Structure from Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry Field Methods Manual

for Students
Katherine Shervais (UNAVCO)

Introduction to SfM for Field Education

The purpose of the Analyzing High Resolution Topography module is to introduce students to
new technologies that are becoming widespread in geologic field investigations. Students will
learn to design surveys and apply analysis of high resolution topographic data to a variety of
geoscience questions. This manual is focused on Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry.
This method of data collection, first used in the geosciences in 2012, has already been applied to
a wide variety of geological problems; the low overhead, ease of data collection, and the data
resolution make this technique applicable to investigations of a variety of geological processes.
In some cases, SfM is valid alternative for traditional photogrammetric methods and terrestrial
laser scanning (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS). (All images not otherwise credited were
created by the author.)

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Introduction
Structure from Motion, or SfM, is a remote sensing technique that uses multiple photographs of
an object or feature to create a three-dimensional set of points corresponding to the surface of the
feature (each with X, Y, Z coordinates) called a point cloud with associated RGB coloration.
After georeferencing the point cloud with ground control points taken with a GPS unit defining
the position of recognizable features, the data can be converted to a digital elevation model
(DEM) to analyze for scientific research. SfM is a tool that is quickly becoming popular in the
geosciences for topographic mapping, as well as temporal and spatial geomorphic and tectonic
studies of earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, fluvial geomorphology, glacier mass balance, and
snow depth measurements. SfM is also used in biomass investigations in forestry, habitat
analysis in biology, and numerous engineering applications.
Basics of the Structure for Motion methodology

Figure 1. Schematic of Structure from Motion (SfM) method. Photographs are taken at a variety of
orientations; the matched features in multiple photographs are used to estimate relative camera position,
which is then extrapolated to create a point cloud, or 3D model, of the scene. (Figure modified from Chris
Sweeney, UCSB).

This manual will focus on the survey, or photo collection, process (Figure 1). However, it is also
important to understand the basics of the model generation process to design an optimal survey.
Multiple photos of a feature from a variety of perspectives are taken and input to SfM software.
After photographs are taken, the “structure” (e.g., topography) of the scene is constructed from
the “motion” of the camera. The software identifies features present in multiple photographs,
called keypoint descriptors (hereafter referred to as keypoints) using an algorithm called SIFT
(Scale-Invariant Feature Transform) (Figure 2).

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Fig. 2: SIFT (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform) is an algorithm that identifies keypoint descriptors found
in multiple images regardless of their scale as shown above. The same bush is highlighted in each
photograph and is able to be matched despite the size variations (Ed Nissen, CO School of Mines).

Keypoints are used to calculate the relative locations of the cameras to create a sparse “low-
density” point cloud. A high-density point cloud is then generated based on the locations of the
sparse points and the locations of the camera (Figure 3). Ground control points, or the GPS
locations of recognizable features within the model, can now be added to georeference the point
cloud so it can later be transformed into a digital elevation model (DEM). Ground control points
are also crucial to generating a more accurate topographic model.

Figure 3. General workflow for any Structure from Motion software. This process is explained in more
detail in the SfM Data Processing and Exploration Manual.

Comparisons to other geodetic imaging techniques

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Figure 4. Top: Comparison of SfM to airborne LiDAR and terrestrial LiDAR; figure from Johnson et al.,
2014 (considered fair use by GSA Publications http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm); Bottom:
Example of traditional photogrammetry methodology. UAV is unmanned aerial vehicle (Ed Nissen).

TLS and ALS are expensive, require technology-specific expertise, a lot of equipment (TLS),
and may not be appropriate for medium-sized project areas (1–5 sq kilometers) and/or frequent
resurveys of a site. The advantage to SfM is that it does not require expensive equipment, can be
done by anyone with the correct tools, and uses a variety of collection platforms and so is
adaptable to many environments (Figure 4). Traditional photogrammetric techniques require a
highly specific and complex photography process, while SfM requires only overlap between
photographs. Ground control points are required to combine the photographs into a model in

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traditional photogrammetry, while they are optional in using SfM and may be added later if
derived from other means.

SfM Survey Design

An effective Structure from Motion survey has several components. Because the applications of
this methodology are so variable, the platform used to collect photos and the survey duration
depends entirely on the type of feature studied. Keep in mind that the course instructor may have
already made camera and platform choices for this activity.
When designing a survey, remember to consider the time constraints on data collection, the
feature of interest, and the accessibility of the field site. These factors will significantly influence
the survey design.
Choosing a platform

Figure 5. Examples of different SfM platforms to survey outcrops or topography; the white squares are
targets, which will be explained in the “Designing the survey” section. A UAS is shown to the far left; this
may be used to photograph the outcrop or the topography depending on the angle of the camera. A man
is photographing the outcrop with a handheld camera in the left-center, and photographing the outcrop
with a pole in the center. On the right, a balloon is used to photograph the topography.

Available platforms for SfM photo collection include handheld cameras, poles, kites, balloons,
and unmanned aerial systems (UASs) (Figure 5). Platform choice should be determined based on
the feature surveyed. Outcrops exposed orthogonal to the ground, such as roadcuts or quarry
faces, may be best surveyed by handheld cameras. Outcrop-scale features parallel to the ground
may be surveyed by handheld cameras or pole-mounted cameras. If trying to characterize a
large-scale feature such as the topography of a region, choose an aerial platform. This platform
choice should be made synchronously with camera choice, as the platform must be able to
support the camera weight.

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Another component of platform choice is the number of cameras or the number of operators. If
many people are collecting data at the same time, many handheld cameras may be the most
efficient choice.
Choosing a camera
The key component of the survey is clear photography of the feature of interest. This can be
achieved with a variety of cameras, ranging from video cameras (stills) to low-grade consumer
cameras to digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras. Images produced from a camera with greater
than 12 megapixels may need to be downsized, depending on the computing capacity of the
computer running the model.
Cameras with a time-lapse option (taking photos every x number of seconds) is necessary when
using most aerial platforms, unless a remote is installed to manually control the time between
photos.
Using a camera with a built-in GPS tagger reduces the amount of time needed to process the
photos and is recommended.
Power and memory
The camera and potentially the platform require batteries. Ensure that there is a power source to
charge batteries if surveying on multiple days. A plentiful supply of batteries should be available.
Available power will affect the length of your survey if using a UAS; average flight time per
battery is approximately twenty minutes but varies widely by system. Multiple memory cards
should be available for the camera; the number depends on the number of photos needed for the
survey.
Designing the survey
The overall goal of the survey is to obtain clear, sharp photographs that overlap in the area
contained in the image. Considerations prior to survey design:
Studies have shown that the geometry of the survey path affects the SfM model that results from
the photographs. The best survey design is to try to create camera views that converge upon the
feature of interest (Figure 6). If photos are taken exactly in parallel, the model will suffer radial
distortion in the center that could introduce error into change detection or any other quantitative
analysis (Figure 6). Divergent camera locations, where the camera stays in one location but
rotates, are also not ideal for the SfM process because differing camera locations are essential for
the software to work properly (Figure 6). This is also true in 3D, so the camera location needs to
move up and down as well as side-to-side as demonstrated in Figure 6.

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Figure 6. The left and center views show how you should not take photographs. Taking all photos in
parallel or from only one position will distort the survey. If possible, take photos converging on the scene
of interest such as shown in the right-hand view.

Step 1: Choose the photo collection path.

This depends on the platform used. If using a handheld camera or a pole, design a survey path to
incorporate the best views of the feature of interest while progressing by foot. If using an aerial
platform controlled via line (i.e., kites and balloons), design the survey path to be accessible for
the operator on foot. UASs should take photographs at multiple angles, to reduce the number of
exactly parallel photos as to not distort the final product. Think of these questions:
1. What is the furthest extent you would like dense photographs of?
2. How many photographs will you need to survey in the area of interest? There is a trade-
off between model resolution (lots of photos = greater resolution) and model processing
time (lots of photos = greater processing time).
3. Is everything of interest visible? If you are mapping an outcrop, you may want to clean it
beforehand. SfM algorithms do not work with glittering (i.e., a mirror) or homogeneous
(i.e., a white cardboard box) surfaces, so make sure these surfaces are either not included
or have been modified in some way to be more algorithm-friendly.
4. If using a UAS, how much flight time do you have and how should that influence your
survey design?

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Step 2 (optional): Set up targets

Figure 7. The white squares with black patterns represent the coded targets. Targets should be oriented
based on the feature of interest. If the feature of interest is the topography, the targets should be flat on
the ground to be captured by the camera as shown in the foreground. If the feature of interest is
orthogonal to the ground, place targets at a matching orientation as shown in the outcrop in the
background. For all, place targets at different elevations and triangulate, so the targets are not in a
straight line.

If the model is intended to become a DEM, it is essential to set up a series of targets to use as
reference points, also known as ground control points (GCP) (Figure 7). These targets should be
easily recognizable in photographs, distinct from the surrounding material, viewable in multiple
photographs, not obstruct the feature of interest, and have one specific point that can be used as a
differential GPS survey point. The targets must not move over the course of the survey or they
will be unusable as GCPs.
Another thing to consider with target choice is that SfM software has a difficult time recognizing
featureless objects; the keypoints are features that are identifiable because they have a distinct
texture. Using a completely flat piece of cardboard that is only one color, for example, may
result in a distorted and therefore unusable target. The scale of the targets should match the scale
of the survey; do not use small targets if surveying a large area, as the size of the target may be
smaller than the model resolution and therefore unusable. For a paleoseismic trench survey,
twelve targets has been shown to be ideal (there are no significant decreases in error above this
number). Examples of targets include using recognizable natural features, simple Frisbees with
an X on them, Agisoft coded targets, Jacob’s staffs, scale bars, or Agisoft coded markers at either
end of a scale bar.
Targets should not be placed in a linear fashion or bunched up, but should be as evenly dispersed
as possible around the survey area—both horizontally and vertically, if possible. Twelve targets
is the minimum needed to ensure the greatest accuracy.

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Use GPS to survey the targets. Record the survey point and an identifier for the target, as it is
essential to link each target to the correct survey point to georeference the data. For example, if
you use a pieces of cardboard with a pattern printed on them, number each one and then label the
GPS point at that target number.
If using the program Agisoft MetaShape Pro, you may use their preconstructed coded targets as
GCPs. Go to Tools—Markers—Print Markers. Choose a size that makes sense given the scale of
your project (i.e., do not print extremely small markers if surveying a large area). Do not modify
the marker in any way; do not write on it, cut it into shapes that are not essentially square, bend
it, or make any other modifications. Choose a random selection of the markers printed; decide an
appropriate number based on your project. Record what type of marker you used to input into the
program later.
Step 2 alternative: Set up scale bars
If GPS is not available, a cheaper and less time-consuming alternative is to set up scale bars
around the study area. Distribute the scale bars evenly around the area without obstructing the
feature of interest. Scale bars may be a simple ruler or yardstick; you may also make them
yourself out of blocks of wood or other material. Try to use the same principles of target
placement with the scale bars suggested for the targets. Use scale bars that are an appropriate
size for the scale of the survey; the bars should not dominate the survey but should also be
visible. One issue with scale bars is that they may become distorted by the model-building
process and therefore not show up with their true shape/length. Agisoft has difficulty recreating
features with little color or texture variation as well, so scale bars with a more complex
color/texture pattern are more likely to be accurately recreated. You may create small coded
targets to attach to the scale bar to help with model generation. See the Agisoft tutorial
(http://www.agisoft.com/pdf/tips_and_tricks/CHI_Calibrated_Scale_Bar_Placement_and_Proces
sing.pdf) for an example of scale bars with coded targets.
Photograph collection
To minimize risk of model failure, it is essential to follow the below tips on camera settings and
photo collection.
Some camera settings tips:

1. Set the camera to take RAW images; if this is not available, choose an image output
option that is not JPEG, as the compression used in this format introduces unnecessary
noise.
2. Use manual exposure and focus so the photos have similar exposure; consistency in the
settings is better for calculation of camera location.
3. Set the ISO to the lowest level to reduce noise.
4. If using the time-lapse setting to take photographs with an aerial platform, adjust to your
preferred settings and turn on prior to launching the platform.
5. If using a remote control to take photographs with a pole or aerial platform, take test
photographs prior to starting the photo collection process to confirm that the remote
system is functional.
6. Do not use the zoom! Instead move towards or away from the feature; using the zoom
will make the software calculations of camera location more difficult. This will result in a
less accurate model.
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Some photo collection tips:

1. Photos should have overlap of 60–80%.

2. Take photos in a convergent fashion (like Figure 8 below).
3. Take photos at a few angles, not just one orientation, to reduce distortion in the model.
4. Think of what time of day will give you the best lighting to photograph the area. Does
that place a limitation on the time you have available and, as a result, the area to survey?
a. As a general rule, morning and afternoon are the best times of day to photograph;
because the light is low, photographs will not be too bright (obscuring features)
and may be able to show an area entirely in shadow (preventing large variations in
brightness in the photos used in the model).
b. If this is not possible, try to make sure the photographs are taken at the same level
of brightness, so features appear the same in every photograph.
5. Minimize the number of moving objects in the images; people and animals should stay
out of the line of sight of the camera. If using a platform controlled by a line like a kite or
balloon, the line will show up in different locations in the images. However, the software
will recognize that these are not a part of the scene so you should not be concerned about
the line location.

Figure 8. The ideal photo collection method includes taking photographs in a convergent fashion, using
multiple angles, not varying the angles by more than 25°, and taking photos both close to and far away
from the feature to introduce detail into the model (if needed).

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