Amongst notable Metis people are television

actor Tom Jackson,[98] Commissioner of the

Northwest Territories Tony Whitford, and Louis
Riel who led two resistance movements: the Red
River Rebellion of 1869-1870 and the North-
West Rebellion of 1885, which ended in his trial.
[99][100][101]

The languages inherently Metis are either Metis

French or a mixed language called Michif.
Michif, Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling
of Métif, a variant of Métis.[102] The Métis today
predominantly speak English, with French a
strong second language, as well as numerous
Aboriginal tongues. A 19th-century community
of the Métis people, the Anglo-Métis, were
referred to as Countryborn. They were children
of Rupert's Land fur trade typically of Orcadian,
Scottish, or English paternal descent and
Aboriginal maternal descent.[103] Their first
languages would have been Aboriginal (Cree,
Saulteaux, Assiniboine, etc.) and English. Their
fathers spoke Gaelic, thus leading to the
development of an English dialect referred to as
"Bungee".[104]

S.35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 mentions the

Métis yet there has long been debate over
legally defining the term Métis,[105] but on
September 23, 2003, the Supreme Court of
Canada ruled that Métis are a distinct people
with significant rights (Powley ruling).[106]

Metis

Mixed-blood fur trader, c. 1870

The Métis are people descended from

marriages between Europeans (mainly French)
[95] and Cree, Ojibway, Algonquin, Saulteaux,
Menominee, Mi'kmag, Maliseet, and other First
Nations.[14] Their history dates to the mid-17th
century.[3] When Europeans first arrived to
Canada they relied on Aboriginal peoples for fur
trading skills and survival. To ensure alliances,
relationships between European fur traders and
Aboriginal women were often consolidated
through marriage.[96] The Métis homeland
consists of the Canadian provinces of British
Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba,
Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Ontario, as well as the Northwest Territories
(NWT).[97]

Warfare was common among Inuit groups with

sufficient population density. Inuit, such as the
Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited the
Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in
common warfare. The Central Arctic Inuit lacked
the population density to engage in warfare. In
the 13th century, the Thule culture began
arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada.
Norse accounts are scant. Norse-made items
from Inuit campsites in Greenland were
obtained by either trade or plunder.[87] One
account, lvar Bardarson, speaks of "small
people" with whom the Norsemen fought.[88]
14th-century accounts that a western
settlement, one of the two Norse settlements,
was taken over by the Skreeling.[89]

After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in

Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with
Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-
16th century, Basque fishers were already
working the Labrador coast and had established
whaling stations on land, such as been
excavated at Red Bay.[90] The Inuit appear not
to have interfered with their operations, but they
did raid the stations in winter for tools, and
particularly worked iron, which they adapted to
native needs.[91]

Inuit

The Inuit are the descendants of what

anthropologists call the Thule culture, which
emerged from western Alaska around 1,000 CE
and spread eastward across the Arctic,
displacing the Dorset culture (in Inuktitut, the
Tuniit). Inuit historically referred to the Tuniit as
"giants", or "dwarfs", who were taller and
stronger than the Inuit.[85] Researchers
hypothesize that the Dorset culture lacked dogs,
larger weapons and other technologies used by
the expanding Inuit society.[86] By 1300, the
Inuit had settled in west Greenland, and finally
moved into east Greenland over the following
century. The Inuit had trade routes with more
southern cultures. Boundary disputes were
common and led to aggressive actions.[15]

Inuk in a kayak, c. 1908-1914

Many Aboriginal civilizations[76] established

characteristics and hallmarks that included
permanent urban settlements or cities,[77]
agriculture, civic and monumental architecture,
and complex societal hierarchies.[78] These
cultures had evolved and changed by the time of
the first permanent European arrivals (c. late
15th-early 16th centuries), and have been
brought forward through archaeological
investigations.[79]

There are indications of contact made before

Christopher Columbus between the first peoples
and those from other continents. Aboriginal
people in Canada interacted with Europeans
around 1000 CE, but prolonged contact came
after Europeans established permanent
settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries.[80]
European written accounts generally recorded
friendliness of the First Nations, who profited in
trade with Europeans.[80] Such trade generally
strengthened the more organized political
entities such as the Iroquois Confederation.[81]
Throughout the 16th century, European fleets
made almost annual visits to the eastern shores
of Canada to cultivate the fishing opportunities.
A sideline industry emerged in the un-organized
traffic of furs overseen by the Indian
Department.[82]

The Woodland cultural period dates from about

2,000 BCE-1,000 CE, and has locales in Ontario,
Quebec, and Maritime regions.[71] The
introduction of pottery distinguishes the
Woodland culture from the earlier Archaic stage
inhabitants. Laurentian people of southern
Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery
excavated to date in Canada.[60] They created
pointed-bottom beakers decorated by a cord
marking technique that involved impressing
tooth implements into wet clay. Woodland
technology included items such as beaver
incisor knives, bangles, and chisels. The
population practising sedentary agricultural life
ways continued to increase on a diet of squash,
corn, and bean crops.[60]

The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture

that flourished along American rivers from 300
BCE-500 CE. At its greatest extent, the
Hopewell Exchange System networked cultures
and societies with the peoples on the Canadian
shores of Lake Ontario. Canadian expression of
the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the
Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel
complexes.[72][73][74]

First Nations

Chief George from the village of Senakw with his

daughter in traditional regalia, c. 1906

First Nations peoples had settled and

established trade routes across what is now
Canada by 500 BCE-1,000 CE. Communities
developed each with its own culture, customs,
and character.[75] In the northwest were the
Athapaskan, Slavey, Dogrib, Tutchone, and
Tlingit. Along the Pacific coast were the
Tsimshian; Haida; Salish; Kwakiutl; Heiltsuk;
Nootka; Nisga'a; Senakw and Gitxsan. In the
plains were the Blackfoot; Kainawa; Sarcee and
Peigan. In the northern woodlands were the
Cree and Chipewyan. Around the Great Lakes
were the Anishinaabe; Algonquin; Iroquois and
Huron. Along the Atlantic coast were the
Beothuk, Maliseet, Innu, Abenaki and Mi'kmagq.

Thule site (Copper Inuit) near the waters of

Cambridge Bay (Victoria Island)

The west coast of Canada by 7,000-5000 BCE

(9,000-—7,000 years ago) saw various cultures
who organized themselves around salmon
fishing.[65] The Nuu-chah-nulth of Vancouver
Island began whaling with advanced long spears
at about this time.[65] The Maritime Archaic is
one group of North America's Archaic culture of
sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic. They
prospered from approximately 7,000 BCE-—1,500
BCE (9,000-3,500 years ago) along the Atlantic
Coast of North America.[66] Their settlements
included longhouses and boat-topped
temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in
long-distance trade, using as currency white
chert, a rock quarried from northern Labrador to
Maine.{[67] The Pre-Columbian culture, whose
members were called Red Paint People, is
indigenous to the New England and Atlantic
Canada regions of North America. The culture
flourished between 3,000 BCE-1,000 BCE
(5,000—3,000 years ago) and was named after
their burial ceremonies, which used large
quantities of red ochre to cover bodies and

grave goods [68]

Post-Archaic periods

A northerly section focusing on the Saugeen,

Laurel and Point Peninsula complexes of the
map showing south eastern United States and
the Great Lakes area of Canada showing the
Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different
colours the various local expressions of the
Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex,
Saugeen Complex, Point Peninsula Complex,
Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City
Hopewell, Swift Creek Culture, Goodall Focus,
Crab Orchard culture and Havana Hopewell
culture.

The Old Copper Complex societies dating from

3,000 BCE-500 BCE (5,000-2,500 years ago)
are a manifestation of the Woodland Culture,
and are pre-pottery in nature.[70] Evidence
found in the northern Great Lakes regions
indicates that they extracted copper from local
glacial deposits and used it in its natural form.to
manufacture tools and implements.[70] KK

The Arctic small tool tradition is a broad cultural

entity that developed along the Alaska
Peninsula, around Bristol Bay, and on the
eastern shores of the Bering Strait around 2,500
BCE (4,500 years ago).[69] These Paleo-Arctic
peoples had a highly distinctive toolkit of small
blades (microblades) that were pointed at both
ends and used as side- or end-barbs on arrows
or spears made of other materials, such as bone
or antler. Scrapers, engraving tools and adze
blades were also included in their toolkits.[69]
The Arctic small tool tradition branches off into
two cultural variants, including the Pre-Dorset,
and the Independence traditions. These two
groups, ancestors of Thule people, were
displaced by the Inuit by 1000 Common Era
(CE).[69]:179-81

The placement of artifacts and materials within

an Archaic burial site indicated social
differentiation based upon status.[58] There is a
continuous record of occupation of S'dlh
Téméxw by Aboriginal people dating from the
early Holocene period, 10,000-—9,000 years ago.
[62] Archaeological sites at Stave Lake,
Coquitlam Lake, Fort Langley and region
uncovered early period artifacts. These early
inhabitants were highly mobile hunter-gatherers,
consisting of about 20 to 50 members of an
extended family.[62][verification needed] The
Na-Dene people occupied much of the land area
of northwest and central North America starting
around 8,000 BCE.[63] They were the earliest
ancestors of the Athabaskan-speaking peoples,
including the Navajo and Apache. They had
villages with large multi-family dwellings, used
seasonally during the summer, from which they
hunted, fished and gathered food supplies for
the winter.[64] The Wendat peoples settled into
Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River
around 8,000-7,000 BCE (10,000-—9,000 years
ago).[65] They were concentrated between Lake
Simcoe and Georgian Bay. Wendat hunted
caribou to survive on the glacier-covered land.
[65] Many different First Nations cultures relied
upon the buffalo starting by 6,000-—5,000 BCE
(8,000-—7,000 years ago).[65] They hunted
buffalo by herding migrating buffalo off cliffs.
Head-Smashed-in Buffalo Jump, near
Lethbridge, Alberta, is a hunting grounds that
was in use for about 5,000 years.[65]

The Plano cultures was a group of hunter-

gatherer communities that occupied the Great
Plains area of North America between 12,000-
10,000 years ago.[56] The Paleo-Indians moved
into new territory as it emerged from under the
glaciers. Big game flourished in this new
environment.[57] The Plano culture are
characterized by a range of projectile point tools
collectively called Plano points, which were used
to hunt bison. Their diets also included
pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon and coyote.[56] At
the beginning of the Archaic Era, they began to
adopt a sedentary approach to subsistence.[56]
Sites in and around Belmont, Nova Scotia have
evidence of Plano-Indians, indicating small
seasonal hunting camps, perhaps re-visited over
generations from around 11,000-10,000 years
ago.[56] Seasonal large and smaller game fish
and fowl were food and raw material sources.
Adaptation to the harsh environment included
tailored clothing and skin-covered tents on
wooden frames.[56]

Archaic period

The North American climate stabilized by 8000

BCE (10,000 years ago); climatic conditions
were very similar to today's.[58] This led to
widespread migration, cultivation and later a
dramatic rise in population all over the
Americas.[58] Over the course of thousands of
years, American indigenous peoples
domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array
of plant species. These species now constitute

50 — 60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.

[59]

Distribution of Na-Dene languages shown in red

A Clovis point created using bi-facial percussion

flaking (that is, each face is flaked on both
edges alternatively with a percussor)

Clovis sites dated at 13,500 years ago were

discovered in western North America during the
1930s. Clovis peoples were regarded as the first
widespread Paleo-Indian inhabitants of the New
World and ancestors to all indigenous peoples
in the Americas.[49] Archaeological discoveries
in the past thirty years have brought forward
other distinctive knapping cultures who
occupied the Americas from the lower Great
Plains to the shores of Chile.[50]

Localized regional cultures developed from the

time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period
from 12,900 to 11,500 years ago.[51| The
Folsom tradition are characterized by their use
of Folsom points as projectile tips at
archaeological sites. These tools assisted
activities at kill sites that marked the slaughter
and butchering of bison.[52]

The land bridge existed until 13,000-—11,000

years ago, long after the oldest proven human
settlements in the New World began.[53] Lower
sea levels in the Queen Charlotte sound and
Hecate Strait produced great grass lands called
archipelago of Haida Gwaii.[54] Hunter-
gatherers of the area left distinctive lithic
technology tools and the remains of large
butchered mammals, occupying the area from
13,000—9,000 years ago.[54] In July 1992, the
Federal Government officially designated
Xa:ytem (near Mission, British Columbia) as a
National Historic Site, one of the first Indigenous
Spiritual sites in Canada to be formally
recognized in this manner.[55]

The first inhabitants of North America arrived in

Canada at least 15,000 years ago, though
increasing evidence suggests an even earlier
arrival.[40] It is believed the inhabitants entered
the Americas pursuing Pleistocene mammals
such as the giant beaver, steppe wisent, musk
ox, mastodons, woolly mammoths and ancient
reindeer (early caribou).[41] One route
hypothesized is that people walked south by
way of an ice-free corridor on the east side of
the Rocky Mountains, and then fanned out
across North America before continuing on to
South America.[42] The other conjectured route
is that they migrated, either on foot or using
primitive boats, down the Pacific Coast to the tip
of South America, and then crossed the Rockies
and Andes.[43] Evidence of the latter has been
covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of
metres following the last ice age.[44][45]

The Old Crow Flats and basin was one of the

areas in Canada untouched by glaciations
during the Pleistocene Ice ages, thus it served
as a pathway and refuge for ice age plants and
animals.[46] The area holds evidence of early
human habitation in Canada dating from about
12,000.[47] Fossils from the area include some
never accounted for in North America, such as
hyenas and large camels.[48] Bluefish Caves is
an archaeological site in Yukon, Canada from
which a specimen of apparently human-worked
mammoth bone has been radiocarbon dated to
12,000 years ago.[47]

Maps depicting each phase of a three-step early

human migrations for the peopling of the
Americas

According to archaeological and genetic

evidence, North and South America were the
last continents in the world with human
habitation.[27] During the Wisconsin glaciation,
50,000-—17,000 years ago, falling sea levels
allowed people to move across the Bering land
bridge that joined Siberia to north west North
America (Alaska).[28] Alaska was ice-free
because of low snowfall, allowing a small
population to exist. The Laurentide ice sheet
covered most of Canada, blocking nomadic
inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East
Beringia) for thousands of years.[29][30]

Aboriginal genetic studies suggest that the first

inhabitants of the Americas share a single
ancestral population, one that developed in
isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.[31][32][33]
The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might
have lasted 10,000-20,000 years.[34][35][36]
Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began
melting, allowing people to move south and east
into Canada and beyond.[37][38][39]

An Aboriginal community in Northern Ontario

The term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in

Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in
those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with
Inuit.[23][24] The Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do
not consider themselves Inuit, and
ethnographers agree they are a distinct people.
[8][24] They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit,
or Eskimo. The Yupik languages are
linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages.|[8]
Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no
universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive
of all Inuit and Yupik people across the
geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and
Yupik peoples.[8]

Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal

peoples are often divided into legal categories
based on their relationship with the Crown (i.e.
the state). Section 91 (clause 24) of the
Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal
government (as opposed to the provinces) the
sole responsibility for "Indians, and Lands
reserved for the Indians". The government
inherited treaty obligations from the British
colonial authorities in Eastern Canada and
signed treaties itself with First Nations in
Western Canada (the Numbered Treaties). It
also passed the Indian Act in 1876 which
governed its interactions with all treaty and non-
treaty peoples. Members of First Nations bands
that are subject to the Indian Act with the Crown
are compiled on a list called the Indian Register,
and such people are called Status Indians. Many
non-treaty First Nations and all Inuit and Metis
peoples are not subject to the Indian Act.
However, two court cases have clarified that
Inuit, Métis, and non-status First Nations people,
all are covered by the term "Indians" in the
Constitution Act, 1867. The first was Re
Eskimos in 1939 covering the Inuit, the second
being Daniels v. Canada in 2013 which applies
to Métis and non-Status First Nations.[25]

Notwithstanding Canada's location within the

Americas, the term "Native American” is not
used in Canada as it is typically used solely to
describe the indigenous peoples within the
boundaries of the present-day United States.[26]

The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal

culture included permanent settlements,[10]
agriculture,[11] civic and ceremonial
architecture,[12] complex societal hierarchies
and trading networks.[13] The Métis culture of
mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century
when First Nation and Inuit people married
Europeans.[14] The Inuit had more limited
interaction with European settlers during that
early period.[15] Various laws, treaties, and
legislation have been enacted between
European immigrants and First Nations across
Canada. Aboriginal Right to Self-Government
provides opportunity to manage historical,
cultural, political, health care and economic
control aspects within first people's
communities.

As of the 2011 census, Aboriginal peoples in

Canada totaled 1,400,685 people, or 4.3% of the
national population, spread over 600 recognized
First Nations governments or bands with
distinctive cultures, languages, art, and music.
[1][16] National Aboriginal Day recognizes the
cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples
to the history of Canada.[17] First Nations, Inuit
and Metis peoples of all backgrounds have
become prominent figures and have served as
role models in the Aboriginal community and
help to shape the Canadian cultural identity.[18]

The terms First Peoples and First Nations are

both used to refer to indigenous peoples of
Canada.[19] The terms First Peoples or
Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally
broader terms than First Nations, as they
include Inuit, Métis and First Nations. First
Nations (most often used in the plural) has
come into general use for the indigenous
peoples of North America in Canada, and their
descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Metis. On
reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by
members of various nations referring to
themselves by their group or ethnical identity. In
conversation this would be "I am Haida’, or "we
are Kwantlens", in recognition of their First
Nations ethnicities.[20] In this Act, "Aboriginal
peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit
and Métis peoples of Canada.[21]

Indian remains in place as the legal term used in

the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside
such situations can be considered offensive.[7]
Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to
describe all indigenous peoples of Canada.[22]
The term Aboriginal people is beginning to be
considered outdated and slowly being replaced
by the term Indigenous people.|[2]

Indigenous peoples in Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada,[2] also known as

Indigenous Canadians or Aboriginal Canadians,
are the indigenous peoples within the
boundaries of present-day Canada. They
comprise the First Nations,[3] Inuit[4] and Métis.
[5] Although "Indian" is a term still commonly
used in legal documents, the descriptors
"Indian" and "Eskimo" have somewhat fallen into
disuse in Canada and some consider them to be
pejorative.[6][7][8] Similarly, "Aboriginal" as a
collective noun is a specific term of art used in
some legal documents, including the
Constitution Act 1982, though in some circles
that word is also falling into disfavour.[9]

Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of

the earliest known sites of human habitation in
Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-
Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous
peoples of the Americas. Projectile point tools,
spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers
mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing
cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction
styles.

Under letters patent from King Henry VII of

England, the Italian John Cabot became the first
European known to have landed in Canada after
the time of the Vikings.[33] Records indicate
that on 24 June 1497 he sighted land ata
northern location believed to be somewhere in
the Atlantic provinces.[34] Official tradition
deemed the first landing site to be at Cape
Bonavista, Newfoundland, although other
locations are possible.[35] After 1497 Cabot and
his son Sebastian Cabot continued to make
other voyages to find the Northwest Passage,
and other explorers continued to sail out of
England to the New World, although the details
of these voyages are not well recorded.[36]

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Spanish

Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the area
visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 CE.[37]
However, Portuguese explorers like Joao
Fernandes Lavrador would continue to visited
the north Atlantic coast, which accounts for the
appearance of "Labrador" on topographical
maps of the period.[38] In 1501 and 1502 the
Corte-Real brothers explored Newfoundland
(Terra Nova) and Labrador claiming these lands
as part of the Portuguese Empire.[38][39] In
1506, King Manuel | of Portugal created taxes
for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters.
[40] Joao Alvares Fagundes and Péro de
Barcelos established fishing outposts in
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521
CE; however, these were later abandoned, with
the Portuguese colonizers focusing their efforts

‘Anse aux Meadows on the island of

Newfoundland, site of a Norsemen colony about
year 1000.

There are reports of contact made before the

1492 voyages of Christopher Columbus and the
age of discovery between First Nations, Inuit
and those from other continents. The Norse,
who had settled Greenland and Iceland, arrived
around the year 1000 and built a small
settlement at LAnse aux Meadows at the
northernmost tip of Newfoundland (carbon
dating estimate 990 — 1050 CE)[31] LAnse aux
Meadows is also notable for its connection with
the attempted colony of Vinland established by
Leif Erikson around the same period or, more
broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.
[31][32]

Pre-Columbian distribution of Na-Dene

languages in North America

The Interior of British Columbia was home to the

Salishan language groups such as the Shuswap
(Secwepemc), Okanagan and southern
Athabaskan language groups, primarily the
Dakelh (Carrier) and the Tsilhqot'in.[27] The
inlets and valleys of the British Columbia Coast
sheltered large, distinctive populations, such as
the Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu-chah-nulth,
sustained by the region's abundant salmon and
shellfish.[27] These peoples developed complex
cultures dependent on the western red cedar
that included wooden houses, seagoing whaling
and war canoes and elaborately carved potlatch
items and totem poles.[27]

In the Arctic archipelago, the distinctive Paleo-

Eskimos known as Dorset peoples, whose
culture has been traced back to around 500 BCE,
were replaced by the ancestors of today's Inuit
by 1500 CE.[28] This transition is supported by
archaeological records and Inuit mythology that
tells of having driven off the Tuniit or ‘first
inhabitants'.[29] Inuit traditional laws are
anthropologically different from Western law.
Customary law was non-existent in Inuit society
before the introduction of the Canadian legal
system.[30]

Fre-VCOMVidall QlsthiMUulOTl OF AIQOMQuUiadll

languages in North America.

Speakers of eastern Algonquian languages

included the Mi'kmaq and Abenaki of the
Maritime region of Canada and likely the extinct
Beothuk of Newfoundland.[18][19] The Ojibwa
and other Anishinaabe speakers of the central
Algonquian languages retain an oral tradition of
having moved to their lands around the western
and central Great Lakes from the sea, likely the
east coast.[20] According to oral tradition, the
Ojibwa formed the Council of Three Fires in 796
CE with the Odawa and the Potawatomi.[21]

The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centred

from at least 1000 CE in northern New York, but
their influence extended into what is now
southern Ontario and the Montreal area of
modern Quebec.[22] The Iroquois Confederacy,
according to oral tradition, was formed in 1142
CE.[23][24] On the Great Plains the Cree or
Néhilawé (who spoke a closely related Central
Algonquian language, the plains Cree language)
depended on the vast herds of bison to supply
food and many of their other needs.[25] To the
northwest were the peoples of the Na-Dene
languages, which include the Athapaskan-
speaking peoples and the Tlingit, who lived on
the islands of southern Alaska and northern
British Columbia. The Na-Dene language group
is believed to be linked to the Yeniseian
languages of Siberia.[26] The Dene of the
western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of

migration from Asia to North America [26]

Great Lakes area of the Hopewell Interaction

Area

The Woodland cultural period dates from about

2000 BCE to 1000 CE and includes the Ontario,
Quebec, and Maritime regions.[12] The
introduction of pottery distinguishes the
Woodland culture from the previous Archaic-
stage inhabitants. The Laurentian-related people
of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery
excavated to date in Canada.[13]

The Hopewell tradition is an Aboriginal culture

that flourished along American rivers from 300
BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the
Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures
and societies to the peoples on the Canadian
shores of Lake Ontario.[14] Canadian
expression of the Hopewellian peoples
encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and
Laurel complexes.[15]

The eastern woodland areas of what became

Canada were home to the Algonquian and
lroquoian peoples. The Algonquian language is
believed to have originated in the western
plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana and
moved eastward,[16] eventually extending all the
way from Hudson Bay to what is today Nova
Scotia in the east and as far south as the
Tidewater region of Virginia.[1 7]

The North American climate stabilized around

8000 BCE (10,000 years ago). Climatic
conditions were similar to modern patterns;
however, the receding glacial ice sheets still
covered large portions of the land, creating
lakes of meltwater.[10] Most population groups
during the Archaic periods were still highly
mobile hunter-gatherers.[11] However, individual
groups started to focus on resources available
to them locally; thus with the passage of time,
there is a pattern of increasing regional
generalization (i.e.: Paleo-Arctic, Plano and
Maritime Archaic traditions).[11]

A northerly section focusing on the Saugeen,

Laurel and Point Peninsula complexes of the
map showing south eastern United States and
the Great Lakes area of Canada showing the
Hopewell Interaction Sphere and in different
colours the various local expressions of the
Hopewell cultures, including the Laurel Complex,
Saugeen Complex, Point Peninsula Complex,
Marksville culture, Copena culture, Kansas City
Hopewell, Swift Creek Culture, Goodall Focus,
Crab Orchard culture and Havana Hopewell
culture.

The Great Lakes are estimated to have been

formed at the end of the last glacial period
(about 10,000 years ago), when the Laurentide
ice sheet receded.

Archeological and Aboriginal genetic evidence

indicate that North and South America were the
last continents into which humans migrated.[1]
During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000 —
17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed
people to move across the Bering land bridge
(Beringia), from Siberia into northwest North
America.[2] At that point, they were blocked by
the Laurentide ice sheet that covered most of
Canada, confining them to Alaska and the Yukon
for thousands of years.[3] The exact dates and
routes of the peopling of the Americas are the
subject of an ongoing debate.[4][5] By 16,000
years ago the glacial melt allowed people to
move by land south and east out of Beringia,
and into Canada.[6] The Queen Charlotte
Islands, Old Crow Flats, and Bluefish Caves
contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian
archaeological sites in Canada.[7][8][9] Ice Age
hunter-gatherers of this period left lithic flake
fluted stone tools and the remains of large
butchered mammals.

History of Canada

The history of Canada covers the period from

the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years
ago to the present day. Canada has been
inhabited for millennia by distinctive groups of
Aboriginal peoples, with distinct trade networks,
spiritual beliefs, and styles of social
organization. Some of these civilizations had
long faded by the time of the first European
arrivals and have been discovered through
archaeological investigations. Various treaties
and laws have been enacted between European
settlers and the Aboriginal populations.

Beginning in the late 15th century, French and

British expeditions explored, and later settled,
along the Atlantic Coast. France ceded nearly all
of its colonies in North America to Britain in
1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with
the union of three British North American
colonies through Confederation, Canada was
formed as a federal dominion of four provinces.
This began an accretion of provinces and
territories and a process of increasing
autonomy from the British Empire, which
became official with the Statute of Westminster
of 1931 and completed in the Canada Act of
1982, which severed the vestiges of legal
dependence on the British parliament.

Great Depression

Canada was hard hit by the worldwide Great

Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929
and 1933, the gross national product dropped
40% (compared to 37% in the US).
Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the
Depression in 1933.[169] Many businesses
closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in
1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933.
Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to
1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%,
1929-33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%.
Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel
(1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.[169]

Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%;

Toronto's rate was 17%, according to the census
of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms
were not considered unemployed.[170] By 1933,
30% of the labour force was out of work, and
one fifth of the population became dependent
on government assistance. Wages fell as did
prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on
primary industries such as farming, mining and
logging, as prices fell and there were few
alternative jobs. Most families had moderate
losses and little hardship, though they too
became pessimistic and their debts become
heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most
or all of their assets disappear, and suffered
severely.[171][172]

In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression,

Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the
crisis was a temporary swing of the business
cycle and that the economy would soon recover
without government intervention. He refused to
provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the
provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial
governments demanded federal dollars, he
would not give them "a five cent piece."[173] His
blunt wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals
in the 1930 election. The main issue was the
rapid deterioration in the economy and whether
the prime minister was out of touch with the
hardships of ordinary people.[174][175] The
winner of the 1930 election was Richard
Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives. Bennett
had promised high tariffs and large-scale
spending, but as deficits increased, he became
wary and cut back severely on Federal spending.
With falling support and the depression getting
only worse, Bennett attempted to introduce
policies based on the New Deal of President
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the United States,
but he got little passed. Bennett's government
became a focus of popular discontent. For
example, auto owners saved on gasoline by
using horses to pull their cars, dubbing them
Bennett Buggies. The Conservative failure to
restore prosperity led to the return of Mackenzie
King's Liberals in the 1935 election.[176]

In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or

Chaos" to win a landslide in the 1935 election.
[177] Promising a much-desired trade treaty
with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government
passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It
marked the turning point in Canadian-American
economic relations, reversing the disastrous
trade war of 1930-31, lowering tariffs, and
yielding a dramatic increase in trade.[178]

The worst of the Depression had passed by

1935, as Ottawa launched relief programs such
as the National Housing Act and National
Employment Commission. The Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation became a crown
corporation in 1936. Trans-Canada Airlines (the
precursor to Air Canada) was formed in 1937, as
was the National Film Board of Canada in 1939.
In 1938, Parliament transformed the Bank of
Canada from a private entity to a crown
corporation.[179]

One political response was a highly restrictive

immigration policy and a rise in nativism.[180]

Times were especially hard in western Canada,

where a full recovery did not occur until the
Second World War began in 1939. One response
was the creation of new political parties such as
the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative
Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular
protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.
[181]

Second World War

Canada's involvement in the Second World War

began when Canada declared war on Nazi
Germany on September 10, 1939, delaying it one
week after Britain acted to symbolically
demonstrate independence. The war restored
Canada's economic health and its self-
confidence, as it played a major role in the
Atlantic and in Europe. During the war, Canada
became more closely linked to the U.S. The
Americans took virtual control of Yukon in order
to build the Alaska Highway, and were a major
presence in the British colony of Newfoundland
with major airbases.[182]

Mackenzie King — and Canada — were largely

ignored by Winston Churchill and the British
government despite Canada's major role in
supplying food, raw materials, munitions and
money to the hard-pressed British economy,
training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding
the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean
against German U-boats, and providing combat
troops for the invasions of Italy, France and
Germany in 1943-45. The government
successfully mobilized the economy for war,
with impressive results in industrial and
agricultural output. The depression ended,
prosperity returned, and Canada’s economy
expanded significantly. On the political side,
Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a
government of national unity.[183] The Canadian
federal election, 1940 was held as normally
scheduled, producing another majority for the
Liberals.
Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a
high priority; it was kept separate from Britain's
Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air
Training Plan Agreement, signed in December
1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and
Australia to a program that eventually trained
half the airmen from those four nations in the
Second World War.[184]

After the start of war with Japan in December

1941, the government, in cooperation with the
U.S., began the Japanese-Canadian internment,
which sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of
Japanese descent to relocation camps far from
the coast. The reason was intense public
demand for removal and fears of espionage or
sabotage.[185] The government ignored reports
from the RCMP and Canadian military that most
of the Japanese were law-abiding and nota
threat.[186]

The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately,

and from 1943 to 1945 was led by Leonard W.
Murray, from Nova Scotia. German U-boats
operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters
throughout the war, sinking many naval and
merchant vessels, as Canada took charge of the
defenses of the western Atlantic.[187] The
Canadian army was involved in the failed
defence of Hong Kong, the unsuccessful Dieppe
Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy,
and the highly successful invasion of France
and the Netherlands in 1944-45 .[188]

The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected

unity between French and English-speaking
Canadians, though was not as politically
intrusive as that of the First World War.[189] Of a
population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1
million Canadians served in the armed forces in
the Second World War. Many thousands more
served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.[190]
In all, more than 45,000 died, and another
55,000 were wounded.

Post-war Era 1945-1960

Prosperity returned to Canada during the

Second World War and continued in the
proceeding years, with the development of
universal health care, old-age pensions, and
veterans’ pensions.[193][194] The financial crisis
of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of
Newfoundland to relinquish responsible
government in 1934 and become a crown
colony ruled by a British governor.[195] In 1948,
the British government gave voters three
Newfoundland Referendum choices: remaining
a crown colony, returning to Dominion status
(that is, independence), or joining Canada.
Joining the United States was not made an
option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders
voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[196]

The Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow (Recreation).

The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold

War was closely tied to that of the United States.
Canada was a founding member of NATO
(which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic
economic and political union as well[197]). In
1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea
during the Korean War as part of the United
Nations forces. The federal government's desire
to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during
the Cold War manifested with the High Arctic
relocation, in which Inuit were moved from
Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to barren
Cornwallis Island;[198] this project was later the
subject of a long investigation by the Royal
Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[199]

In 1956, the United Nations responded to the

Suez Crisis by convening a United Nations
Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of
invading forces. The peacekeeping force was
initially conceptualized by Secretary of External
Affairs and future Prime Minister Lester B.
Pearson.[200] Pearson was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing
the peacekeeping operation.[200] Throughout
the mid-1950s, Louis St. Laurent (12th Prime
Minister of Canada) and his successor John
Diefenbaker attempted to create a new, highly
advanced jet fighter, the Avro Arrow.[201] The
controversial aircraft was cancelled by
Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker instead
purchased the BOMARC missile defense system
and American aircraft. In 1958 Canada
established (with the United States) the North
American Aerospace Defense Command
(NORAD).[202]

In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly

was granted to Pierre Du Gua, Sieur de Mons.
[49] The fur trade became one of the main
economic ventures in North America.[50] Du
Gua led his first colonization expedition to an
island located near the mouth of the St. Croix
River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer
named Samuel de Champlain, who promptly
carried out a major exploration of the
northeastern coastline of what is now the United
States.[49] In the spring of 1605, under Samuel
de Champlain, the new St. Croix settlement was
moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal,
Nova Scotia).[51]
The Quebec Settlement : A.—The Warehouse. B.
—Pigeon-loft. C.—Detached Buildings where we
keep our arms and for Lodging our Workmen. D.
—Another Detached Building for the Workmen.
E.—Sun-dial. F.—Another Detached Building
where is the Smithy and where the Workmen are
Lodged. G.—Galleries all around the Lodgings.
H.—The Sieur de Champlain's Lodgings. |.—The
door of the Settlement with a Draw-bridge. L
Promenade around the Settlement ten feet in
width to the edge of the Moat. M.—Moat the
whole way around the Settlement. O.—The Sieur
de Champlain's Garden. P—The Kitchen. Q.—
Space in front of the Settlement on the Shore of
the River. R.—The great River St. Lawrence.

Music

The Aboriginal peoples of Canada encompass

diverse ethnic groups with their individual
musical traditions. Music is usually social
(public) or ceremonial (private). Public, social
music may be dance music accompanied by
rattles and drums. Private, ceremonial music
includes vocal songs with accompaniment on
percussion, used to mark occasions like
Midewivin ceremonies and Sun Dances.

Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples used the

materials at hand to make their instruments for
centuries before Europeans immigrated to
Canada.[156] First Nations people made gourds
and animal horns into rattles, which were
elaborately carved and brightly painted.[157] In
woodland areas, they made horns of birch bark
and drumsticks of carved antlers and wood.
Traditional percussion instruments such as
drums were generally made of carved wood and
animal hides. These musical instruments
provide the background for songs, and songs
the background for dances. Traditional First
Nations people consider song and dance to be
sacred. For years after Europeans came to
Canada, First Nations people were forbidden to
practice their ceremonies.[{155][156]

Demographics and classification of Indigenous

peoples

Cultural areas of North American Indigenous

peoples at the time of European contact

There are three (First Nations,[3] Inuit[4] and

Métis[5]) distinctive groups of North America
indigenous peoples recognized in the Canadian
Constitution Act, 1982, sections 25 and 35.[21]
Under the Employment Equity Act, Aboriginal
people are a designated group along with
women, visible minorities, and persons with
disabilities.[158] They are not a visible minority
under the Employment Equity Act and in the
view of Statistics Canada.[159]

The 2011 Canadian Census enumerated

1,400,685 Aboriginal people in Canada, 4.3% of
the country's total population.[1] This total
comprises 851,560 people of First Nations
descent, 451,795 Métis, and 59,445 Inuit.
National representative bodies of Aboriginal
people in Canada include the Assembly of First
Nations, the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, the Métis
National Council, the Native Women's
Association of Canada, the National Association
of Native Friendship Centres and the Congress
of Aboriginal Peoples.[160]

Visual art

Indigenous peoples were producing art for

thousands of years before the arrival of
European settler colonists and the eventual
establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like
the peoples who produced them, indigenous art
traditions spanned territories across North
America. Indigenous art traditions are organized
by art historians according to cultural, linguistic
or regional groups: Northwest Coast, Plateau,
Plains, Eastern Woodlands, Subarctic, and
Arctic.[152]

Art traditions vary enormously amongst and

within these diverse groups. Indigenous art with
a focus on portability and the body is
distinguished from European traditions and its
focus on architecture. Indigenous visual art may
be used conjunction with other arts. Shamans'
masks and rattles are used ceremoniously in
dance, storytelling and music.[152] Artworks
preserved in museum collections date from the
period after European contact and show
evidence of the creative adoption and
adaptation of European trade goods such as
metal and glass beads.[153] The distinct Métis
cultures that have arisen from inter-cultural
relationships with Europeans contribute
culturally hybrid art forms.[154] During the 19th
and the first half of the 20th century the
Canadian government pursued an active policy
of forced and cultural assimilation toward
indigenous peoples. The Indian Act banned
manifestations of the Sun Dance, the Potlatch,
and works of art depicting them.[155]

It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that

indigenous artists such as Mungo Martin, Bill
Reid and Norval Morrisseau began to publicly
renew and re-invent indigenous art traditions.
Currently there are indigenous artists practising
in all media in Canada and two indigenous
artists, Edward Poitras and Rebecca Belmore,
have represented Canada at the Venice Biennale
in 1995 and 2005 respectively.[1 52]

Approximately 40,115 individuals of Aboriginal

heritage could not be counted during the 2006
census.[161][162] This is due to the fact that
certain Aboriginal reserves and communities in
Canada did not participate in the 2006 census,
since enumeration of those communities were
not permitted.[161][163] In 2006, 22 Native
communities were not completely enumerated
unlike in the year 2001, when 30 First Nation
communities were not enumerated and during
1996 when 77 Native communities could not be
completely enumerated.[161][163] Hence, there
were probably 1,212,905 individuals of
Aboriginal ancestry (North American Indian,
Metis, and Inuit) residing in Canada during the
time when the 2006 census was conducted in
Canada.

Indigenous people assert that their sovereign

rights are valid, and point to the Royal
Proclamation of 1763, which is mentioned in the
Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, Section 25, the
British North America Acts and the 1969 Vienna

Convention on the Law of Treaties (to which

Canada is a signatory) in support of this claim.
[164][165]

Indian
Province/Territory ¢ Numbere %* ¢ SRNR
| British Columbia 232,290 5.4% | 155,015. 69,475 1,570|
| Alberta 220,695 6.2% | 116,670 96,865| 1,985
| Saskatchewan 157,740 | 15.6% | 103,205) 52.450 290 |
| Manitoba 199,940 | 17.0% | 130,075 78,835) 580|
| Ontario 301,430 2.4% | 201,100 86,015| 3,360
| Quebec 141,915| 1.8% | 82.425| 40,960 12,570 |
| New Brunswick 22,620! 3.1% | 16,120| 4.850| 485 |
| Nova Scotia 33,845 | 3.7% | 21,895 10,050 695 |
| Prince Edward Island 2,230 1.6% | 1520, 410) 55
| Newfoundland and Labrador| 35,800| 7.1% | 19315| 7.665. 6,260 |
lYukon = (ststi(‘i‘iéSC(C*é;«C A 23.1% | 6585, 845 175|
| Northwest Territories 21,160 51.9% | 13,345| 3,245, 4,335/
| Nunavut 27,360 | 86.3% | 130| 135 27,070
“Canada 1,400,685 4.3% 851,560 451,795 59,445,

| Source: 2011 Census! '®!

2,480 |
1,875 |

670
1,205 |

2,910
1,550 |
145
225

11,415.

¢ Métis ¢ Inuit ¢ Multiple ¢ Other® ¢

3,745
3,295
1,120
1,055
8.045
4.410
1,020

980

Languages

There are 13 Aboriginal language groups, 11 oral

and 2 sign, in Canada, made up of more than 65
distinct dialects.[148] Of these, only Cree,
Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough
population of fluent speakers to be considered
viable to survive in the long term.[149] Two of
Canada’s territories give official status to native
languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun
are official languages alongside the national
languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is
a common vehicular language in territorial
government.[150] In the NWT, the Official
Languages Act declares that there are eleven
different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English,
French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut,
Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and
Ttichg.[151] Besides English and French, these
languages are not vehicular in government;
official status entitles citizens to receive

services in them on request and to deal with the

government in them.[149]

Aboriginal language
Cree
Inuktitut
| Ojibway
| Montagnais-Naskapi (Innu)
Dene
Oji-Cree (Anishinini)
Mi'kmaq
| Siouan languages (Dakota/Sioux)
| Atikamekw
Blackfoot

99,950
35,690 |
32,460 |
11,815)
11,130 |
12,605 |
8,750 |
6,495 |
5.645 |
4.915 |

78,855

32,010 |
11,115 |
10,970 |
9,750 |
8,480 |
7,365 |
5585 |
5245 |
3,085 |

yy No. of speakers ¢ | Mother tongue ¢ | Home language ¢

47,190
25,290
11,115
9,720
7,490
8,480
3,985
3,780
4,745
3,085

Aboriginal cultural areas depend upon their

ancestors’ primary lifeway, or occupation, at the
time of European contact. These culture areas
correspond closely with physical and ecological
regions of Canada.[143] The indigenous peoples
of the Pacific Northwest Coast were centred
around ocean and river fishing; in the interior of
British Columbia, hunter-gatherer and river
fishing. In both of these areas the salmon was
of chief importance. For the people of the plains,
bison hunting was the primary activity. In the
subarctic forest, other species such as the
moose were more important. For peoples near
the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River,
shifting agriculture was practised, including the
raising of maize, beans, and squash.[16][143]
While for the Inuit, hunting was the primary
source of food with seals the primary
component of their diet.[144] The caribou, fish,
other marine mammals and to a lesser extent
plants, berries and seaweed are part of the Inuit
diet. One of the most noticeable symbols of
Inuit culture, the inukshuk is the emblem of the
Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics. Inuksuit are
rock sculptures made by stacking stones; in the
shape of a human figure, they are called
inunnguag.[145]

Culture of Indigenous peoples

Through storytelling and other interactive

learning styles, countless North American
Indigenous words, inventions and games have
become an everyday part of Canadian language
and use. Thanks to groups such as the
Aboriginal Language and Culture (ALC) teachers
of British Columbia, these practices continue to
be passed down to each generation. The canoe,
snowshoes, the toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war,
maple syrup and tobacco are just a few of the
products, inventions and games.[138] Some of
the words include the barbecue, caribou,
chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, and
moose.[139] Many places in Canada, both
natural features and human habitations, use
indigenous names. The word "Canada" itself
derives from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word
meaning "village" or "settlement".[140] The
province of Saskatchewan derives its name
from the Saskatchewan River, which in the Cree
language is called "Kisiskatchewani Sipi",
meaning "swift-flowing river."[141] Canada's
capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin
language term "adawe" meaning "to trade."[141]
Modern youth groups such as Scouts Canada
and the Girl Guides of Canada include programs
based largely on Indigenous lore, arts and crafts,
character building and outdoor camp craft and
living.[142]

Indian reserves, established in Canadian law by

treaties such as Treaty 7, are lands of First
Nations recognized by non-indigenous
governments.[146] Some reserves are within
cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Wendake in
Quebec City or Stony Plain 135 in the Edmonton
Capital Region. There are more reserves in
Canada than there are First Nations, which were
ceded multiple reserves by treaty.[147]
Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of
occupations and may live outside their ancestral
homes. The traditional cultures of their
ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong
influence on them, from spirituality to political
attitudes.[16][143] National Aboriginal Day is a
day of recognition of the cultures and
contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and
Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first
celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that
year, by then Governor General of Canada
Romeo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21
annually.[17] Most provincial jurisdictions do not
recognize it as a statutory holiday.[17]

Royal Commission

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

was a Royal Commission undertaken by the
Government of Canada in 1991 to address
issues of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada.
[128] It assessed past government policies
toward Aboriginal people, such as residential
schools, and provided policy recommendations
to the government.[129] The Commission
issued its final report in November 1996. The
five-volume, 4,000-page report covered a vast
range of issues; its 440 recommendations
called for sweeping changes to the interaction
between Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal people and
the governments in Canada.[128] The report "set
out a 20-year agenda for change."[130]

Political organization

First Nations and Inuit organizations ranged in

size from band societies of a few people to
multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois.
First Nations leaders from across the country
formed the Assembly of First Nations, which
began as the National Indian Brotherhood in
1968.[136] The Métis and the Inuit are
represented nationally by the Métis National
Council and Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami respectively.

Today's political organizations have resulted

from interaction with European-style methods of
government through the Federal Interlocutor for
Metis and Non-Status Indians. Aboriginal
political organizations throughout Canada vary
in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for
forming.[137] First Nations, Métis and Inuit
negotiate with the Canadian Government
through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in
all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and
rights.[136] The First Nation groups that operate
independently do not belong to these groups.
[136]

Health policy

In 1995, the federal government announced the

Aboriginal Right to Self-Government Policy.[131]
This policy recognizes that First Nations and
Inuit have the constitutional right to shape their
own forms of government to suit their particular
historical, cultural, political and economic
circumstances. The Indian Health Transfer
Policy provided a framework for the assumption
of control of health services by Aboriginal
peoples, and set forth a developmental
approach to transfer centred on self-
determination in health.[132][133] Through this
process, the decision to enter transfer
discussions with Health Canada rests with each
community. Once involved in transfer,
communities can take control of health
programme responsibilities at a pace
determined by their individual circumstances
and health management capabilities.[134] The
National Aboriginal Health Organization (NAHO)
incorporated in 2000, is an Aboriginal-designed
and-controlled not-for-profit body in Canada that
works to influence and advance the health and
well-being of Aboriginal Peoples.[135]

Those people accepted into band membership

under band rules may not be status Indians. C-
31 clarified that various sections of the Indian
Act would apply to band members. The sections
under debate concern community life and land
holdings. Sections pertaining to Indians (First
Nations peoples) as individuals (in this case,

wills and taxation of personal property) were not

included.[127]

Indian Act

The Indian Act is federal legislation that dates

from 1876. There have been over 20 major
changes made to the original Act since then, the
last time being in 1951; amended in 1985 with
Bill C-31. The Indian Act indicates how Reserves
and Bands can operate and defines who is
recognized as an "Indian".[126]

In 1985, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-

31, "An Act to Amend the Indian Act". Because
of a Constitutional requirement, the Bill took
effect on April 17, 1985.[127]

e It ends discriminatory provisions of the

Indian Act, especially those that
discriminated against women.[127]

e It changes the meaning of "status" and for

the first time allows for limited
reinstatement of Indians who were denied
or lost status and/or Band membership.
[127]

e It allows bands to define their own

membership rules.[127]

According to the First Nations— Federal Crown

Political Accord "cooperation will be a
cornerstone for partnership between Canada
and First Nations, wherein Canada is the short-
form reference to Her Majesty the Queen in
Right of Canada.[122] The Supreme Court
argued that treaties "served to reconcile pre-
existing Aboriginal sovereignty with assumed
Crown sovereignty, and to define Aboriginal
rights".[122] First Nations people interpreted
agreements covered in treaty 8 to last "as long

as the sun shines, grass grows and rivers flow."

[125]

Politics, law and legislation

Treaties

The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples

began interactions during the European
colonialization period. Numbered treaties, the
Indian Act, the Constitution Act of 1982 and
case laws were established. Aboriginal peoples
construe these agreements as being between
them and the Crown of Canada through the
districts Indian Agent, and not the Cabinet of
Canada.[122] The Maori interprets the Treaty of
Waitangi in New Zealand similarly.[123] A series
of eleven treaties were signed between First
Nations in Canada and the reigning Monarch of
Canada from 1871 to 1921. The Government of
Canada created the policy, commissioned the
Treaty Commissioners and ratified the
agreements. These Treaties are agreements
with the Government of Canada administered by
Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the
Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern
Development.[124]

Because of laws and policies that encouraged

or required Indigenous peoples to assimilate
into a Eurocentric society, Canada violated the
United Nations Genocide Convention that
Canada signed in 1949 and passed through
Parliament in 1952.[119] The residential school
system that removed Aboriginal children from
their homes has led scholars to believe that
Canada can be tried in international court for
genocide.[119] A legal case resulted in
settlement of 2 billion CS in 2006 and the
establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation
Commission which confirmed the injurious
effect on children of this system and turmoil
created between Aboriginal Canadians and
Canadian Society.[120] In 2008 Prime Minister
Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of
the Canadian government and its citizens for the
residential school system.[121]

The final government strategy of assimilation,

made possible by the Indian Act was the
Canadian residential school system:

Of all the initiatives that were undertaken in the

first century of Confederation, none was more
ambitious or central to the civilizing strategy of
the Department, to its goal of assimilation, than
the residential school system... it was the
residential school experience that would lead
children most effectively out of their "savage"
communities into "higher civilization" and "full
citizenship."[116]

Beginning in 1847 and lasting until 1996, the

Canadian government, in partnership with the
Catholic Church, ran 130 residential boarding
schools across Canada for Aboriginal children,
who were forcibly taken from their homes.[117]
While the schools were said to educate, they
were plagued by under-funding, disease, and
abuse.[118]

Forced assimilation

From the late 18th century, European Canadians

(and the Canadian government) encouraged
assimilation of Aboriginal culture into what was
referred to as "Canadian culture".[109][110]
These attempts reached a climax in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, with a series of
initiatives that aimed at complete assimilation
and subjugation of the Aboriginal peoples.
These policies, which were made possible by
legislation such as the Gradual Civilization
Act[111] and the Indian Act,[112] focused on
European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living,
agriculture, and education.

The attempt at Christianization of the Aboriginal

people of Canada had been ongoing since the
first missionaries arrived in the 1600s, however
it became more systematic with the Indian Act
in 1876, which would bring new sanctions for
those who did not convert to Christianity. For
example, the new laws would prevent non-
Christian Aboriginal people from testifying or
having their cases heard in court and ban
alcohol consumption.[113] When the Indian Act
was amended in 1884, traditional religious and
social practices, such as the Potlatch, would be
banned, and further amendments in 1920 would
prevent "status Indians" (as defined in the Act)
from wearing traditional dress or performing
traditional dances in an attempt to stop all non-
Christian practices.[113]

Another focus of the Canadian government was

to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada
sedentary, as they thought that this would make
them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century,
the government began to support the creation of
model farming villages, which were meant to
encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to
settle in an area and begin to cultivate
agriculture.[114] When most of these model
farming villages failed,[114] the government
turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves
with the Indian Act of 1876.[112] With the
creation of these reserves came many
restricting laws, such as further bans on all
intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in
band elections, decreased hunting and fishing
areas, and inability for status Indians to visit
other groups on their reservations.[112]

Through the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, the

government would encourage Indians (i.e., First
Nations) to enfranchise — to remove all legal
distinctions between [Indians] and Her Majesty's
other Canadian Subjects.[111] If an Aboriginal
chose to enfranchise, it would strip them and
their family of Aboriginal title, with the idea that
they would become "less savage" and "more
civilized", thus become assimilated into
Canadian society.[115] However, they were often
still defined as non-citizens by Europeans, and
those few who did enfranchise were often met
with disappointment.[11 5]

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Canada under British rule (1763-1867)

Galf of Mexico

Map showing British territorial gains following

the "Seven Years' War". Treaty of Paris gains in
pink, and Spanish territorial gains after the
Treaty of Fontainebleau in yellow.

With the end of the Seven Years' War and the

signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763), France
ceded almost all of its remaining territory in
mainland North America, except for fishing
rights off Newfoundland and the two small
islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon where its
fishermen could dry their fish. France had
already secretly ceded its vast Louisiana
territory to Spain under the Treaty of
Fontainebleau (1762) in which King Louis XV of
France had given his cousin King Charles III of
Spain the entire area of the drainage basin of
the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes te
Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian

OC O )
Canada under British rule (1763-1867)

Map showing British territorial gains following

the "Seven Years' War". Treaty of Paris gains in
pink, and Spanish territorial gains after the
Treaty of Fontainebleau in yellow.

The new British rulers of Canada retained and

protected most of the property, religious,
political, and social culture of the French-
speaking habitants, guaranteeing the right of the
Canadiens to practice the Catholic faith and to
the use of French civil law (now Quebec law)
through the Quebec Act of 1774.[95] The Royal
Proclamation of 1763 had been issued in
October, by King George III following Great
Britain's acquisition of French territory.[96] The
proclamation organized Great Britain's new
North American empire and stabilized relations
between the British Crown and Aboriginal
peoples through regulation of trade, settlement,
and land purchases on the western frontier.[96]

With the end of the Seven Years' War and the

signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763), France
ceded almost all of its remaining territory in
mainland North America, except for fishing
rights off Newfoundland and the two small
islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon where its
fishermen could dry their fish. France had
already secretly ceded its vast Louisiana
territory to Spain under the Treaty of
Fontainebleau (1762) in which King Louis XV of
France had given his cousin King Charles III of
Spain the entire area of the drainage basin of
the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian
Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. France and
Spain kept the Treaty of Fontainebleau secret
from other countries until 1764.[93] In return for
acquiring Canada, Britain returned to France its
most important sugar-producing colony,
Guadeloupe, which the French at the time
considered more valuable than Canada.
(Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the
British islands combined, and Voltaire had
notoriously dismissed Canada as "Quelques

arpents de neige", "A few acres of snow’). [94]

When the British evacuated New York City in

1783, they took many Loyalist refugees to Nova
Scotia, while other Loyalists went to
southwestern Quebec. So many Loyalists
arrived on the shores of the St. John River that a
separate colony—New Brunswick—was created
in 1784;[100] followed in 1791 by the division of
Quebec into the largely French-speaking Lower
Canada (French Canada) along the St. Lawrence
River and Gaspé Peninsula and an anglophone
Loyalist Upper Canada, with its capital settled by
1796 in York, in present-day Toronto.[101] After
1790 most of the new settlers were American
farmers searching for new lands; although
generally favorable to republicanism, they were
relatively non-political and stayed neutral in the
War of 1812.[102]

American Revolution and the Loyalists

During the American Revolution, there was

some sympathy for the American cause among
the Acadians and the New Englanders in Nova
Scotia.[97] Neither party joined the rebels,
although several hundred individuals joined the
revolutionary cause.[97][98] An invasion of
Quebec by the Continental Army in 1775, with a
goal to take Quebec from British control, was
halted at the Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton,
with the assistance of local militias. The defeat
of the British army during the Siege of Yorktown
in October 1781 signaled the end of Britain's
struggle to suppress the American Revolution.
[99]

War of 1812

The War of 1812 was fought between the United

States and the British, with the British North
American colonies being heavily involved.[106]
Greatly outgunned by the British Royal Navy, the
American war plans focused on an invasion of
Canada (especially what is today eastern and
western Ontario). The American frontier states
voted for war to suppress the First Nations raids
that frustrated settlement of the frontier.[106]
The war on the border with the United States
was Characterized by a series of multiple failed
invasions and fiascos on both sides. American
forces took control of Lake Erie in 1813, driving
the British out of western Ontario, killing the
Native American leader Tecumseh, and breaking
the military power of his confederacy.[107] The
war was overseen by British army officers like
Isaac Brock and Charles de Salaberry with the
assistance of First Nations and loyalist
informants, most notably Laura Secord.[108]

Lower emphasizes the positive benefits of the

Revolution for Americans, making them an
energetic people, while for English Canada the
results were negative:

[English Canada] inherited, not the benefits, but

the bitterness of the Revolution. It got no shining
scriptures out of it. It got little release of energy
and no new horizons of the spirit were opened
up. It had been a calamity, pure and simple.[105]
To take the place of the internal fire that was
urging Americans westward across the
continent, there was only melancholy
contemplation of things as they might have
been and dingy reflection of that ineffably
glorious world across the stormy Atlantic.
English Canada started its life with as powerful
a nostalgic shove backward into the past as the
Conquest had given to French Canada: two little
peoples officially devoted to counter-revolution,
to lost causes, to the tawdry ideals of a society
of men and masters, and not to the self-reliant
freedom alongside of them.[105]

The signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783

formally ended the war. Britain made several
concessions to the Americans at the expense of
the North American colonies.[103] Notably, the
borders between Canada and the United States
were Officially demarcated;[103] all land south of
the Great Lakes, which was formerly a part of
the Province of Quebec and included modern
day Michigan, Illinois and Ohio, was ceded to the
Americans. Fishing rights were also granted to
the United States in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and
on the coast of Newfoundland and the Grand
Banks.[103] The British ignored part of the treaty
and maintained their military outposts in the
Great Lakes areas it had ceded to the U.S., and
they continued to supply their native allies with
munitions. The British evacuated the outposts
with the Jay Treaty of 1795, but the continued
supply of munitions irritated the Americans in
the run-up to the War of 1812.[104]

Rebellions and the Durham Report

The rebellions of 1837 against the British

colonial government took place in both Upper
and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of
Reformers under the leadership of William Lyon
Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and
ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale
skirmishes around Toronto, London, and
Hamilton.[110]

In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion

occurred against British rule. Both English- and
French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases
in the neutral United States, fought several
skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of
Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and
Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the
colony. Montreal rebel leader Robert Nelson
read the "Declaration of Independence of Lower
Canada" to a crowd assembled at the town of
Napierville in 1838.[111] The rebellion of the
Patriote movement was defeated after battles
across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and
several villages were burnt in reprisal.[111]

The War ended with no boundary changes

thanks to the Treaty of Ghent of 1814, and the
Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817.[106] A
demographic result was the shifting of the
destination of American migration from Upper
Canada to Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, without
fear of Indian attacks.[106] After the war,
supporters of Britain tried to repress the
republicanism that was common among
American immigrants to Canada.[106] The
troubling memory of the war and the American
invasions etched itself into the consciousness
of Canadians as a distrust of the intentions of
the United States towards the British presence
in North America.[109]pp. 254-255

British Government then sent Lord Durham to

examine the situation; he stayed in Canada only
five months before returning to Britain and
brought with him his Durham Report, which
strongly recommended responsible government.
[112] A less well-received recommendation was
the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada
for the deliberate assimilation of the French-
speaking population. The Canadas were merged
into a single colony, the United Province of
Canada, by the 1840 Act of Union, and
responsible government was achieved in 1848,
a few months after it was accomplished in Nova
Scotia.[112] The parliament of United Canada in
Montreal was set on fire by a mob of Tories in
1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for
the people who suffered losses during the
rebellion in Lower Canada.[113]

Between the Napoleonic Wars and 1850, some

800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of
British North America, mainly from the British
Isles, as part of the great migration of Canada.
[114] These included Gaelic-speaking Highland
Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to
Nova Scotia and Scottish and English settlers to
the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada. The
Irish Famine of the 1840s significantly increased
the pace of Irish Catholic immigration to British
North America, with over 35,000 distressed Irish
landing in Toronto alone in 1847 and 1848.[115]

Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the

Pacific Northwest coast, with the voyages of
Juan José Pérez Hernandez in 1774 and 1775.
[116] By the time the Spanish determined to
build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British
navigator James Cook had visited Nootka
Sound and charted the coast as far as Alaska,
while British and American maritime fur traders
had begun a busy era of commerce with the
coastal peoples to satisfy the brisk market for
sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what
became known as the China Trade.[117] In 1789
war threatened between Britain and Spain on
their respective rights; the Nootka Crisis was
resolved peacefully largely in favor of Britain, the
much stronger naval power. In 1793 Alexander
MacKenzie, a Canadian working for the North
West Company, crossed the continent and with
his Aboriginal guides and French-Canadian crew,
reached the mouth of the Bella Coola River,
completing the first continental crossing north
of Mexico, missing George Vancouver's charting
expedition to the region by only a few weeks.
[118] In 1821, the North West Company and
Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a
combined trading territory that was extended by
a licence to the North-Western Territory and the
Columbia and New Caledonia fur districts, which
reached the Arctic Ocean on the north and the
Pacific Ocean on the west.[119]

Confederation

The Seventy-Two Resolutions from the 1864

Quebec Conference and Charlottetown
Conference laid out the framework for uniting
British colonies in North America into a
federation.[121] They had been adopted by the
majority of the provinces of Canada and
became the basis for the London Conference of
1866, which led to the formation of the
Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867.[121] The
term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada's
status as a self-governing colony of the British
Empire, the first time it was used about a
country.[122] With the coming into force of the
British North America Act (enacted by the
British Parliament), the Province of Canada, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federated
kingdom in its own right.[123][124][125]

The Colony of Vancouver Island was chartered

in 1849, with the trading post at Fort Victoria as
the capital. This was followed by the Colony of
the Queen Charlotte Islands in 1853, and by the
creation of the Colony of British Columbia in
1858 and the Stikine Territory in 1861, with the
latter three being founded expressly to keep
those regions from being overrun and annexed
by American gold miners.[120] The Colony of
the Queen Charlotte Islands and most of the
Stikine Territory were merged into the Colony of
British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north
of the 60th Parallel, became part of the North-
Western Territory).[120]

Post-Confederation Canada 1867-1914

The Battle of Fish Creek, fought April 24, 1885,
at Fish Creek, Saskatchewan, was a major Métis
victory over the Dominion of Canada forces
attempting to quell Louis Riel's North-West
Rebellion.

Expansion

Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a

transcontinental line that would unite the nation,
Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and
in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of
British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver
Island merged into a single Colony of British
Columbia; it joined the Canadian Confederation
in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined.
Newfoundland—which had no use for a
transcontinental railway—voted no in 1869, and
did not join Canada until 1949.[127]

Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the

British wanted Canada to defend itself; the
Maritimes needed railroad connections, which
were promised in 1867; British-Canadian
nationalism sought to unite the lands into one
country, dominated by the English language and
British culture; many French-Canadians saw an
opportunity to exert political control within a
new largely French-speaking Quebec[109]pp.
323-324 and fears of possible U.S. expansion
northward.[122] On a political level, there was a
desire for the expansion of responsible
government and elimination of the legislative
deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada,
and their replacement with provincial
legislatures in a federation.[122] This was
especially pushed by the liberal Reform
movement of Upper Canada and the French-
Canadian Parti rouge in Lower Canada who
favored a decentralized union in comparison to
the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to
some degree the French-Canadian Parti bleu,
which favored a centralized union.[122][126]

In 1905 when Saskatchewan and Alberta were

admitted as provinces, they were growing
rapidly thanks to abundant wheat crops that
attracted immigration to the plains by
Ukrainians and Northern and Central Europeans
and by settlers from the United States, Britain
and eastern Canada.[132][133]

A photochrome postcard showing downtown

Montreal, circa 1910. Canada's population
became urbanized during the 20th century.

The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since

the Alaska purchase of 1867, became critical
when gold was discovered in the Yukon during
the late 1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the
possible ports of entry. Canada argued its
boundary included the port of Skagway. The
dispute went to arbitration in 1903, but the
British delegate sided with the Americans,
angering Canadians who felt the British had
betrayed Canadian interests to curry favour with
the U.S.[134]

In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework

of criminal law, culminating in the Criminal
Code, 1892.[135] This solidified the liberal ideal
of "equality before the law" in a way that made
an abstract principle into a tangible reality for
every adult Canadian.[136] Wilfrid Laurier who
served 1896-1911 as the Seventh Prime
Minister of Canada felt Canada was on the
verge of becoming a world power, and declared
that the 20th century would "belong to Canada’
[137]

Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S.

that would lower tariffs in both directions.
Conservatives under Robert Borden denounced
it, saying it would integrate Canada's economy
into that of the U.S. and loosen ties with Britain.
The Conservative party won the Canadian
federal election, 1911.[138]

In 1873 John A. Macdonald (First Prime Minister

of Canada) created the North-West Mounted
Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted

Police) to help police the Northwest Territories.

[128] Specifically the Mounties were to assert
Canadian sovereignty over possible American
encroachments into the sparsely populated
land.{128]

The Mounties’ first large-scale mission was to

suppress the second independence movement
by Manitoba's Métis, a mixed blood people of
joint First Nations and European descent, who
originated in the mid-17th century.[129] The
desire for independence erupted in the Red River
Rebellion in 1869 and the later North-West
Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel.[128][130]
Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada’s first
independent military action. It cost about $5
million and demonstrated the need to complete
the Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed
Anglophone control of the Prairies, and
demonstrated the national government was
capable of decisive action. However, it lost the
Conservative Party most of their support in
Quebec and led to permanent distrust of the
Anglophone community on the part of the
Francophones.[131]
Popular culture

In Canada, leisure in the country is related to the

decline in work hours and is shaped by moral
values, and the ethnic-religious and gender
communities. In a cold country with winter's
long nights, and summer's extended daylight,
favorite leisure activities include horse racing,
team sports such as hockey, singalongs,
Rollerskating and board games.[139][140][141]
The churches tried to steer leisure activities, by
preaching against drinking and scheduling
annual revivals and weekly club activities.[142]
By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting
Canadians behind their local or regional hockey
teams. Play-by-play sports coverage, especially
of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely
than newspaper accounts the next day. Rural
areas were especially influenced by sports
coverage.[143] Canadians in the 19th century
came to believe themselves possessed of a
unique "northern character,’ due to the long,
harsh winters that only those of hardy body and
mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed
as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice
hockey and snowshoeing that reflected this
were asserted as characteristically Canadian.
[144] Outside the sports arena Canadians
express the national characteristics of being
peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream
their lungs out at ice hockey games, cheering
the speed, ferocity, and violence, making hockey
an ambiguous symbol of Canada.[145]

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Popular culture

In Canada, leisure in the country is related to the

decline in work hours and is shaped by moral
values, and the ethnic-religious and gender
communities. In a cold country with winter's
long nights, and summer's extended daylight,
favorite leisure activities include horse racing,
team sports such as hockey, singalongs,
Rollerskating and board games.[139][140][141]
The churches tried to steer leisure activities, by
preaching against drinking and scheduling
annual revivals and weekly club activities.[142]
By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting
Canadians behind their local or regional hockey
teams. Play-by-play sports coverage, especially
of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely
than newspaper accounts the next day. Rural
areas were especially influenced by sports
coverage.[143] Canadians in the 19th century
came to believe themselves possessed of a
unique "northern character,’ due to the long,
harsh winters that only those of hardy body and
mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed
as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice
hockey and snowshoeing that reflected this
were asserted as characteristically Canadian.
[144] Outside the sports arena Canadians
express the national characteristics of being
peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream
their lungs out at ice hockey games, cheering
the speed, ferocity, and violence, making hockey
an ambiguous symbol of Canada.[145]

OC O )

Support for Great Britain during the First World

War caused a major political crisis over
conscription, with Francophones, mainly from
Quebec, rejecting national policies.[149] During
the crisis, large numbers of enemy aliens
(especially Ukrainians and Germans) were put
under government controls.[150] The Liberal
party was deeply split, with most of its
Anglophone leaders joining the unionist
government headed by Prime Minister Robert
Borden, the leader of the Conservative party.
[151] The Liberals regained their influence after
the war under the leadership of William Lyon
Mackenzie King, who served as prime minister
with three separate terms between 1921 and
1949.[152]

World wars and interwar years 1914-1945

First World War

The Canadian Forces and civilian participation

in the First World War helped to foster a sense
of British-Canadian nationhood. The highpoints
of Canadian military achievement during the
First World War came during the Somme, Vimy,
Passchendaele battles and what later became
known as "Canada's Hundred Days".[146] The
reputation Canadian troops earned, along with
the success of Canadian flying aces including
William George Barker and Billy Bishop, helped
to give the nation a new sense of identity.[147]
The War Office in 1922 reported approximately
67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded during the
war.[148] This excludes civilian deaths in war-
time incidents like the Halifax Explosion.[148]

Woman suffrage

Women's political status without the vote was

vigorously promoted by the National Council of
Women of Canada from 1894 to 1918. It
promoted a vision of "transcendent citizenship"
for women. The ballot was not needed, for
citizenship was to be exercised through
personal influence and moral suasion, through
the election of men with strong moral character,
and through raising public-spirited sons.[153]
The National Council position reflected its
nation-building program that sought to uphold
Canada as a White settler nation. While the
woman suffrage movement was important for
extending the political rights of White women, it
was also authorized through race-based
arguments that linked White women's
enfranchisement to the need to protect the
nation from "racial degeneration."[153]

Women did have a local vote in some provinces,

as in Canada West from 1850, where women
owning land could vote for school trustees. By
1900 other provinces adopted similar
provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead
in extending full woman's suffrage.[1 54]
Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support
to the prohibition movement, especially in
Ontario and the Western provinces.[155][156]

The Military Voters Act of 1917 gave the vote to

British women who were war widows or had
sons or husbands serving overseas. Unionists
Prime Minister Borden pledged himself during
the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for
women. After his landslide victory, he introduced
a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to
women. This passed without division, but did
not apply to Quebec provincial and municipal
elections. The women of Quebec gained full
suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to
Parliament was Agnes Macphail of Ontario in
1921.[157]

Interwar

@ wy v sate ow ’ ‘

@ rmrey vores caret ous league

[ J te ewe tae a ’ of

[ eee ae ai eve! (STs at ae | a2 nd Nations

Anachronous map of the world between 1920

and 1945 which shows The League of Nations
and the world.

On the world stage

As a result of its contribution to Allied victory in

the First World War, Canada became more
assertive and less deferential to British
authority. Convinced that Canada had proven
itself on the battlefields of Europe, Prime
Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it
have a separate seat at the Paris Peace
Conference in 1919. This was initially opposed
not only by Britain but also by the United States,
which saw such a delegation as an extra British
vote. Borden responded by pointing out that
since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far
larger proportion of its men, its right to equal
status as a nation had been consecrated on the
battlefield. British Prime Minister David Lloyd
George eventually relented, and convinced the
reluctant Americans to accept the presence of
delegations from Canada, India, Australia,
Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa.
These also received their own seats in the
League of Nations.[158] Canada asked for
neither reparations nor mandates. It played only
a modest role at Paris, but just having a seat
was a matter of pride. It was cautiously
optimistic about the new League of Nations, in
which it played an active and independent role.
[159]

In 1923 British Prime Minister, David Lloyd

George, appealed repeatedly for Canadian
support in the Chanak crisis, in which a war
threatened between Britain and Turkey. Canada
refused.[160] The Department of External
Affairs, which had been founded in 1909, was
expanded and promoted Canadian autonomy as
Canada reduced its reliance on British diplomats
and used its own foreign service.[161] Thus
began the careers of such important diplomats
as Norman Robertson and Hume Wrong, and
future prime minister Lester Pearson.[162]

In 1931 the British Parliament passed the

Statute of Westminster which gave each
dominion the opportunity for almost complete
legislative independence from London.[163]
While Newfoundland never adopted the statute,
for Canada the Statute of Westminster became
its declaration of independence.[164|

In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised

the Governor General, Lord Byng, to dissolve
Parliament and call another election, but Byng
refused, the only time that the Governor General
has exercised such a power. Instead Byng called
upon Meighen, the Conservative Party leader, to
form a government.[167] Meighen attempted to
do so, but was unable to obtain a majority in the
Commons and he, too, advised dissolution,
which this time was accepted. The episode, the
King-Byng Affair, marks a constitutional crisis
that was resolved by a new tradition of complete
non-interference in Canadian political affairs on
the part of the British government.[168]
h America, New France and colonization 1534-
1763

Replica of Port Royal habitation, located at the

Port-Royal National Historic Site of Canada,
Nova Scotia.[44]

French interest in the New World began with

Francis | of France, who in 1524 sponsored
Giovanni da Verrazzano to navigate the region
between Florida and Newfoundland in hopes of
finding a route to the Pacific Ocean.[45] In 1534,
Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé
Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of
Francis |.[46] Earlier colonization attempts by
Cartier at Charlesbourg-Royal in 1541, at Sable
Island in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-
Mesgouez, and at Tadoussac, Quebec in 1600
by Francois Gravé Du Pont had failed.[47]
Despite these initial failures, French fishing
fleets began to sail to the Atlantic coast and into
the St. Lawrence River, trading and making
alliances with First Nations.[48]

Domestic affairs

In 1921 to 1926, William Lyon Mackenzie King's

Liberal government pursued a conservative
domestic policy with the object of lowering
wartime taxes and, especially, cooling wartime
ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar
labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to
join the government, but did help the Liberals
defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a
delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough
to please the Prairie-based Progressives, but not
too much to alienate his vital support in
industrial Ontario and Quebec, which needed
tariffs to compete with American imports. King
and Conservative leader Arthur Meighen sparred
constantly and bitterly in Commons debates.
[165] The Progressives gradually weakened.
Their effective and passionate leader, Thomas
Crerar, resigned to return to his grain business,
and was replaced by the more placid Robert
Forke. The socialist reformer J.S. Woodsworth
gradually gained influence and power among
the Progressives, and he reached an
accommodation with King on policy matters.

— eed =<
Asrrarion. pe?

QOVESECa |

Champlain's Quebec City habitation c. 1608

In 1608 Champlain founded what is now Quebec

City, one of the earliest permanent settlements,
which would become the capital of New France.
[52] He took personal administration over the
city and its affairs, and sent out expeditions to
explore the interior.[53] Champlain himself
discovered Lake Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he
had travelled by canoe up the Ottawa River
through Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the
centre of Huron country near Lake Simcoe.[54]
During these voyages, Champlain aided the
Wendat (aka 'Hurons’) in their battles against
the Iroquois Confederacy.[55] As a result, the
Iroquois would become enemies of the French
and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as
the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing
of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701.[56]

The English, led by Humphrey Gilbert, had

claimed St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1583 as
the first North American English colony by royal
prerogative of Queen Elizabeth |.[57] In the reign
of King James I, the English established
additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland,
Newfoundland, and soon after established the
first successful permanent settlements of
Virginia to the south.[58] On September 29,
1621, a charter for the foundation of a New
World Scottish colony was granted by King
James to Sir William Alexander.[59] In 1622, the
first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed
and permanent Nova Scotian settlements were
not firmly established until 1629 during the end
of the Anglo-French War.[59] These colonies did
not last long: in 1631, under Charles | of
England, the Treaty of Suza was signed, ending
the war and returning Nova Scotia to the French.
[60] New France was not fully restored to French
rule until the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-
Laye.[61] This led to new French immigrants and
the founding of Trois-Riviéres in 1634.[62]

In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly

was granted to Pierre Du Gua, Sieur de Mons.
[49] The fur trade became one of the main
economic ventures in North America.[50] Du
Gua led his first colonization expedition to an
island located near the mouth of the St. Croix
River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer
named Samuel de Champlain, who promptly
carried out a major exploration of the
northeastern coastline of what is now the United
States.[49] In the spring of 1605, under Samuel
de Champlain, the new St. Croix settlement was
moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal,
Nova Scotia).[51]

The Quebec Settlement : A.—The Warehouse. B.

—Pigeon-loft. C.—Detached Buildings where we
keep our arms and for Lodging our Workmen. D.
—Another Detached Building for the Workmen.
E.—Sun-dial. F.—Another Detached Building
where is the Smithy and where the Workmen are
Lodged. G.—Galleries all around the Lodgings.
H.—The Sieur de Champlain's Lodgings. |.—The
door of the Settlement with a Draw-bridge. L
Promenade around the Settlement ten feet in
width to the edge of the Moat. M.—Moat the
whole way around the Settlement. O.—The Sieur
de Champlain's Garden. P.—The Kitchen. Q.—
Space in front of the Settlement on the Shore of
the River. R.—The great River St. Lawrence.

Although immigration rates to New France

remained very low under direct French control,
[68] most of the new arrivals were farmers, and
the rate of population growth among the settlers
themselves had been very high.[69] The women
had about 30 per cent more children than
comparable women who remained in France.
[70] Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an
exceptional diet for their time."[70] This was due
to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure
water; the good food conservation conditions
during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply
in most years.[70] The 1666 census of New
France was conducted by France's intendant,
Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665-1666. The
census showed a population count of 3,215
Acadians and habitants (French-Canadian
farmers) in the administrative districts of Acadia
and Canada.[71] The census also revealed a
great difference in the number of men at 2,034
versus 1,181 women.[72]

During this period, in contrast to the higher

density and slower moving agricultural
settlement development by the English inward
from the east coast of the colonies, New
France's interior frontier would eventually cover
an immense area with a thin network centred on
fur trade, conversion efforts by missionaries,
establishing and claiming an empire, and
military efforts to protect and further those
efforts.[63] The largest of these canoe networks
covered much of present-day Canada and
central present-day United States.[64]

After Champlain’s death in 1635, the Roman

Catholic Church and the Jesuit establishment
became the most dominant force in New France
and hoped to establish a utopian European and
Aboriginal Christian community.[65] In 1642, the
Sulpicians sponsored a group of settlers led by
Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who founded
Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal.
[66] In 1663 the French crown took direct control
of the colonies from the Company of New
France.[67]
Map of North America in 1702 showing forts,
towns and areas occupied by European
settlements. Britain (pink), France (blue), and
Spain (orange)

By the early 1700s the New France settlers were

well established along the shores of the Saint
Lawrence River and parts of Nova Scotia, with a
population around 16,000.[73] However new
arrivals stopped coming from France in the
proceeding decades,[74][75][76] resulting in the
English and Scottish settlers in Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia, and the southern Thirteen Colonies
to vastly outnumber the French population
approximately ten to one by the 1750s.[68][77]
From 1670, through the Hudson's Bay Company,
the English also laid claim to Hudson Bay and
its drainage basin known as Rupert's Land
establishing new trading posts and forts, while
continuing to operate fishing settlements in
Newfoundland.[78] French expansion along the
Canadian canoe routes challenged the Hudson's
Bay Company claims, and in 1686, Pierre Troyes
led an overland expedition from Montreal to the
shore of the bay, where they managed to
capture a handful of outposts.[79] La Salle's
explorations gave France a claim to the
Mississippi River Valley, where fur trappers and
a few settlers set up scattered forts and
settlements.[80]

There were four French and Indian Wars and two

additional wars in Acadia and Nova Scotia
between the Thirteen American Colonies and
New France from 1688 to 1763. During King
William's War (1688 to 1697), military conflicts
in Acadia included: Battle of Port Royal (1690); a
naval battle in the Bay of Fundy (Action of July
14, 1696); and the Raid on Chignecto (1696) .
[81] The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ended the
war between the two colonial powers of England
and France for a brief time.[82] During Queen
Anne's War (1702 to 1713), the British Conquest
of Acadia occurred in 1710,[83] resulting in Nova
Scotia, other than Cape Breton, being officially
ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht
including Rupert's Land, which France had
conquered in the late 17th century (Battle of
Hudson's Bay).[84] As an immediate result of
this setback, France founded the powerful
Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island.
[85]

Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year-

round military and naval base for France's
remaining North American empire and to protect
the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. Father
Rale's War resulted in both the fall of New
France influence in present-day Maine and the
British recognition of having to negotiate with
the Mi'kmaqg in Nova Scotia. During King
George's War (1744 to 1748), an army of New
Englanders led by William Pepperrell mounted
an expedition of 90 vessels and 4,000 men
against Louisbourg in 1745.[86] Within three
months the fortress surrendered. The return of
Louisbourg to French control by the peace treaty
prompted the British to found Halifax in 1749
under Edward Cornwallis.[87] Despite the official
cessation of war between the British and French
empires with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; the
conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued on
as the Father Le Loutre's War.[88]

The British ordered the Acadians expelled from

their lands in 1755 during the French and Indian
War, an event called the Expulsion of the
Acadians or le Grand Dérangement.[89] The
"expulsion" resulted in approximately 12,000
Acadians being shipped to destinations
throughout Britain's North America and to
France, Quebec and the French Caribbean
colony of Saint-Domingue.[90] The first wave of
the expulsion of the Acadians began with the
Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) and the second
wave began after the final Siege of Louisbourg
(1758). Many of the Acadians settled in
southern Louisiana, creating the Cajun culture
there.[91] Some Acadians managed to hide and
others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but
they were far outnumbered by a new migration
of New England Planters who were settled on
the former lands of the Acadians and
transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of
occupation for the British to a settled colony
with stronger ties to New England.[91] Britain
eventually gained control of Quebec City and
Montreal after the Battle of the Plains of
Abraham and Battle of Fort Niagara in 1759, and
the Battle of the Thousand Islands and Battle of
Sainte-Foy in 1760.[92]