).

The migration of Norwegian lemmings, small rodents resembling field mice, every three
to four years, often culminates in many of them drowning. While Scandinavian folklore
attributes this behavior to a deliberate suicidal tendency ingrained in their biology, closer
examination reveals it as a frenzied, rather than orderly, movement. This phenomenon
suggests that increased population density influences brain and adrenal functioning,
leading to non-directed activity.

Similarly, Christian, Flyger, and Davis (1960) noted abnormal adrenal functioning in a
herd of deer experiencing increased population density. Their observations on the herd's
health, particularly the enlargement of adrenal glands, indicated heightened stress levels
due to crowding as a probable cause for the observed physiological changes.

b. Experimentally Control Population Concentrations

In contrast, controlled experiments, such as those conducted by Calhoun (1962) with
Norway rats, provide further insights into the consequences of overcrowding. In this study,
Calhoun provided Norway rats with an environment characterized by abundant resources,
including unrestricted access to food, water, and nesting materials. Notably, the only
limiting factor imposed was space, as the physical environment remained constant
throughout the study. Over time, the rat populations expanded, leading to a phenomenon
where dominant individuals claimed more spacious territories, while others were confined
to increasingly crowded areas within the confined space. This confined area was termed a
"behavioral sink" by Calhoun.

Within the behavioral sink, observable behavioral and physiological abnormalities

emerged among the rat population. For instance, nesting behaviors among females became
incomplete or poorly executed, resulting in neglected pups and disrupted nursing
behaviors. Additionally, juvenile males exhibited pansexualism and instances of

129
 cannibalism, while varying levels of aggression and withdrawal behaviors were observed
among different individuals. Furthermore, increased rates of infant mortality and aborted
pregnancies were noted. Physiological abnormalities included the development of tumors
in mammary and sex glands among females, as well as anomalies in the kidneys, livers,
and adrenal glands in both sexes.

Calhoun's research prompted inquiries into the potential association between population
density and the prevalence of pathological conditions in humans. The pathologies
identified by Calhoun, including morbidity, mortality, fertility issues, ineffective parenting,
and psychiatric disturbances, or their related manifestations such as infectious diseases,
juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality, have been tentatively linked to escalating
human population densities, albeit with varying degrees of success. This body of work
underscores the complex interplay between environmental factors and behavioral and
physiological outcomes, providing valuable insights into the dynamics of crowded
environments and their potential impacts on human well-being.

Additional effects of increased population concentrations have been reported subsequent

to Calhoun's seminal work. For example, it has been shown that population density leads
to the production of fewer sperm by males, to later onset of estrus, less frequent and shorter
duration estrus, and consequently less frequent births and smaller litters (Crow &
Mirsikowa, 1931; Snyder, 1966; 1968) among females. There is also evidence for an
increase in alcohol consumption and performance decrements on complex tasks
(Goeckner, Greenough, & Maier, 1974) for rats raised under high-density conditions.

Challenges in Extrapolating Findings to Human Behavior

Similar effects have been observed across a diverse range of species including swine, chickens,
cattle, elephants, and various rodents (Greenburg, 1969; Hafez, 1962; Marsden, 1972; Theissen,
1966). However, caution is warranted when extrapolating these findings to humans:
 Firstly, the behavior of non-human animals is often more biologically determined and less
influenced by learning and cultural factors (Swanson, 1973).
 Secondly, humans typically have opportunities for temporary relief from high-density
environments, unlike animals studied under controlled conditions (Evans, 1979).
 Lastly, humans have demonstrated superior capacities for adaptation and adjustment
compared to other animals.

Value of Animal Research in Understanding Human Behavior

Despite the difficulties in using findings from studying animals to understand humans, this
research is still really important for learning about human behavior. Animals can help us come up
with ideas about how people might behave, especially when it's not ethical to test on humans
directly. For example, if we want to see how living in crowded places affects future generations,

130
it's better to use animals that have shorter reproductive cycles than to use humans. Also, with new
technology, we can monitor animals' behaviors and bodies without hurting them, which helps us
avoid ethical problems we might face with human studies. But it's also important to note that we
do research with humans too, and there's a lot more to learn in this area.

131
Lesson 35
Impact of Population Concentration among Humans

Population concentration among humans has been a subject of significant interest in environmental
psychology, particularly concerning its effects on crime, mental illness, and social disorganization.
This section explores early research and contemporary perspectives on the impact of population
density on human behavior.

Historical Perspectives
Early investigations focused on the correlation between population concentration and various
social indices, such as crime rates and mental health indicators. Studies have consistently shown
higher rates of violent crimes and worsening mental health conditions in densely populated urban
areas compared to rural regions.

Allure and Pessimism

The idea that increased population concentration could be responsible for these effects presents
both pessimistic and alluring implications. While acknowledging concerning trends, researchers
are intrigued by the possibility of understanding human behavior through mechanisms similar to
those affecting other animals.

Defining Density
Investigators have utilized various measures of population concentration, often interchangeably
referring to them as crowding or density. However, consensus on the appropriate measure remains
elusive.

Schmitt's Measures
Schmitt (1957), for example, assessed the relationship between five semi-independent measures
of density and adult crime and juvenile delinquency.
They used the following five measures
 Average household size
 Proportion of married couples without their own home
 Proportion of dwelling units in structures with four or more living units
 Population per acre
 Percentage of occupied dwellings with 1.51 or more persons per room
Drawback of the above measures is that only the last two showed strong positive relationships with
delinquency and adult crime.

Inside vs. Outside Density

In subsequent work Schmitt (1966) has distinguished between inside density and outside density.
That is, Schmitt noted the difference between the number of people per unit of living space and
the number of people in the larger community (e.g., persons per acre). The importance of these
contrasts becomes apparent when the following possibilities are considered: low inside-low
outside (suburbs); high inside-high outside (urban ghettoes, barrios, and others); low inside-high
outside (luxury inner city apartments and condominiums); high inside-low outside (rural farm
areas).

132
Drawback of Relying solely on inside density would assume uniform effects across different
environments, while considering outside density provides more nuanced predictions. These
insights underscore the importance of precisely defining the term density.
A second challenge highlighted by the earlier considerations pertains to the differences in
socioeconomic, ethnic, and social structure variables among the four areas under study. These
variables might independently contribute to degenerative or pathological effects, but their co-
variation with density can lead to misattribution of causality.

Galle, Gove, and McPherson Study

Recent research has aimed to address this issue by adopting more explicit measures of density and
carefully accounting for confounding variables related to social structure. For instance, in a study
conducted by Galle, Gove, and McPherson (1972), correlations were observed between persons
per acre and public assistance rate, juvenile delinquency, and admission rates to mental hospitals.
However, these correlations disappeared when controlling for social class and ethnicity, suggesting
that density might not be directly related to social disorganization once these factors are
considered.
Given these findings, Galie's group undertook a reanalysis of their data. In this subsequent analysis,
density was defined differentially, encompassing factors such as:
 the number of residential structures per acre,
 the number of living units per structure,
 the number of residents per living unit,
 and the number of persons per room.
Utilizing multiple correlation techniques, they demonstrated that these refined measures of density
significantly correlated with various pathologies, even after controlling for class and ethnicity.
Their findings indicated that the number of persons per room was the most significant contributor
to various pathologies, except for admissions to mental hospitals. Additionally, factors such as the
percentage of people living alone and the number of persons per living unit emerged as strong
predictors of certain pathologies.
Drawback of the above studies was pointed out by Kellett (1989), whom has questioned the
adequacy of density as a concept for investigating the relationship between health and housing,
suggesting that further scrutiny is warranted.

133
Lesson 36
The Distinction between Density and Crowding

Recent research by scholars such as Altman (1975), Loo (1973), Proshansky et. al (1970), and
Stokols (1972a, 1972b, 1976) has highlighted the crucial difference between physical density and
psychological crowding. Stokols (1972a) notes the tendency to interchangeably use the terms
density and crowding in human research, emphasizing the need for distinct definitions. While
density refers to physical limitations of space, crowding represents an experiential state influenced
by personal and social factors in addition to spatial constraints. Thus, Stokols proposes that density
is a necessary but not sufficient condition for crowding. As Stokols views it, the potential
inconveniences of limited space such as the restriction of movement, the preclusion of privacy,
and other disadvantages of space limitation must reach some degree of saliency and be viewed as
aversive before people experience crowding.

Diverse Definitions of Crowding

Various scholars, including Desor (1972), Zlutnick and Altman (1972), and Van Staden (1984),
have proposed different definitions of crowding. For example, Desor (1972) has defined crowding
in terms of excessive stimulation from social sources; Zlutnick and Altman (1972) have defined
crowding in terms of an individual's inability to adequately control interactions with others; Van
Staden (1984) emphasized perception of large numbers of people, spatial restriction, and an
aversive experience of the situation as relevant components of the crowding construct. In this
regard crowding may be thought of as a psychological concept referring to a subjective experience,
which may or may not be adequately reflected by population density measures such as the amount
of physical space per person or number of people per unit of living space. In short, there seems to
be general agreement that high density is seldom a sufficient and probably never a necessary
condition for the experience of crowding.

Complexity of Density and Crowding

Density, particularly areal density, encompasses multiple components such as residential average,
structures per area, dwellings per structure, rooms per dwelling, and persons per room. This
complexity highlights the variation in neighborhoods with similar population densities but distinct
land use patterns, affecting the experience of density differently. Operationalizing crowding proves
challenging, with current approaches relying on correlational/survey methods. However,
limitations in controlling extraneous variables and definitively linking density to pathology hinder
conclusive findings.

Laboratory Studies for Enhanced Understanding

To address these challenges, environmental psychologists have turned to laboratory studies to
manipulate physical and social parameters of crowding more effectively. For instance, Arkkelin et
al. (1982) developed simulation techniques allowing independent manipulation of density
components and found that interpersonal distance interacts with social variables to influence
subjective discomfort more significantly than the absolute number of people present. Their
research suggests that crowding is characterized by heightened arousal, displeasure, and a sense
of loss of control. Subsequent sections will review additional studies exploring density
manipulation and its impact on affective and social-behavioral responses.

134
 Crowding & Density Human Experimental Studies
Conducting carefully controlled experimental studies of the effects of population density on human
behavior involves many difficulties. Nonetheless, a number of studies have been conducted and
reported. Some research has utilized rather interesting, but naturally occurring, high-density
situations like prisons, commuter trains, playgrounds, and shopping centers. Others have purposely
manipulated either numbers of persons within a setting while holding setting size constant (i.e.,
manipulated social density) or have maintained the same number of respondents while
manipulating the setting size available to them (i.e., manipulated spatial density; see, for example,
Loo, 1972; McGrew, 1970; Pedersen, 1983; Saegert, 1973, 1974). In keeping with the previous
chapters, we will look at what is known about the effects of density on physiological processes,
on task performance, and on such social affective behaviors as attraction, altruism, and aggression.

Physiological Reactions
One of the first researchers to report on the physiological effects of density was D'Atri (1975). He
observed the blood pressure levels of inmates in a prison who were confined to either single or
double occupancy cells and found those inmates in the latter cells to exhibit higher levels. Paulus,
McCain, and Cox (1978) have also found blood pressure to be positively related to increased
density, and McCain, Cox, and Paulus (1976) have reported that inmates in high-occupancy
dormitory settings complain more of illness than do those in lower-density cell blocks. This finding
may occur as a result of real illness brought on by physiological disturbances or by a desire on the
part of the inmate to be taken from the high-density dormitory to the lower-density infirmary. In
either case, the differential density seems to be the reason for the discrepancy in the number of
complaints.

Task Performance
Early research on the effects of density on task performance utilized relatively simple tasks like
psychomotor tasks, problem solving, or anagram solving in laboratory contexts where subjects
either knew or could easily discern the interests and hypotheses of the experimenter. Saegert,
Mackintosh, and West (1975) found support in an interesting and provocative field study for the
notion of increased density leading to performance decrements.
Saegert and her colleagues tested subjects in a socially dense department store and in a busy
railway terminal. Among the tasks subjects were asked to perform was to provide a cognitive map
(see Chapter 4) of their environment. The researchers concluded that tasks which involved
knowledge and/or manipulation of their environments were impeded by increased density. The
fact that increasing density is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the clarity of one's
mental image and knowledge of the immediate environment may also explain the findings of
Glassman, Burkhart, Grant, and Vallery (1978) and Karlin, Rosen, and Epstein (1979). These
researchers showed that social density was related to grades attained in two separate university
settings. Additionally, Karlin et al. (1979) showed that once conditions of high social density were
removed (i.e., students were reassigned to less crowded quarters) grades improved significantly.
Thus, increased density may overload one's information-processing ability, resulting in impaired
performance on tasks that require higher-level cognitive skills.

135
Social-Affective Responses
It is not difficult for any of us to recall situations of high density that have made us feel
uncomfortable. Crowded elevators, bargain basement sales, the first day of classes in a large
lecture hall, bus depots and airport terminals where we are hurrying to make connections are but a
few. Without much difficulty we could probably also recall occasions when this discomfort has
led to feelings of tenseness, anxiety, or even anger. On the other hand, parties, rock concerts, and
crowds at athletic contests also represent situations of high density that may have evoked very
different, perhaps even very positive, feelings. Hence, our feelings are obviously related not only
to density but to the circumstances under which density occurs.
A number of studies have investigated the effects of density on social behaviors such as attraction,
altruism, and aggression. Let us examine these findings.

 Attraction
The first laboratory study to show that interpersonal attraction (liking) is reduced under
conditions of high social density was conducted by William Griffitt and Russell Veitch (1971)
at Kansas State University. Subjects in that experiment were exposed to one of two conditions
of social density and one of two levels of ambient temperature. After being given time to
become inured to these conditions, participants were asked to make evaluations of strangers
and to indicate their degree of probable liking for them. Subjects who were exposed to the
high-density conditions gave significantly more negative evaluations and expressed a lower
degree of probable liking than did those exposed to low-density conditions.
 Aggression
It might be expected that if differential density leads to diverse emotional responses, then
to the extent that aggression is related to mood, aggression might be expected to vary as a
function of density. Density does not automatically lead to a specific emotional response. For
this reason, and following the above logic, aggressive responses would be expected only to the
extent that density elicits negatively toned affective responses. This elicitation results not only
from the density of the environment but by the personal and social conditions of the setting.
For example, Rohe and Patterson (1974) have found that high density leads to aggression in
children when the play situation does not provide ample toys for each. As long as there are
plenty of toys to go around, increases in density did not affect children's aggressive behavior.
Thus, it is likely that density, like temperature, acts only to moderate aggressive responses and
is not the direct cause of them.
 Altruism
Altruism studies suggest that density doesn't directly impact helping behavior, but rather
influences it indirectly based on other factors. Factors like environmental affect, fear for
personal safety, and positive mood states play roles in determining helping behavior.
Discrepancies in helping behavior between rural and urban areas may be due to differences in
attentional processes or varying lifestyles affecting available time for assistance.

Crowding In Everyday Settings

In the field of environmental psychology, researchers have explored how living spaces affect
people's well-being. However, their findings have not always been consistent.

136
Residence and Density
Researchers studying environmental psychology have explored how living spaces affect people's
well-being, particularly in relation to density. Sweaney et al. (1986) found that as the number of
people in a living space increased, children tended to feel more crowded. On the other hand,
Duckitt (1983) discovered that dissatisfaction with living spaces could occur in both high-density
and low-density environments. In a related study, Gabe & Williams (1986) noted that students
living in rooms meant for three people but occupied by two had lower self-esteem than those in
rooms designed for two people. However, Ronchi & Sparacino's findings did not show significant
differences in how people rated the pleasantness or arousal levels of different living densities.

Why Inconsistent Results?

The inconsistencies in research findings could be attributed to several factors. One major factor is
the differences in how researchers conducted their studies and defined terms like "density" and
"crowding." These variations in methodology may have led to differing conclusions about the
relationship between living density and psychological experiences. Additionally, it's possible that
there isn't a consistent relationship between living density and psychological responses,
highlighting the complexity of this area of study.

Social Variables and Density

Some studies have suggested a link between living density and suicide rates, but this relationship
may be influenced by social and cultural factors. For instance, perceptions of population density
vary between different cultures, such as the differences observed between the United States and
China. People from different cultural backgrounds may also exhibit varying levels of tolerance for
high-density living. Gillis, Richard, and Hagan (1986) noted that Asians tended to be more tolerant
of high-density living, while British individuals were less adaptable, and Southern Europeans fell
somewhere in between these extremes.

Cultural Adaptation to Density

Long-term exposure to different population densities could contribute to varying levels of
adaptation across cultures. Gillis, Richard, and Hagan's (1986) study highlighted these differences,
with Asians showing greater adaptability to high-density living compared to their British
counterparts. This suggests that cultural factors play a significant role in shaping individuals'
perceptions and responses to living density, influencing their overall well-being in residential
environments.

In the next lecture we will elaborate about the environmental changes and rural areas.

137
Lesson 37
Environmental Changes in Rural Areas

Rural Areas and Their Characteristics

Rural areas are characterized by their strong connection to community and nature. However, it's
argued that no truly untouched natural places exist anymore; human influence has shaped all rural
landscapes.
 Rurality and Nature: Historically, there's been a close link between nature and society,
with rural areas often associated with a purer and nobler form of living compared to urban
spaces.
 Romanticized Association: Rural landscapes are often seen as natural, and rural activities
are perceived as working harmoniously with nature. Rural inhabitants are often seen as
more attuned to and respectful of nature.

Factors Contributing to Environmental Changes

Following factors contribute to the environmental changes in rural areas:
 Agricultural Practices: The use of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and the removal of
hedgerows have led to increased yields but also contributed to habitat destruction and
reduced plant diversity.
 Urbanization: The expansion of urban areas into rural spaces has led to loss of open space,
increased pollution, demand for infrastructure like roads and drainage systems, and light
and noise pollution.
 Forestry and Primary Production: Deforestation, afforestation of open areas with non-
native species, mining and quarrying, and flooding for reservoirs have all impacted rural
environments.

Degradation of Natural Environment

The causes of the degradation of the natural environment are as follows:
 Modern Agriculture: Intensive farming practices have led to declines in plant and animal
species due to habitat destruction and chemical use
 Tourism Impact: Tourists attracted to rural landscapes have contributed to erosion,
pollution, and construction-related land loss.
 Global Environmental Change: Rural areas also face challenges from global warming
and other environmental shifts.

Approaches to Dealing with Rural Environmental Change

The two main approaches to deal with the rural environmental change are given below:
 Utilitarian Perspective: Some argue that nature can adapt to a certain level of change, and
not all environmental alterations are problematic.
 Natura-Ruralistic Perspective: Others believe that environmental changes have already
caused irreparable damage, and urgent action is needed to prevent further harm.

Course of Action and Challenges

Following course of action to be taken in order to deal with the effect of environmental changes
occurring is rural areas are:
 To protect wildlife and habitats, farming practices may need extensive regulation.

138
  Utilizing alternate energy sources like wind power can significantly impact rural
environments.
Despite various measures and programs, finding the right response to rural environmental changes
remains a significant question influenced by political and economic factors.

139
Lesson 38
The Built Environment and Human Adjustment

In environmental psychology, the built environment plays a crucial role in shaping human behavior
and adjustment. The design of institutions such as hospitals, prisons, and educational environments
significantly impacts individuals' experiences and interactions within these spaces. Let's delve into
how institutional design influences human behavior and adaptation.

Understanding Queuing Theory: The Never-Ending Wait

Lines or queues are a ubiquitous aspect of daily life, from grocery stores to fast-food restaurants.
The experience of waiting in line can be frustrating and time-consuming, leading to questions
about the design of these spaces.
Vile's Laws of Advanced Linesmanship humorously capture the nuances of queuing behavior,
highlighting challenges like line length, unexpected delays, and social interactions in queues. Here
are funny rules that explain how people behave while waiting in lines:
 If you are running for a short line, it suddenly becomes a long line.
 If you are waiting in a long line, people behind you are shunted to a new short line.
 If you step out of a short line for a second, it becomes a long line.
 If you are in a short line, the people ahead of you let in their friends and relatives and make
it a long line.
 A short line outside a building becomes a long line.
 If you stand in one place long enough, you make a line.
These laws humorously reflect the frustrations and unpredictability often associated with waiting
in queues or lines. They highlight common experiences and observations people make when
navigating through lines in various settings.

The Role of Good Architecture in Public Spaces

Architectural design shapes our experiences in public spaces such as supermarkets, airports, and
hospitals. Good architecture minimizes human discomfort and maximizes functionality, yet
achieving this balance requires understanding users' needs and preferences. C.M. Deasey's insights
underscore the importance of aligning design with human nature and demands for change in public
attitudes toward architecture.

General Hospitals

The hospital environment encompasses a variety of people, including patients with diverse needs
and medical staff with specialized roles. However, conflicts can arise between the needs of patients
and staff, highlighting the importance of balancing efficiency with patient well-being. For instance,
during surgery, patients require a specific atmosphere, while staff members are under stress and
may need different environmental conditions.

A Mental Hospital – Example of Design

Robert Sommer's observations in a mental hospital shed light on the impact of design on patient
well-being. The installation of new amenities without consulting patients led to a detrimental
arrangement that hindered social interaction. This case underscores the need for inclusive design
practices that consider user input and promote positive experiences.

140
Key Factors in Hospital Design
Examining hospital design reveals critical factors influencing human behavior, such as proximity,
privacy, and control. Design choices like the location of nurses' stations, room layouts, and
environmental controls significantly affect staff efficiency and patient satisfaction. Understanding
these dynamics can lead to improvements in hospital design that enhance both functionality and
user experiences.
Hospital design should aim to maintain behaviors, encourage healthy behaviors for rehabilitation,
and provide freedom for individuals to operate and realize their potential. The environment must
compensate for individual failures and enhance performance levels where possible, striking a
balance between efficiency and patient care.

Hospital Design and Its Effects

As environmental psychologists, studying institutional design allows us to understand how
physical spaces shape behavior, emotions, and interactions. By analyzing real-world examples and
research findings, we gain insights into creating environments that promote well-being,
productivity, and positive social dynamics. Institutional design serves as a lens through which we
examine the intricate relationship between humans and their built surroundings.
Effective hospital design directly influences user behavior and experiences. Observing how the
physical layout of a hospital affects daily activities can reveal opportunities for improvement. For
instance, assessing the accessibility of facilities, signage clarity, and ease of navigation can lead to
design suggestions that enhance user experience and efficiency.

Conclusion: Bridging Design and Human Experience

In conclusion, the built environment profoundly influences human behavior and adjustment in
institutional settings. Through a multidisciplinary approach that considers user needs, feedback,
and empirical research, environmental psychologists contribute to designing spaces that optimize
human experiences and outcomes. By studying institutional design, we uncover valuable insights
into fostering environments that support well-being, functionality, and meaningful interactions.

In the next lecture we will talk about the prisons.

141
Lesson 39
Prisons

In the realm of correctional facilities, there exists a complex interplay of conflicting goals and
varied philosophies regarding the purpose and design of prisons. This handout delves into the
intricacies of imprisonment, exploring different models, architectural ideologies, and their impact
on inmates' experiences.

Conflicting Goals of Imprisonment

Prisons face conflicting goals and perspectives, resulting in disparities in sentencing and
rehabilitation opportunities.
Diverse Perspectives: Various stakeholders, including corrections employees, judges, legislators,
and inmates, hold conflicting ideas about the goals of prisons.
Sentencing Disparity: This diversity of perspectives leads to significant differences in sentencing,
parole criteria, and rehabilitation opportunities.

Philosophical Models of Imprisonment

Let’s explore different philosophical models of imprisonment and their impact on prison design.
Sommer's Models: Robert Sommer delineates several models of imprisonment, such as
deterrence, rehabilitation, retribution, and integration, each with its unique implications for prison
design. Each model represents unique challenges in prison design and management, influenced by
its underlying philosophy. These conflicting viewpoints contribute to sentencing disparities, parole
variations, divergent vocational and psychological support, and discrepancies in actual time served
for similar offenses, termed as a "model muddle" by Siegler and Osmond (1974).
Architectural Adaptations: The design of prisons varies significantly based on the model being
followed. For instance, an integration-focused prison may include vocational workshops and
educational facilities, while a deterrence-oriented one may prioritize security features.

Life inside Prisons

Exploring the dynamics of life within prison walls unveils intriguing analogies between prison
environments and hospital settings, highlighting the contrasting philosophies and approaches to
design.
Hospital vs. Prison Analogies: The physical design of prisons symbolizes containment and
control, akin to hospital settings but with stricter regulations and limited personal space.
Historical Architectural Alignment: Traditional prison architecture aligns with deterrence and
retribution philosophies, resulting in impersonal and restrictive environments for inmates.
Modern Approaches: Contemporary perspectives advocate for prison designs aligned with re-
education, reform, and integration philosophies. Examples like New Jersey's Leesburg prison
showcase attempts to create more humane and rehabilitative environments through innovative
architectural features.

Empirical Insights
The empirical findings presented in the following studies are as follows:
 Gilbert's study in 1972 emphasized that limiting inmates' movement within the prison
environment is more crucial than the actual size of their cells.

142
  Sommer's research in 1972 highlighted that factors such as crowding, lack of privacy, and
sensory deprivation contribute significantly to the challenges of confinement and
restriction faced by prisoners.
 Luxenberg's analysis in 1977 indicated that modern prisons have made efforts to mitigate
the negative effects of designing solely for maximum security, achieving varying levels
of success in this endeavor.
 Paul Paulus and colleagues found that inmates in single or double occupancy cells
perceive less crowding compared to those in cells with larger numbers. Consequently,
prisoners in denser cells report more health issues and spend more time in the infirmary.
 Schaeffer, Baum, Paulus, and Gaes discovered in 1988 that partitioning cubicles in prison
cells led to a reduction in urinary catecholamine levels, which is an indicator of stress
among inmates.
 Wener and Keys' research in 1988 revealed that increased population density within
prison cells is associated with higher rates of perceived crowding, more sick calls, and
increased isolated behavior among inmates.
 Eckland's study in 1986 suggested that violence in prisons, often linked with high density,
is less about cognitive confusion and tension and more about issues of control within the
prison environment.
However, challenges persist in fostering a cooperative and rehabilitative prison environment,
emphasizing the ongoing need for research and progressive design strategies.

Case Study
Charles in City Prison: Analyzing individual experiences like Charles' incarceration sheds light on
how prison design may influence inmate behavior and rehabilitation outcomes. Charles, a 34-year-
old individual, was arrested for driving 41mph in a 25 mph zone. Despite having a clean record
regarding alcohol and drugs, he was found with a small quantity of cocaine in his car. As a result,
he faced additional charges for possessing an illicit drug. Charles was sentenced to two years in
city prison.
During his time in city prison, Charles was housed in a single cell designed for two people. He
encountered a series of cellmates who had received sentences ranging from three days to life
imprisonment. Throughout his incarceration, Charles learned about new drug dealers and methods
of drug use that he had not been aware of before. This experience raises questions about the
potential influence of prison design and environment on inmates' exposure to criminal behaviors
and their subsequent behavior post-release.

Conclusion
Reflecting on questions about the relationship between design, punishment philosophy, and inmate
behavior encourages critical thinking and exploration of reformative approaches. Prison design is
not merely about physical structures but also about embodying philosophical ideals and fostering
environments conducive to rehabilitation and integration. Understanding these complexities is
essential for informed discussions in environmental psychology and criminal justice studies.

In the next lecture we will talk about the education environments.

143
Lesson 40
Education Environments

When discussing the educational environment, the classroom holds significance within that
context. This lesson highlights how the physical design and layout of classrooms influence various
aspects of the educational experience, such as class participation, student behavior, and academic
performance.

The built environment refers to the physical structures and spaces that humans create for living,
working, and learning. In the context of education, the built environment encompasses classrooms,
lecture halls, libraries, dormitories, and other educational facilities. These physical spaces play a
crucial role in shaping the overall educational experience and can significantly impact students'
learning outcomes.

Traditional Classroom Arrangements

The traditional classroom setup, characterized by rows of students facing an instructor, reflects the
modal arrangement in educational environments. This layout, with its genesis in utilizing outside
light for illumination, serves several purposes such as ease of surveillance, attendance tracking,
and maintaining control by the instructor.

Seating Arrangement
Seating positions within the classroom can affect class participation, attentiveness, and academic
achievement.
 Impact on Student Behavior: Studies by various researchers have shown the influence of
seating arrangements on student behavior. For instance, Sommer's research indicates that
students in the front row tend to participate more, while Koneya's findings suggest that low
verbalizers may participate less regardless of their seating position.
 Attention and Academic Performance: Further studies by Schwebel, Cherlin, and others
highlight that students in front-row seats are more attentive and often achieve higher
grades, even when seating positions are assigned rather than chosen by students.
 Designing for Interaction: In smaller classrooms or seminar-type settings, seating
positions directly influence participation levels. For example, students seated opposite the
instructor tend to participate the most, emphasizing the importance of seating proximity in
facilitating interaction.

Color and Environmental Factors

Research by Kuller and Wilson suggests that colors can influence psychological processes, mood,
and attitudes, thereby indirectly impacting students' learning experiences. Blue influences feelings
of security. Red is stimulating and leads to excitement. Colors influence blood pressure and
respiration rate.
Class room behavior, performance and learning will be influenced by such environmental
conditions as:
 Temperature: Temperature plays a crucial role in creating a comfortable and conducive
learning environment. Extreme temperatures, whether too hot or too cold, can distract
students and affect their focus and concentration. Maintaining an optimal temperature in
the classroom helps students stay attentive, engaged, and more receptive to learning.

144
  Noise: Similarly, noise levels in the classroom can have a profound impact on student
performance. Excessive noise, such as chatter from neighboring classrooms, outdoor
sounds, or mechanical noises, can disrupt concentration and hinder effective
communication between students and teachers. On the other hand, a quiet and controlled
acoustic environment allows for better concentration, improved comprehension, and
enhanced classroom interactions, leading to more productive learning experiences.
 Crowding: High levels of crowding in educational environments have a profound impact
on students, affecting behavior, performance, and learning outcomes. This crowding often
results in discomfort, limited personal space, and heightened stress levels among students,
which can disrupt their focus and engagement in academic activities. Furthermore, it
hampers social interactions and collaborative efforts, thereby impairing peer learning and
teamwork.
 Light (illumination): As illumination increase, visual activity increases. With more light
we are able to recognize and detect smaller visual details. Effects of changes in illumination
are more pronounced on difficult tasks than on easy tasks. Greater illumination allows for
more accurate and quick discrimination. At very high levels of illumination performance
decrements are likely because additional light can act to suppress some information cues
such as visual gradients.

Open Space Classrooms

Exploring innovative classroom designs, open-space classrooms offer flexibility and increased
interaction among students and teachers. However, studies also highlight challenges such as
increased noise levels and visual distractions, emphasizing the need for careful design
considerations.

Optimizing Learning Environments

Effective classroom design involves balancing factors like illumination, noise control, and seating
arrangements to create conducive learning environments. By addressing these design elements,
educational settings can maximize learning potential and student engagement.

Considerations for Dormitory Design

Beyond classrooms, dormitory design also plays a crucial role in students' educational experiences.
Research indicates that factors like social density, noise levels, and personal control within
dormitories can significantly impact students' well-being and academic performance.

Conclusion
In summary, the physical design of educational environments, including classrooms and
dormitories, can significantly influence learning outcomes, student behavior, and overall academic
success. By understanding and addressing environmental factors, educators and designers can
create spaces that enhance the learning experience and promote student.

145
Lesson 41
Institutional Design Reconsidered & Queuing Theory

In this lecture, we delve into the critical aspects of institutional design within the realm of
environmental psychology. We explore the complexities involved in designing spaces that cater to
the diverse needs and behaviors of their users, emphasizing the importance of considering human
welfare in the built environment.

Understanding Institutional Design

 Complexity of Design
o Highlighting the limitations of oversimplified design paradigms.
o Emphasizing the need for comprehensive data analysis to inform design decisions.
 Interaction of Physical and User Characteristics
o Discussing how the performance of a built environment is influenced by its physical
attributes and user requirements.
o Acknowledging the varied needs of multiple users in designed environments.
 Evaluation Beyond Prototypes
o Stressing the importance of evaluating designs based on actual user experiences rather
than theoretical models.

Challenges in Design Process

 Technical Focus of Architects and Designers
o Exploring the primary concerns of architects and designers in terms of technical and
structural aspects.
o Recognizing the potential gaps in understanding user cultural dynamics and ecological
relationships.
 Cultural and Ecological Considerations
o Discussing the significance of factors like privacy, territoriality, and adaptation in
design.
o Addressing cross-cultural nuances that impact design and social change.

Steps in Design Process

 Preparation and Problem Statement: Defining the problem statement and design
objectives clearly.
 Data Gathering and Analysis: Emphasizing the importance of gathering relevant data for
informed decision-making.
 Outcome Evaluation and Creativity: Defining desirable outcomes and exploring cost-
effective design solutions.
 Selection and Implementation: Decision-making on design alternatives and transforming
plans into physical structures.
 Reevaluation and Adaptation: Assessing design performance and refining structures
based on user feedback.

146
Considerations for Design Criteria
 Performance Standards: Discussing criteria such as profit, quality, performance,
competition, compatibility, flexibility, elegance, safety, and time in setting design
standards.
 Human Factors and Physical Limitations: Exploring design prescriptions based on
human physical and anatomical characteristics.

Queuing Theory and Its Applications

Queuing theory, focusing on waiting dynamics, is vital for efficient design in various contexts,
from retail settings to transportation systems. Understanding traffic intensity and optimizing
service processes can significantly enhance user experiences.
 Queue and Traffic Intensity: Explaining the concept of queue and traffic intensity in
service environments.
Example: Illustrating queue dynamics with an example of customers at a grocery
store. This example demonstrates how queuing theory can be applied to analyze and
optimize customer service in a grocery store setting. Store managers can use this data to
anticipate customer arrival intervals, optimize service efficiency, and make informed
decisions such as opening more registers when required.
Recommendations for Store Managers is to use strategies for anticipating customer
arrival intervals and optimizing service efficiency.
 Other Uses of Queuing Theory: Queuing theory has utility in any situation where all
potential users of a facility cannot utilize the facility simultaneously. It goes beyond service
industries and can be applied to various scenarios to improve system efficiency and user
experiences.
o Accessible Environments for Persons with Disabilities: Revisiting discussions
on creating inclusive environments.
o Energy Use and Behavioral Change: Analyzing energy demands and the need for
behavioral shifts. Discussing grassroots efforts and community-based initiatives for
energy conservation.
 The Future Challenges: Energy use and abuse, environmental costs of energy and
material usage, strategies for saving energy, alternate energy resources, behavioral
solutions to environmental problems, environmental attitudes and behaviors, integration,
and looking to the future are some of the challenges that lie ahead. Understanding these
challenges and working towards sustainable solutions is crucial for a better future.

147
Lesson 42
Energy Use in Homes and Commercial Buildings

Determinants of Energy Use at Homes

Heating and cooling systems play a crucial role in determining energy consumption in homes. For
instance, using a natural gas furnace for heating is more energy-efficient than relying on electrical
baseboard heating. This efficiency stems from reduced energy loss during the conversion of
primary energy sources like coal, fuel, oil, or natural gas into electricity. Additionally, lifestyle
factors significantly influence energy use at homes. The number and types of electrical appliances,
such as color TVs versus black and white TVs, frost-free refrigerators versus conventional ones,
air conditioners versus window fans, and incandescent lights versus fluorescent lights, all impact
energy consumption levels.

Savings for Consumers – An Example

Considerable economic and environmental benefits arise from choosing energy-efficient
appliances and practices. For example, if 6.6 million refrigerators/freezers sold in 1970 were
energy-efficient, it would lead to substantial savings in electricity and dollars. This would not only
benefit consumers economically but also result in significant reductions in environmental
pollution, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and reduced land use for power plants and
transmission lines.

Home Construction and Energy Use

The construction of homes is a critical factor in determining energy consumption. Key
considerations include wise use of insulation, effective shading in summer, and utilization of
sunlight in winter. Implementing these strategies can result in substantial energy savings without
compromising comfort. For instance, well-insulated homes with strategic shading can retain heat
during winter and keep interiors cool during summer, leading to reduced energy needs for heating
and cooling.

Energy Use in Commercial Buildings

Commercial buildings often exhibit excessive energy consumption due to design choices such as
extensive glass usage and tall structures. For example, buildings like the Sears Tower in Chicago
consume more electricity than entire towns. Implementing energy-efficient design principles and
modifying appliance usage can lead to significant energy savings in commercial buildings.

Environmental Costs of Energy and Materials Usage

The use of energy and materials has far-reaching environmental impacts throughout extraction,
processing, and usage stages. Oil drilling activities, for instance, can result in blow-outs, spills,
and refinery pollution, causing harm to marine life and ecosystems. Addressing these
environmental costs requires adopting sustainable practices and reducing reliance on non-
renewable resources.

Strategies for Saving Energy and Promoting Sustainability

Efforts to save energy and promote environmental sustainability include using and producing less,
extending the lifespan of products through reuse and recycling, and choosing energy-efficient
materials and appliances. Embracing renewable energy sources like solar energy and

148
implementing energy-saving measures in construction and daily practices are crucial steps towards
a more sustainable energy future. However, challenges such as initial investment costs and the
availability of existing energy sources need to be addressed to facilitate widespread adoption of
sustainable energy practices.

149
Lesson 43
Conservation as Energy Source

Three Types of Conservation

 Curtailment: Curtailing energy use involves reducing the overall consumption of energy
resources. This can be achieved through conscious efforts to use energy-efficient
appliances, adopting energy-saving practices, and minimizing wastage.
 Overhaul: Overhauling refers to making dramatic changes in lifestyle and societal norms
to reduce energy consumption. An extreme example of this would be implementing laws
against suburbanization, which can significantly impact energy demands.
 Adjustment: Adjustment involves making specific changes to enhance energy efficiency.
This includes insulating homes, improving the efficiency of automobiles and home
appliances, and capturing waste heat for productive use.

Imagine Your Life 50 Years from Now

Visualize a future where energy conservation and efficiency are ingrained in everyday life, leading
to sustainable and eco-friendly practices across all sectors.

Behavioral Solutions to Environmental Problems

 Tragedy of Commons: The concept of the tragedy of the commons highlights the conflict
between immediate self-interest and future public interest. It underscores the need for
collective action and responsible environmental stewardship.
 Education to Preserve Environment: Educational initiatives play a crucial role in
promoting environmental preservation. However, simply telling people what to do may not
be effective. Instead, efforts should focus on changing attitudes and behaviors gradually.
 Applied Behavior Analysis and Intervention: Applying principles of behavior
modification can lead to positive changes in environmentally relevant behaviors. Strategies
include:
o Baseline Period: Observing naturally occurring behaviors related to energy use.
o Treatment Period: Introducing interventions like rewards for desired behaviors and
punishments for non-target behaviors.
o Follow-Up Period: Continuing observations post-intervention to assess effectiveness.

Intervention Strategies
 Antecedent Strategies: Using prompts and cues, such as written messages encouraging
eco-friendly actions, can trigger desired behavioral responses. Specific prompts near the
intended behavior location and polite messaging are more effective.
Examples of prompts:
"Help keep your pool clean."
"Do not litter."
"Please avoid littering."
 Consequent Strategies: These strategies involve presenting or removing
pleasant/unpleasant consequences following behaviors to reinforce or discourage them.
Types of consequences include:
o Reinforcement: Increasing the frequency of desired behaviors.
o Punishment: Decreasing the frequency of undesirable behaviors.

150
 Types of reinforcement:
o Positive Reinforcement: Offering pleasant consequences for desired behaviors.
o Positive Punishment: Imposing unpleasant consequences for undesirable
behaviors.
o Negative Reinforcement: Removing negative consequences for desired behaviors.
o Negative Punishment: Removing pleasant events for undesirable behaviors.

Integration and Look to the Future

Our collective behaviors significantly impact environmental quality. By adopting energy-efficient
practices and promoting sustainability, we contribute positively to long-term public interest and
mitigate environmental degradation caused by excessive energy consumption.

151
Lecture 44
Understanding Urban Sprawl: Challenges and Solutions

Further Plans – The Cities

 Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl refers to the expansion of low-density residential areas,
shopping centers, and industrial facilities connected by multilane highways, leading to
unplanned development and environmental challenges.

 Origins of Urban Sprawl: Historically, cities were designed for walking, bicycles, and
public transport, with compact neighborhoods offering easy access to amenities. However,
with technological advancements and increased private transportation, cities expanded
outward.

 The Dream of Suburbs: The desire for personal space and the convenience of private
transportation led to a housing boom in suburbs. This shift from city centers to suburban
areas resulted in haphazard development and increased dependence on cars.

Urban Blight
 Challenges Faced: Industrialization brought challenges like poor housing, pollution, and
congestion in cities, prompting people to seek housing outside urban centers.

 Consequences: The rapid growth of housing colonies without proper planning led to a
maze of developments, straining local governments to provide essential services like
schools, water, and roads.

 Vicious Cycle of Development: Efforts to reduce congestion with new highways only
fueled further sprawl, creating a cycle of increased commuting distances and traffic
congestion.

Moving Towards Sustainable Communities

 Smart Growth Initiatives: To address these challenges, smart growth initiatives promote
compact, walkable communities with mixed land use, reducing environmental impacts and
improving quality of life.

 Environmental Impacts of Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl leads to energy depletion, air
and water pollution, loss of agricultural land, and fragmentation of wildlife habitats,
impacting ecosystems and human health.

Towards the Common Good

 Quality of Life vs. Environmental Concerns: While sprawl offers benefits like larger
homes and better services, it also increases vehicle ownership, fatal accidents, and health
issues like obesity and high blood pressure.

 Common Good Perspective: Environmental costs are often overlooked in favor of

personal benefits, highlighting the need for collective responsibility and sustainable
choices for common good.

152
  Reining in Urban Sprawl: Smart Growth Solutions: By promoting compact
development, public transport, and green spaces, communities can mitigate the negative
impacts of sprawl and create livable, eco-friendly environments.

In conclusion, understanding the complexities of urban sprawl is crucial for creating sustainable
cities that balance personal preferences with environmental conservation for the common good.

153
Lesson 45
Urban Blight

In the developed world the other end of ex-urban migration is the city from which people are
moving. A completely different set of factors is responsible for urban blight in developing
countries. In this case, people are moving to the cities at a rate that far exceeds the capacity of
cities to assimilate them. The result is urban slums that surround virtually every city in the poorer
developing countries.
The economies of rural areas, often based only on subsistence farming simply do not provide the
jobs needed by a growing population. So, people move to the cities, where at least they have the
hope for employment.

City Housing
City housing is overwhelmed by the influx of migrants who could not afford the rents even if
housing was available this leads to the formation of slums

Slums Surrounding the Cities

Vast slums surrounding the cities are a great challenge to the institutional structure of developing
countries Because slums are unauthorized areas, cities rarely provide them with electricity, water,
sanitation, and other social amenities Yet the slums often represent essential workforce to the city
taking low-paying jobs that keep the city and its inhabitants functioning People live in the fear of
bulldozers coming in any time and leveling down the shanty town A great need in such
neighborhood is home security People in the slums also need more jobs Greatest need for people
living in these areas is government representation. Their voices are seldom heard because they are
among the poorest and most powerless in society.

What Makes Cities Livable

A sustainable future will depend upon both reining the urban sprawl and revitalizing the cities.
The urban blight in the cities in developing countries requires deliberate policies to address the
social needs of people flocking to the shanty towns. The only possible way to sustain the global
population is by having viable, resource-efficient cities, leaving the countryside for agriculture and
the natural ecosystem.

Viable
Viable means livable No one wants to and should be required to live in the conditions that have
come to typify the urban blight Livability is a general concept based on people’s response to the
question “Do you like living here, or would you rather live somewhere else?”

Livable Cities around the World

The common denominator of livable cities in the world is: Maintaining high population density
Preserving heterogeneity of residences, businesses, stores, and shops keeping layouts on human
dimension so that people can meet, visit or conduct business incidentally over coffee at side walk
café or stroll through an open area.

154
People VS Automobiles
In livable cities the space is designed for and devoted to people In contrast development of the last
fifty years has concentrated on accommodating automobiles and traffic Two thirds of the land in
the cities that have grown up in the ear of automobiles is devoted to moving, parking or servicing
the cars.

A Matter of Design
The world’s most livable cities are not those with perfect auto access between all points. Instead
they are the cities that have taken measures to reduce outward sprawl, diminish automobile traffic,
and improve access by foot and bicycle in conjunction with mass transit.

Examples of Cities around the World

Geneva, Switzerland prohibits automobile parking at workplaces in the city’s center forcing
customers to use excellent public transport system Copenhagen bans all on-street parking in the
downtown core Paris has removed 200,000 parking places in the downtown area Curitiba, Brazil
with a population of 1.6 million is cited to be one of the most livable city in the entire Latin
America because they have guided development around the idea of mass transit system rather than
cars.

Livable = Sustainable
Livability of a city leads to its sustainability Reduction of auto traffic and greater reliance on foot
and public transportation reduce energy consumption and pollution Urban heterogeneity can
facilitate the recycling of materials Housing can be retrofitted with passive solar space heating and
heating for hot water Landscaping can provide cooling Vacant or cleared areas can be converted
into garden plots Rooftop hydroponic gardens can be made popular. Such gardens may not make
the cities agriculturally self-sufficient but they add to urban livability. By making the urban areas
more appealing and economically viable we not only improve the lives of city residents but also
spare the surrounding areas Parks, wilderness, and farms will not be replaced by exurbs and
shopping malls but rather will be saved for future generations.

Moving Towards Sustainable Communities

A joint facility of the UN Environment Program and the UN Human Settlement Program, the
Sustainable Cities Program (SCP) is designed to foster the planning and management of needed to
move cities in developing countries towards sustainability.

Sustainable City
Sustainable Cities Program (SCP) defines the sustainable city as a city in which achievements in
social, economic, and physical development are made to last. Cities are the focus of the program
because they are absorbing two-thirds of population growth in developing countries and in the
process, we are experiencing serious environmental degradation in and around the growing urban
centers.

Bottom-up Approach
The bottom-up approach calls for the involvement of all people at all economic and social levels
and reconciling their interests when conflicts are evident Common principles seen in sustainable

155
development theory are principles such as Social equity, Economic efficiency, and Environmental
planning and management.

SCP Cities
To date, there are twenty SCP cities some of them are: Madras (India), Dar es Salam (Tanzania),
Accra (Ghana), and Shenyang (China), Concepcion (Chile).

Towards the Common Good

How must we live on our planet? There are three strategic themes to answer the question:
Sustainability, Stewardship, and Sound Science.

156