Dhangar community - 2nd Largest after Marathas in Maharastra.

They have been categorised as OBC in the centre list. They are herders and nomadic.

The Indian Forests Act 1967 - Prohibits cattle grazing, and pronounces penalty of Rs.500 in addition
to compensation for damage done to the forest. Fine determined by forest officer.

Rules 13,14 of Maharastra Forest Rules, 2014 - Pasturing of cattle in forest is prohibited except in
areas specially assigned.

The Forest Rights Act, 2006 also known as ST and Other traditional forest dwellers(Recognition of
Forest Rights) Act - Permits traditional activities such as grazing.

Grazing areas are diminished by various factors including the desgination of land as "protected",
developmental activities, climate change.

BioE3 – BioTechnology for Environment, Economy, Employment

Syllabus: GS3/Biotechnology
Context
 The Union Cabinet cleared a proposal to bolster biotechnology-based manufacturing,
called BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) Policy.
About
 High performance biomanufacturing is the ability to produce products from medicine to
materials, address farming and food challenges, and promote manufacturing of bio-based
products through integration of advanced biotechnological processes. Since 1986, India has a
dedicated department of biotechnology.
BioE3 Policy
 To address the national priorities, the BioE3 Policy would broadly focus on the following
strategic/thematic sectors:
o high value bio-based chemicals, biopolymers & enzymes;
o smart proteins & functional foods;
o precision biotherapeutics;
o climate resilient agriculture;
o carbon capture & its utilisation;
o futuristic marine and space research.
 The policy includes innovation-driven support to R&D and entrepreneurship across
thematic sectors.
 Significance:
o The policy will accelerate technology development and commercialization by
establishing Biomanufacturing & Bio-AI hubs and Biofoundry.
o Along with prioritizing regenerative bioeconomy models of green growth, this policy
will facilitate expansion of India’s skilled workforce and provide a surge in job
creation.
o The Policy will further strengthen Government’s initiatives such as ‘Net Zero’
carbon economy & ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ and will steer India on the path of
accelerated ‘Green Growth’ by promoting ‘Circular Bioeconomy’.
o It will foster an advanced future that is more sustainable, innovative, and
responsive to global challenges and lays down the Bio-vision for Viksit Bharat.
Need for the Policy
 The biotechnology sector, mainly due to its multidisciplinary approach, holds the potential to
provide an array of solutions for challenges in various sectors such as health, agriculture,
environment, energy, and industrial processes.
 The present era is an opportune time to invest in the industrialization of biology to
promote sustainable and circular practices to address some of the critical societal issues:
 o such as climate change mitigation, food security and human health.
 India is home to young minds and has the potential to build a pool of affordable high-
quality skilled workforce.
 Global biotechnology industry is growing at the rate of 7.4 percent and there is huge
demand within each segment of the industry that Indians can cater to.
 With an established IT system and infrastructure, growth in Bio-IT, an untapped segment,
could propel the growth.
 Biofuels could be of strategic importance given the increasing global energy needs.
 New diseases & lifestyle changes will boost demand for drugs and devices.
o Patient pool is expected to increase over 20% in the next 10 years, mainly due to
the rise in population.
India’s Bio-Economy
 India is among the Top 12 destinations for biotechnology worldwide and 3rd largest
destination for biotechnology in Asia Pacific.
 India’s BioEconomy has crossed an estimated $130 Bn in the year 2024 with projections to
reach $300 billion by 2030.
 India’s Biotechnology sector is categorised into Biopharmaceuticals, Bio agriculture, Bio
IT and Bio Services.
o Biopharmaceuticals: India is one of the biggest suppliers of low-cost drugs and
vaccines in the world. India also leads in biosimilars, with the greatest number of
biosimilars approved in the domestic market.
o Bio Agriculture: With nearly 55% of Indian terrain under agriculture and allied
activities, India is one of largest producers of Bt-Cotton and has the 5th Largest Area
of Organic Agriculture Land globally.
 BioAgri, consisting of Bt Cotton, pesticides, marine biotech, and animal
biotech has the potential to nearly double its BioEconomy contribution from
$10.5 Bn to $20 Bn in 2025.
o Bioindustrial: The application of biotechnology to industrial processes is
transforming manufacturing and waste disposal across the country.
o Bio IT & Services: India offers a strong capability in contract manufacturing,
research and clinical trials, and is home to the most US FDA approved plants globally
outside of the US.
Challenges
 The educational curriculum does not prepare the students for the industry’s demands.
 Need for state-of-the-art research facilities across the country to boost R&D.
 Lack of venture capital funding due to information asymmetry regarding the biotech
industry.
 Low percentage of clinical trials conducted in India when compared to the rest of the world
is a concern.
 Lack of Investment in Research: Israel invests as much as 4.2 percent of its GDP in
research, being the second largest spender after South Korea (4.3 percent).
o By comparison, India’s spending on research is less than 1 percent of its GDP.
 Lack of Private Funding: The Indian government undertakes more than 60% of the total
research and development expenditure.
o This is in stark contrast with countries like Israel, US, China, Japan, Republic of
Korea and Australia where more than 70 % of the spending is undertaken by the
private sector on an average.
Government Initiatives
 There are 9 DBT-supported biotech parks and 60 BIRAC-supported bio-incubators in the
country.
 In the Interim Budget 2024-25, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) was allotted Rs.
2,251.52 crore (US$ 271 million).
 National Biopharma Mission is supporting 101 projects including more than 150
organizations and 30 MSMEs.
  The National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2020-25 provides the government with
a platform to strengthen skill development, resource and innovation converging into one
strong ecosystem for knowledge sharing.
Way Ahead
 With a total population of 1.4 billion, 47% being under the age of 25, India has a large pool
of young and skilled workforce.
 India has a large reservoir of scientific human resources including scientists and engineers.
 An increase in the number of biotech incubators will boost research and promote the
growth of start-ups, which is critical for the success of the Indian biotech industry.
 It is important to build a resilient biomanufacturing ecosystem in the country to
accelerate cutting-edge innovations for developing bio-based products.
Source: TH

Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction

Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction agreement - is also called as High Seas Treaty

This agreement adopted in March 2023 under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS)

It is designed to protect the rich marine diversity beyond national jurisdiction.

Way Forward:
Formulation of the national level proactive legislation is the key to implemented BBNJ

India hasn't signed yet.

District Agro meteorological Units:

IMD established 199 DAMU units in collaboration with ICAR.

Importance of DAMU:
80% of farmers in India are Small and Marginal. They practice rain fed agriculture in the decades long
farm crisis and is overlaid with climate change.

DAMU used weather data provided by IMD like rainfall, temperature, wind speed to prepare
advisories related to sowing, harvesting, usage of fertilizers and pesticides, irrigation, etc.

These advisories sent to millions of farmers across the country free-of-cost in local languages twice a
week through WhatsApp, newspapers, etc.

Since advisories provided weather information in advance, those helped farmers plan activities like
irrigation.

Acc.to NITI Aayog - misrepresented the role of DAMU staff and also claimed that agro-met data was
automated therby cutting role of DAMU staff.

Way Forward:
The GKMS scheme should be strengthened to capture the needs of the farmers across the country.
(CA: India Meteorological Department (IMD) is planning to revive District Agro-Meteorology Units
(DAMUs) under the Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) scheme)

There are a handful of private players in the weather advisory space. But the serious concerns about
the affordability of such services.

Private players recommendations of fertilizers and pesticides could be biased towards certain brands.
Delhi Air pollution:

Bio-decomposer is a microbial liquid spray which, when sprayed onto paddy stubble, breaks it down
in a way that can be easily absorbed into the soil, whereby farmers then have no need to burn the
stubble. It has been developed by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI).
“A problem faced by the farmers is that the time gap between harvesting of paddy crops and sowing
of wheat is short. Therefore, the government has started preparations to spray the bio-decomposer in
time so that the farmers can get better results.

Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique aimed at enhancing precipitation. It involves

dispersing substances into the air to saturate clouds, leading to increased rainfall. The process begins
with the identification of suitable clouds through weather analysis using aircraft or ground-based
generators.

Seeding agents, such as salts like silver iodide, potassium iodide, sodium chloride, or dry ice (solid
carbon dioxide), are then released into the targeted clouds. These seeding particles facilitate the
formation of larger water droplets, thereby augmenting rainfall.
Different methods like the dispersion of salt or directing infrared into the clouds can encourage
rainfall.

Cloud seeding can help provide relief to drought-stricken areas, support agriculture, facilitate power
generation through hydroelectricity generation, tackle air pollution, and more. Countries including
Thailand, China, Israel, and even India have cloud seeding projects.
Side-effects of cloud seeding
Cloud seeding comes with many challenges and potential side-effects. Chemicals used in cloud
seeding may harm plants, animals, people, and the environment. Rainfall following cloud seeding
may contain residual seeding agents considered toxic, such as silver iodide.

Mission Mausum

To upgrade the instruments used by IMD, Indian Institute of Tropical for Meteorology, National
centre for medium range weather forecasting.

Andaman & Nicobar Islands - Port Blair renamed to Port Vijaya Puram
This island territory served as a naval base for chola empire.

Major Environment problems

Global warming, biodiversity loss, desertification, and plastic pollution — these urgent environmental
challenges.

GOBARdhan plant – Indore – India’s largest municipal solid waste facility

In the heart of Indore, a city renowned for its cleanliness, a quiet revolution is brewing. The Indore
Municipal Corporation (IMC) has achieved something remarkable: a plant that takes the waste
produced by thousands of households and transforms it into clean, green energy. The GOBARdhan
plant, inaugurated by Prime Minister in 2022, is Asia’s largest municipal solid waste-based facility,
producing an impressive 17,000 kilograms of Bio-CNG
every day.
Environmental Impact Assessment
It explores the conflict between economic advancement and ecological conservation.

This issue is particularly relevant in developing nations such as India which has ambitions of raising
its quality of life while simultaneously contending with challenges related to environmental
degradation and climate change.

EIA is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential environmental effects – both positive and
negative – of a proposed project or development before it is approved.

The primary objectives of EIA include the

o prediction and evaluation of the environmental, economic and social impacts of
development projects.
o It facilitates informed decision-making by providing in-depth analysis of a proposed
project and promotes sustainable development by identifying potential negative
effects early in the planning stage,
o while also suggesting appropriate alternatives and mitigating mechanisms.

Evolution of EIA in India

The EIA was first established in the US in 1969.
In the case of India, a beginning in this direction was made with the impact assessment of river valley
projects in 1978-79. The EIA in India initially focused on large-scale infrastructure projects such as
dams and power plants, and later expanded to a wider range of projects, including industrial facilities,
mining operations and urban development initiatives.

Subsequently, the EIA was made mandatory under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, for large
projects. Under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, India notified its first EIA norms in 1994,
setting in place a legal framework for regulating activities that access, utilise, and affect (pollute)
natural resources. Every development project has been required to go through the EIA process for
obtaining prior environmental clearance ever since.

The 1994 EIA notification was replaced with a modified draft in 2006.

Processes involved in EIA

The EIA Notification of 2006 classifies projects into two main categories: Category ‘A’ and Category
‘B’ based on their potential environmental impacts. Category ‘A’ projects require prior environmental
clearance from the Central Government on the recommendations of an Expert Appraisal
Committee (EAC).
Category ‘B’ projects also require prior environmental clearance from the State/Union territory
Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA). The SEIAA shall base its decision on the
recommendations of a State or Union territory level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
Moreover, Category ‘B’ projects are subdivided into two types: Category B1 and Category B2.

The projects requiring an Environmental Impact Assessment report fall within Category ‘B1’.
Remaining projects fall within Category ‘B2’ and don’t require an Environment Impact Assessment
report. Thus, Category ‘A’ and Category B1 projects undergo the complete EIA process and Category
B2 projects are exempt from Assessment.

Steps involved in EIA

Screening: Determines whether a project requires an EIA based on size, nature, and potential impacts.
Projects with significant impacts are subject to a full EIA, while those with minimal impacts may
undergo a Rapid Environmental Assessment (REA).
Scoping: The possible environmental impacts of the project are identified, viable alternatives to the
project and mitigation measures are analysed.
Public consultation: A key stage in the EIA process that provides space for affected local
communities and other stakeholders to express their concerns regarding the project.
Decision making: Based on a thorough review of the EIA report, the concerned authorities determine
whether a project is approved, rejected or approved with conditions.

Supreme Court’s observations

The EIA is increasingly relevant to developing nations in the context of climate change as it provides
a system of checks and balances to protect against the indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources
in pursuit of economic prosperity.
The Supreme Court of India has made several observations highlighting the importance of the EIA
process. In the TN Godavarman Thirumulpad v Union of India case of 1997, the apex court
recognised the right to a clean environment by stressing the importance of EIA and Environmental
Clearance (EC) before the commencement of projects, particularly in forest areas.

In the MC Mehta v Union of India case of 1996, popularly known as the Ganga Pollution Case, the
Supreme Court highlighted the necessity of EIA in projects affecting water bodies to prevent pollution
and protect rivers from industrial and urban pollution, underlining the idea that citizens have a right to
clean environment.
In addition, in the Centre for Environmental Law v Union of India case of 2018, the Supreme Court
repeated the importance of following EIA procedures in development projects and went on to
underscore the importance of stakeholder inputs via public consultations in the EIA process.

In 2020, the government redrafted it again to incorporate the amendments and relevant court orders
issued since 2006, and to make the EIA “process more transparent and expedient.”

Government’s initiatives
The government of India has launched initiatives to strengthen environmental governance and
sustainable development.
ENVIS (Environmental Information System) and PARIVESH (Pro-Active and Responsive
facilitation by Interactive, Virtuous, and Environmental Single Window Hub) are such
initiatives. They provide a platform for efficient environmental clearance processes and
ensure access to accurate environmental information.

ENVIS was established in 1982 to collect, collate, store, retrieve, and disseminate
information related to the environmental sector. It is a web-based distributed network of
subject-specific environmental databases which aid decision-making in environmental issues.
It provides valuable information to researchers, policymakers, and the public.

PARIVESH is a comprehensive single-window solution for the administration of all green

clearances and monitoring their subsequent compliance across the nation. It aims to use the
digital medium and the internet to reduce delays, enhance transparency, and improve
efficiency in the environmental clearance process.
Draft Environment Impact Assessment Notification 2020
The Draft EIA Notification 2020 which seeks to replace the EIA Notification 2006 with the declared
goal of modernising and streamlining the EIA process courted controversy for its potential to weaken
environmental safeguards and reduce public participation.
One of the most contentious changes in the draft is the reduction of the notice period for public
hearings from 30 to 20 days. While the Ministry for Environment, Forests and Climate Change
justifies this reduction based on advancements in technology and the reduction of red-tapism, it raises
concerns about adequate public consultation and awareness.
Moreover, the draft proposes to exempt a wide range of projects from public scrutiny, including those
in the oil and gas, hydropower, irrigation, and manufacturing sectors, by adding them to the B2
category. This could have severe ecological impacts as all these projects have the potential to cause
significant environmental damage.
The proposed post-facto clearance provision, which allows projects to be regularised after they have
been established without EC, is also a bone of contention, particularly in the context of the Alembic
Pharmaceuticals v Rohit Prajapati judgement of 2020, wherein the Supreme Court stated that ex post
facto clearances are unsustainable in law and any attempt to grant ex post facto clearance would be
void.
Furthermore, the draft excludes public reporting of violations and non-compliance. This places greater
reliance on government authorities to identify and address environmental infractions, potentially
compromising transparency and accountability.
Thus, there are concerns that Draft EIA Notification 2020 weakens environmental protections,
reduces public participation, and undermines India’s commitment to international environmental
agreements as it does not align with UNFCCC norms on EIA.
On the other hand, the notification also has several positive sides to it.
It provides for streamlining of the EIA process, which can remove delays and administrative burdens
for projects.
The fact that it seeks to align EIA with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its provisions to
facilitate quicker ECs for low-risks projects, particularly for small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
and infrastructure projects might aid India’s journey toward the ‘Viksit Bharat’ goal.
The provisions to increase transparency through the use of digital platforms could lead to better
awareness and public scrutiny. The provisions for post-clearance monitoring and compliance can also
help prevent flouting of norms once ECs are obtained. The Draft contains some flexibility in EIA
requirements according to the specific needs of different project types and regions, making the
process of getting clearance more efficient.
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Way forward
India seeks to achieve two significant goals in the 21st century. First, the goal of attaining developed
status by 2047, and second, to be a key player in the global battle against climate change by achieving
various goals and commitments declared in various international agreements.
An efficient and effective EIA process will be an important prerequisite for India to attain both goals
simultaneously.
For this, it is imperative to have an EIA system that strikes the perfect balance between India’s
economic and ecological goals without compromising one in favour of the other. The changes to the
existing EIA process must take place based on this foundational principle.
There’s reported an average delay of 238 days in granting ECs. It needs to be addressed through the
revision of bureaucratic and legal requirements to have an efficient, streamlined and transparent
process for giving quick clearances to projects that have minimal environmental impacts.

The public engagement component of EIA needs to be strengthened further through longer public
consultation periods and providing information in regional languages, ensuring that affected
communities have opportunities to have their concerns heard and participate in decision-making.

The introduction of public hearings on projects might help strengthen public participation in the EIA
process. The idea of an independent EIA authority that does not fall under the aegis of MoEF&CC
and can make decisions that are binding has been mooted by various environmental groups. The
enactment of a standalone EIA law is also part of the public discourse. These ideas may be explored
further.
Both the slogans of ‘Grow now, Sustain later’ and ‘Sustain now, Grow later’ are unsuitable for
contemporary India. India needs a solution where it can sustain and grow simultaneously.

Drawbacks of the EIA

 Applicability: Certain projects with significant environmental impacts are exempted due to
category classification or investment thresholds provided in the notification.
 Lack of expertise: EIA teams may lack diverse expertise from environmental science,
wildlife, and social sciences, leading to incomplete assessments.
  Ineffective public hearings: Public comments are not considered at the early stage, which
often leads to conflict at the later stage of project clearance.
 Weak compliance monitoring
 Biased EIA reports
 Data and information gaps
Case Study: Char Dham Project
 Chardham Mahamarg Vikas Pariyojna seeks to improve connectivity between four
pilgrimage sites – Kedarnath, Badrinath, Yamunotri, and Gangotri – in Uttarakhand.
 The project was started in 2016 and is now nearing completion.
 It focuses on the widening of the existing roads in the region.
 The entire length of the highways will be two-laned with paved shoulder.
 It is implemented by three executing agencies of the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways:
1. Uttarakhand State Public Works Department
2. Border Road Organization (BRO)
3. National Highway and Infrastructure Development Corporation
Limited (NHIDCL)
How the Char Dhan Project Escaped EIA?
 The Char Dham project was broken down into “53 civil works” to
avail the exemption from environmental clearance provided to all linear projects under 100
km since 2013.

Red tapism
is a term used to describe the practice of having excessive rules and procedures that are considered
unnecessary and bureaucratic

International Big Cat Alliance(IBCA)

The Union Cabinet approved the proposal of India to become a member country of the International
Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) by signing and ratification of the Framework Agreement on the
establishment of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA).

On the occasion of Commemorating 50 years of India's Project Tiger on April 9, 2023 the Prime
Minister launched an International Big Cat Alliance aiming at securing the future of big cats and
landscapes they thrive. Seven big cats include Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Puma, Jaguar and
the Cheetah. Out of these five big cats viz. Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard and Cheetah are
found in India.

The Union Cabinet in its meeting held on 29.02.2024 approved the establishment of International Big
Cat Alliance with Headquarters in India with a one-time budgetary support of Rs. 150 crores for a
period of five years from 2023-24 to 2027-28.

The International Big Cat Alliance aims to be multi-country, multi-agency coalition of 95 big cat
range countries, non-range countries interested in big cat conservation, conservation partners and
scientific organizations working in the field of big cat conservation.

All UN member countries are eligible for becoming the member of IBCA. Twenty-four (24) countries
(including India) have consented to be members of IBCA. Nine International Organizations have also
consented to be partner organization of IBCA. Framework Agreement has been approved by the
Cabinet recently and India became a member of IBCA. So far 4 countries have become member of
IBCA including India, Nicaragua, Eswatini and Somalia.

The Framework Agreement is intent to establish IBCA to collectively address common challenges for
the protection and conservation of seven Big Cats in the world. The parties to this agreement shall be
guided by the principles of coordinated action for protection and conservation of seven big cats,
seeking the benefits of collective action under the IBCA.

The Alliance focuses on sustainable use of natural resources and mitigates challenges emanating from
climate change. By safeguarding big cats and their habitats, the IBCA contributes to natural climate
adaptation, water and food security and well-being of thousands of communities reliant on these
ecosystems. IBCA would instil cooperation among countries for mutual benefit and immensely
contribute in furthering long-term conservation agenda.

India becoming a founder member of International Big Cat Alliance is a great moment that
demonstrates country’s leadership in conservation and sustenance of Big Cats. It will definitely help
in mutual benefit and understanding in the areas of Big Cats conservation across the globe.

Rhinos
Rhinos face various environmental threats like habitat loss due to development and climate change.
But poaching, based on the belief that their horns have medicinal uses, remains the top threat.

Way forward:
A campaign that will end the demand for rhino horn and adopt new technologies to track and monitor
rhinos for their protection while also educating communities on the benefits of rhinos to the
ecosystem and the economy.
Known as mega herbivores that mow the parks and create inroads for other herbivores, rhinos are also
good for establishing forests by ingesting seeds and spreading them across the parks in their dung.

Facts:
World Rhino Day on September 22.
The northern white rhino is technically extinct with only two females being kept in a secure private
conservancy in Kenya.
International Rhino Foundation Report – white rhinos count increased, black and one horn rhinos
count same.
A total of 586 rhinos were killed in Africa in 2023, most of them in South Africa, which has the
highest population of rhinos at an estimated 16,056.

sponge cities” is used to describe urban areas with abundant natural areas such as trees, lakes and
parks or other good design intended to absorb rain and prevent flooding. Equal benefit of sponge
cities is that they can hold more water in rivers, greenery and soil instead of losing it to evaporation,
meaning they are more resilient to drought.

Interest in harnessing nature – or using “nature-based solutions” – to tackle climate shocks.

Cities as diverse as Shanghai, New York and Cardiff are embracing their “sponginess” through inner-
city gardens, improved river drainage and plant-edged sidewalks.
Corals:
The dead coral system protects seaweed from herbivores, enabling it to colonise the reef and outgrow
young coral. As the macroalgae compete for space, light and resource it hinders the growth of young
corals
Corals often described as an “architect” of the seas, corals can join together to form vast reefs where
fish and other species live. Coral reefs also underpin the livelihoods of one billion people including by
supporting tourism or fishing, according to the World Economic Forum.
The largest coral ever recorded has been found by scientists in the southwest Pacific Ocean, Solomon
Islands. The mega coral - which is a collection of many connected, tiny creatures that together form
one organism rather than a reef - could be more than 300 years old.
specimen was found in deeper waters than some coral reefs, which may have protected it from higher
temperatures at the sea surface.
The EUDR (European Deforestation Rule) was adopted on May 16, 2023, and seeks to prevent the
import of specified goods contributing to deforestation and forest degradation on the EU market. The
products covered include coffee, leather, oil cake, wood furniture, paper, and paperboard.
The deadline was set for Dec 30,2025 for large companies
For small companies – 30 June 2026
Major agriculture-exporting countries, including Brazil, India, Indonesia and the U.S., raised
objections to the EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR).
Swachh Bharat Mission
The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) or Clean India Mission is a country-wide campaign launched by
the Central government on October 2, 2014 to eliminate open defecation and to create Open
Defecation Free (ODF) villages in coinciding with 150th anniversary of Gandhi.
The mission has two components - rural (SBM-Gramin, overseen by the Ministry of Jal Shakti) and
urban (SBM-Urban, overseen by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs [MoHUA]).
In 2021, the Government launched its second edition — the five-year Swachh Bharat (Clean India)
Mission-Urban 2.0 (SBM-U 2.0), committing to making all cities “garbage-free cities” by 2026, while
maintaining ODF status across 4,372 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
It has a vision of 100% source segregation, door to door collection and scientific management of all
fractions of waste, including safe disposal in scientific landfills. The SBM 2.0 aims to remediate all
legacy dumpsites and convert them into green zones.
The mission has also made provisions for scientific landfills to dispose of untreated inert waste and
process rejects, in order to prevent fresh dumpsites being created.
Legacy waste dumpsites are dumpsites that contain solid waste that have been collected and stored for
years in an unscientific and uncontrolled manner. Municipal solid waste generation in India is
estimated to be around 1,50,000 tonnes per day, according to the State of India’s Environment 2023
report.
India has more than 3,000 legacy waste dumpsites, with 2,424 of them having a waste load of more
than 1,000 tonnes.
Health and Environmental Hazards
Legacy waste dumpsites can pose a number of health hazards for citizens.
Exposure to emissions from hazardous waste can irritate the mouth and throat. Inhaling methane from
landfills can cause nausea, vomiting, and loss of coordination. Ragpickers who work at landfills can
develop skin allergies from years of exposure to waste. People who live near landfills may be prone to
developing tuberculosis, asthma, diabetes, depression, cholera, malaria, and other diseases. They are
also a source of greenhouse gas emissions, such as methane and carbon dioxide.
Among States, Tamil Nadu has the maximum area reclaimed from dumpsites at 837 acres (42%).
Gujarat is the best performing State with 75% area (698 out of 938 acres) of landfills reclaimed.
Slag is a major component of artificial ground. It is a composite material containing metal oxides and
silicon dioxide and is a by-product of the steelmaking process in the iron and steel industries.
slag hardening, or lithification - The lithification process hardens industrial waste, including slag, into
sedimentary rocks, creating artificial ground.
When these sedimentary rocks weather over time, they release sediments into the environment.
Because the rocks are infused with industrial waste, their sediments often contain toxic metals that
contaminate soil, water, and air.
Sedimentary rocks with slag are relatively more abundant in the U.K. due to historical industrial
activities. Slag is chemically stable and has the ability to neutralise acidity. When lithified slag breaks
down, it stores greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide through a process called mineral carbonation.
This process mimics natural weathering.
Understanding how slag undergoes lithification is crucial to understanding how the deposits will
behave over time, so that we may eventually also maximise its carbon capture potential. This
opportunity gains significance in light of projections suggesting a 10.5% rise worldwide in slag
production by 2031. While the steelmaking industry is under pressure to lower its emissions —
including with processes that mitigate slag production — reusing slag to sequester carbon could
reduce the industry’s carbon footprint.
In the intertidal zone, which is the part of the shoreline exposed to air at low tide and is submerged at
high tide, the calcium-silicate-hydrate (CSH) cement precipitation process dominated. Here, saltwater
prevents slag minerals from dissolving; instead, they form CSH minerals that exhibit varying texture
and elemental distributions.
The researchers also said the precipitation of CSH minerals in the slag could limit the release of
potentially toxic metals, such as vanadium and chromium, into the environment.
Slag -> hardens -> breaks -> stores co2

Bioluminescence is the ability of certain organisms, including jellyfish and fire flies, to produce light.
marine organisms use this ability for various purposes, including defence against predators, attracting
prey, facilitating communication, and attracting mates. Common bioluminescent species include
dinoflagellates, copepods, jellyfish, and squids.
most instances of bioluminescence are by and large harmless.

Geoengineering refers to any large-scale attempt to alter the Earth’s natural climate system to counter
the adverse impacts of global warming.
Solar Radiation Management (SRM), in which materials are proposed to be deployed in Space to
reflect incoming solar rays and prevent them from reaching Earth, is one of the two broad
geoengineering options being explored.
It draws inspiration from the natural process of volcanic eruptions, in which large amounts of
sulphur dioxide are released. These combine with water vapour to form sulphate particles that
reflect sunlight into space, reducing the amount reaching Earth.
The Mount Pinatubo eruptions in the Philippines in 1991, one of the largest in the 20th
century, are believed to have reduced the Earth’s temperature by 0.5 degrees Celsius that year.
Scientists are trying to artificially emulate the process and have explored the capabilities of
several materials, including sulphur dioxide, calcium carbonate, and sodium chloride or
common salt.

Several other compounds, such as sulphur, calcium, aluminium, and silicon, have been suggested
previously for doing the same job. Geophysical Research Letters found that diamonds would be more
effective in doing the job than any other material.

Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) technologies, which include Carbon Capture and Sequestration
(CCS). While they offer quick-fix solutions for reducing emissions or temperatures, they are not
particularly viable.
 Only method being tried out in practice is CCS. Carbon dioxide emitted, from industry or
power plants, is “captured” at source and deposited deep below the Earth’s surface in suitable
geological formations for long-term storage. Since carbon dioxide is not released into the
atmosphere, overall emissions are reduced.
 Another option involves the captured carbon being used as an input for other industrial
processes (known as Carbon Capture and Utilisation or CCU).
 In Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS), some carbon dioxide is utilised, and the
rest is stored underground.
 Under Direct Air Capture (DAC) methods, carbon dioxide is sucked out through large
“artificial trees” from ambient air and directed towards storage sites or utilisation.

Since these methods can potentially eliminate carbon dioxide accumulated over the years, the
benefits are larger compared to CCS. But the challenges are bigger too.
Caveats: affect global and regional weather patterns and rainfall distribution. Altering natural sunlight
can affect agriculture, vegetation, and biodiversity, and might be detrimental to some life forms.

UN Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)

COP-15 - Montreal -
Agreed on creation of a multilateral mechanism for sharing the benefits of digitally sequenced
genetic information (DSI) taken from plants and animals with the communities they come from. This
data used in medicines and cosmetics that can make their developer billions.
COP16
 Held in Cali (Columbia)
 Agreed to creation of "Cali fund" for the equitable sharing of DSI benefits
  It determines that users who commercially benefit from DSI should contribute a proportion of
their profits or revenue to the global fund.
Union Environment Ministry has exempted 39 categories of industries from the mandatory
requirement of approaching State pollution control Boards for permission to run their industries.
These include manufacturing units of solar cells and modules, wind and hydel power units; fly ash
bricks or block manufacturing; and leather cutting and stitching; and those assembling, repairing and
servicing air-coolers and air-conditioners.
non-polluting white category industries will not be required to take CTE (Consent to Establish) or
Consent to Operate (CTO) at all. The industries which have taken EC will not be required to take
CTE. This will not only reduce compliance burden but also prevent duplication of approvals,”
The easing of this norms also flows from amendments to the Water Act.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, was the first piece of legislation in
Independent India that identified the need to have an institutional structure to address contamination
of waterbodies.
This led to the creation, in September 1974, of the Central Pollution Control Board and State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) that were charged with monitoring and preventing public water
resources from getting contaminated by sewage and industrial effluents. Some of the amendments
give the Centre greater authority to override the SPCBs in some instances. As per the original Act, the
SPCB’s permission is needed for establishing any industry or treatment plant which could discharge
sewage into a waterbody, sewer, or land.
CPCB’s white category, introduced in 2016, includes industries such as the assembly of air coolers,
air conditioners, bicycles, baby carriages, hydraulic baling of waste paper, tea blending and packing,
chalk making from plaster of Paris, cotton and woollen hosiery making, diesel pump repairing and
servicing, fountain pen manufacturing, and the production of coir items, metal caps, containers, shoe
brushes, wire brushes, among others. Central Government has issued a notification exempting several
white category industries from the mandatory requirement of obtaining environmental clearances
related to air and water pollution from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
White category industries are defined as those with minimal pollution potential. The CPCB
introduced this classification in 2016 to reclassify industries based on their pollution levels.
Previously, industries had to file separate applications under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, with the respective
state pollution control boards to obtain permission. The Government has termed the move as a
significant step towards easing the regulatory burden on businesses and reducing compliance
requirements on potential.

Carbon offsets (23-11)

Carbon offsets refer to a practice where companies that emit greenhouse gasses buy carbon credits
from projects that either capture carbon, such as reforestation or reduce emissions, like renewable
energy projects.
Almost all big oil companies, such as reforestation or reduce emissions, like renewable energy
projects. Almost all big oil companies, such as Shell, Total, and Exxon, are advocating for or
practising different models of carbon offsets that allow them to continue producing more oil and fossil
gas.
In theory, this might sound like an efficient strategy to protect the planet; but in practice
they become a financial manoeuvre that allows these companies to continue their polluting practices
while commodifying nature, in pursuit of supposed carbon neutrality.
Oxfam report found that the net zero plans of just four major oil companies – Shell, BP, Total, and Eni
– would require an area twice the size of the UK for their offsetting plans. It is reckless to allow the
natural ecosystems and areas that we need...

Issues:
Offsets are just a shady accounting trick; they can’t be a solution to fight climate change. Instead, they
delay the real solution – cutting greenhouse gas emissions at their source, as quickly as possible.

Market-oriented solutions like carbon offsetting also further historical climate colonialism where
emissions made in the Global North are often offset in the Global South. Poorer countries are forced
to provide the land and resources for carbon offset projects; they end up paying the price through
biodiversity loss, loss of indigenous lands, and ecosystem degradation.
The Global Atlas of Environmental Justice shows that land conflicts arising from REDD+ (reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries) and CDM (clean
development mechanism) projects are largely concentrated in projects are largely concentrated in the
developing world.
Lack of transparency. According to CarbonBrief, the data released by carbon market registries
today have missing values, inconsistencies, and issues with identifying companies directly responsible
for a project.

In addition to the environmental injustices, carbon offset projects threaten food security and economic
stability. According to estimates, if trees are planted to offset fossil fuel pollution, food prices could
rise by 80% by 2050.

Way Forward
This solution that emerged in the 1990s when solutions like renewable energy and electrified transport
were not widely viable.
Today, we have cheaper and more affordable renewable energy options, such as solar and wind power.
Carbon offsets must not justify continued fossil fuel burning.
Leading climate scientists have made it clear: the solution to the climate crisis lies in the immediate
phasing out of fossil fuel combustion. Market-driven solutions like carbon offsets cannot become an
excuse to delay the urgent transition away from polluting industries.

Read more at: https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/why-carbon-offsets-can-t-check-climate-

change-3286610
Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS)
Carbon credits are generated by activities that reduce or avoid planet-heating greenhouse gas
emissions, like planting trees, protecting existing carbon sinks or replacing polluting coal
with clean energy alternatives.

CCTS notified in 2023 under Energy Conservation Act, 2021 which outlined the broad institutional
framework for carbon trading. The CCTS was amended in December 2023, allowing the
establishment of a voluntary carbon market.
the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) issued detailed procedures for implementing the CCTS and
accredited verification agencies.
purchasing RECs(Renewable Energy Certificate) will no longer count as reducing Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) emissions. There are concerns that this might de-incentivise the purchase of RECs.

Way forward
to establish industry-specific baselines and emission reduction trajectories.
For the carbon market to succeed, it is vital to have a strong monitoring and verification framework
and ensure that all participants are accountable for meeting their carbon reduction targets.
Leveraging digital technologies, such as blockchain etc., could enhance transparency and traceability
within the carbon market, making it more difficult for participants to manipulate data or evade.

Global Warming
Methane
atmosphere has roughly 2.5 times the amount of methane than there was during
pre-industrial times and emissions have been rising in recent years. Methane
emissions from human activities is responsible for roughly one-third of the
warming.
Only over 1 per cent of governments and companies have responded to methane alter leaks from
around the world, according to a United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report launched at
the 29th Conference of Parties (COP29) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) launched by UNEP at COP27 in Egypt to provide
satellite-driven notifications on very large methane emissions.
Minamata convention  Protection against Mercury’s adverse effects. Adopted in 2013. In force
since 2019.
Global Methane Pledge (India is not a signatory) to reduce global methane emissions by 30% by
2030, addressing methane from agriculture, waste, and fossil fuels.
Global Treaties
Global negotiations are not useless. On the contrary, they are extremely important, even if the
victories are few and far between.
For instance,
 the Montreal Protocol, which came into force in 1989, has successfully helped protect the ozone
layer and eliminate certain chemicals used in refrigeration (chlorofluorocarbons), a significant
contributor to the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Similarly, the Kyoto Protocol, the first global accord on reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
which came into force in 2005;
 the 2015 Paris Agreement, a consensus on limiting global warming to below 2°C with revised
national targets every five years; and the
 2021 Glasgow Climate Pact, which introduced a loss and damage fund and in which nations
declared their respective net-zero dates, are some COPs to celebrate.

India’s efforts:
For instance, the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana provides households with subsidies to
install rooftop solar panels, thereby also addressing energy poverty and access.
The PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) initiative aims
to promote the adoption of zero-emission vehicles, including two-wheelers, three-wheelers,
ambulances, and trucks, offering purchase subsidies and supporting essential charging infrastructure
to accelerate the transition to clean air and clean transportation.
The Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme, soon to be replaced by the Indian Carbon Market,
helps mobilise investments needed to improve energy efficiency and emissions reduction in
industries.

UNFCC(United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change)
COP21:
 The agreement was adopted by 196 parties at the UN Climate Change
Conference (COP21) in Paris, France on December 12, 2015.
 The agreement's main goal is to limit the global temperature rise to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and ideally to 1.5°C.
 195 parties have joined the agreement, including 194 states and the
European Union.
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is a key part of the agreement that focuses
on developing carbon markets and helping countries reduce their carbon
emissions:
 Article spell out how countries can bilaterally trade carbon among
themselves (Art 6.2) and participate in a global carbon market (6.4).
 NDCs are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and embody efforts by each
country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate
change.

COP26, Nov 2021:

More than 150 countries, accounting for a little over 50 per cent of global
anthropogenic methane emissions, have signed up to the Global Methane
Pledge to catalyse action to reduce methane emissions by 30 per cent by 2030.
This goal has the potential to reduce warming by at least 0.2°C by 2050.

COP27:
Cop29:
COP-29 in Baku, India has expressed frustration with developed countries for not seriously discussing
supporting climate action in developing nations.
India said developed countries, which had historically contributed the most to greenhouse gas
emissions and had more resources and ability to act on climate change, had repeatedly delayed
climate action and continuously shifted goalposts.
If there were no means of implementation — financial support, technology, and capacity-building
— developing and low-income economies could not cut greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to its
effects.
MWP (Mitigation work Programme) was created two years ago at COP-27 in Sharm el-Sheikh,
Egypt, to help support mitigation. developing countries saying that it is meant to help nations
share ideas, experiences, and solutions. They argue that it is not supposed to create new targets or
force any country to take specific actions. On the other hand, developed countries want the MWP to
push for stronger, more immediate action from all countries.
The NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal) refers to money that will be given by developed
countries to developing nations to help them transition away from fossil fuels and curb greenhouse
gas emissions. Developing nations say this would cost “trillions of dollars”. To this end, developed
countries say they have transferred $115 billion in 2021-22 — though developing nations say the
target has not been met.
Developing countries specified ed that this money had to be provided not only to help countries meet
their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) but also buffer against existing threats of climate
change, and make good for climate damage already wrought.
The NCQG, the developing countries say, should also reflect contributions by developed countries on
the basis of their historical contribution to existing carbon concentrations in the atmosphere as well
as their per capita GDP.
Proposals
China had petitioned the Presidency of COP29 to discuss “climate-change related unilateral restrictive
trade measures” at the conference. The petition is primarily directed at a European Union proposal
called the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism. Refer. CBAM
agreement on carbon markets to be supervised by the UN. Such a market would allow countries to
trade carbon credits — certified reductions of carbon emissions — among themselves and whose
prices are determined as a consequence of emission caps imposed by countries
Conclusion:
With a central focus on climate finance, COP29 brought together nearly 200 countries in Baku,
Azerbaijan, and reached a breakthrough agreement that will:
 Triple finance to developing countries, from the previous goal of USD 100 billion annually,
to USD 300 billion annually by 2035.
 Secure efforts of all actors to work together to scale up finance to developing countries, from
public and private sources to the amount of USD 1.3 trillion per year by 2035.
New rules allowing wealthy polluting countries to buy carbon-cutting “offsets” from developing
nations were agreed at UN climate.
Mr. Trump, who takes office in January, has pledged to withdraw the U.S. from the global Paris
Agreement on climate change and has called climate change a ‘hoax’.

Why is COP Important for India?

 India's Climate Commitments and Achievements: India’s first NDC was submitted in
2015, and it updated its climate goals in 2022, highlighting achievements such as reducing
emissions intensity by 33–35% and meeting 40% of its energy capacity from non-fossil
fuels.
 Securing Climate Finance: India has been a major beneficiary of funds through mechanisms
like the Green Climate Fund and carbon credits markets.
o COP discussions on the Loss and Damage Fund are crucial for India to secure
financial support for addressing the climate-induced impacts such as floods and
cyclones.
 Global Climate Leadership: COP provides India the opportunity to assert its leadership
in global climate action, with initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to drive
sustainable solutions for the global climate challenge.
 Leveraging International Influence: India leads the Like-minded Developing Countries
(LMDC) and BASIC group at COP, amplifying the voices of the Global South and
advocating for equitable climate action and finance.
o Platforms like COP provide India opportunities to promote initiatives like
the Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) and Mangrove Alliance for Climate.
How has India’s Role in Global Climate Governance Evolved?
 1970s to 2000s: India was cautious about Western environmental calls, fearing they would
hinder its economic development.
o At the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
emphasised the need to balance environmental protection with poverty
alleviation.
o By signing the UNFCCC in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, India
formally embraced sustainable development and supported Common But
Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), which recognised the varying capacities
and responsibilities of developed and developing nations.
o India hosted COP8 in 2002, marking its shift from a passive participant to an active
role in climate negotiations.
 o India launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in
2008, demonstrating its commitment to reducing emissions and promoting renewable
energy.
 Post-2015: The Paris Agreement, 2015 marked a pivotal shift in global climate governance,
allowing developing nations like India to contribute to climate action without facing
disproportionate obligations.
o The transition from rigid emission reduction targets to voluntary Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) enabled India to align its climate commitments
with developmental priorities.
o India submitted its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and updated
them in 2022.
o India contributed USD 1.28 billion to climate finance for other developing countries
in 2022, reinforcing its role as a climate leader.
 Advocacy for Climate Equity and Justice: India advocates for developed nations to provide
financial and technological support to developing countries and actively supports mechanisms
like the Green Climate Fund and Loss and Damage Fund.
 Leading Global Initiatives:
o International Solar Alliance (ISA): Launched in 2015 by India and France at the
COP21 summit in Paris, ISA aims to promote solar energy adoption globally.
o Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE): Advocates sustainable consumption patterns to
reduce carbon footprints.
o Mangrove Alliance for Climate: Promotes the conservation of mangrove
ecosystems to mitigate climate impacts.

Global Plastics Treaty negotiations – South

Korea Busan
Developing countries will comply with “control measures” on plastic only if they are compensated for
the cost they entail, India said.
India has also proposed that a new dedicated multilateral fund be created with contributions to be
“additional and distinct” from other financial transfers. This fund would be governed by a duly
constituted subsidiary body that will also facilitate “...transfer of technology from developed countries
to developing countries, for achieving a just transition towards sustainable production and
consumption of plastics,
Exactly what these ‘control measures’ and ‘costs’ have not been specified yet.
many other concepts are at the heart of the negotiations, involving around 170 countries. Officially
called the 5th Intergovernmental Negotiations Committee (INC), which is administered by the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
EU -Deforestation Regulation (EU-DR)
European Union regulation that aims to counter deforestation by requiring companies registered in the
EU that import or export specific items (list of 479 for India) have not been produced on land that was
deforested after December 31, 2020 or contributed to forest degradation. The Regulation's extensive
scope means it applies not only to raw materials but also to finished goods that may contain
these materials.
Items include: 7 commodities. wood, palm oil, soy, coffee, cocoa, rubber, and leather because they
are in high demand and are used in many products.
European Parliament approved the European Commission proposal to delay EUDR. large coffee
operators and exporters must meet EUDR regulations by December 30, 2025, while micro and small
growers and traders have time until June 30, 2026, to comply, as against the earlier deadline of
December 2024.
over 70% of Indian coffees are sold in EU countries, and therefore the compliance extension has
direct implications on coffees players in India although India was growing coffee under two tier thick
shades of native trees.
Criticism:
is just a form of non-tariff barrier to trade, as EU itself has reduced its primary forest cover to
increase agricultural output before the said date, and now is not allowing other countries to do the
same as they struggle with population pressure on resources.
India’s stand is that it violates Most Favored Nation (MFN) and National Treatment principles.
This is the second such measure by the EU after its Cross Border Adjustment Mechanism.

CBAM
which imposes a tax on products imported into the EU that don’t conform to carbon-emission norms
required by the Union. The CBAM is currently operating in a “transitional phase” but will come into
full effect from January 1, 2026.

Greenwashing
Greenwashing is a deceptive practice where companies mislead the public into believing that they
are more environmentally friendly than they actually are:
 Using misleading labels
Companies may use labels like "green" or "eco-friendly" that are intentionally misleading.
 Making exaggerated claims
Companies may make exaggerated claims about the sustainability of their products or services.
 Implying major impacts
Companies may imply that a minor improvement has a major impact on the environment.
 Ignoring other impacts
Companies may emphasize a single environmental attribute while ignoring other impacts.
Companies may use greenwashing to: gain market share, make more money, and build up their
brand's public image.
Some examples of greenwashing include:
 Hefty Recycling Bags
Hefty Recycling Bags were accused of misleading consumers by claiming their bags could handle all
types of recyclables. In reality, the bags were not recyclable and contaminated other waste.
 Volkswagen
Volkswagen was caught greenwashing in 2015 when it fraudulently reported that its diesel engine
vehicles were more fuel-efficient than they actually were.
 Air France, Lufthansa, and Etihad
These airlines were accused of greenwashing for falsely claiming the sustainability of their flights and
downplaying the environmental impact of air travel.
Companies can greenwash in several ways, including:
 Failing to practice good business ethics
 Failing to receive a reliable third party certification
 Ignoring the green guidelines depicted in the Federal Trade Commission (.gov) (FTC)

Plantation Crops
Coffee
 Major producing countries like Brazil, Mexico, Columbia and
Vietnam seeing a decline in coffee production on account of adverse
climatic conditions.
 “Indian Arabia coffee production has also dropped by 50% due to
floods and droughts and other vagaries of nature.
 Karnataka, the largest producer of coffee, accounts for about 70% of
the country’s output of about 3.5 lakh tonnes.
 Domestic coffee prices, mainly those of the widely grown variety of
Robustas, have witnessed an increase of 36 to 48% during the
January-June period this year over the same period last year,
Plantation Industry Challenges:
 Low selling prices
 weather changes,
 rising costs
 labour shortage
 lack of modernisation
 disease and pest outbreaks
 rise in man-animal conflicts.  Many animals die because of electrocution,
train accident, disease and people killing animals.
The planters’ body has also sought government support to sustain the plantation
industry in terms of tax exemptions for expenses related to development,
sustainable practices and infrastructure development.
“Also made a representation to the Finance Ministry to exclude plantations from
CIBIL as plantations are agriculture in nature. We have also asked the
government to treat planters as agriculturists and stop invoking SARFAESI Act on
them.

IUCN
Established in 1964, The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s
Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become the world’s most
comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal,
fungi and plant species.
The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are intended to be an easily and widely
understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction. It
divides species into nine categories: Not Evaluated, Data Deficient, Least
Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically
Endangered, Extinct in the Wild and Extinct.

Species in News
scientists have directly measured the hearing range of minke whales,
discovering that the species can detect high-frequency sounds as high as 90
kilohertz (kHz)

Pollution
Stubble Burning
Farmers in Punjab and Haryana sow rice in the kharif season and harvest it in
November, using the summer monsoons to quench the crop’s high water
demand. After the rice is harvested, they need to clear the leftover organic
material — called paddy stubble — in order to make way for the next sowing
season. For reasons of time and cost, they have traditionally preferred to burn
the stubble. the toxic particulate matter from the res is oated to and hangs
over New Delhi, dragging its air quality down