Introduction

Criminology has historically played a reforming role in relation to Criminal Law and
the criminal justice system. As an applied discipline, it has produced findings that have
influenced legislators, judges, prosecutors, lawyers, Probation officers, and prison officials,
prompting them to better understand crime and criminals and to develop better and more
human sentences and treatments for criminal behaviour. Criminologists also study a host of
other issues related to crime and the law. These include studies of the Victims of Crime,
focusing upon their relations to the criminal, and their role as potential causal agents in crime;
juvenile delinquency and its correction; and the media and their relation to crime, including
the influence of Pornography, all of which is directly or indirectly related to the vices and
virtues of the society as a whole both on a rather collective or individualistic perspective.
Thus, the study of its relation with other subjects of humanities becomes imperative.

Criminology, as the scientific study of crime, criminal behaviour, and society’s

response to crime, has evolved to incorporate a multidisciplinary approach. Criminology is an
inter-disciplinary field of study, involving scholars and practitioners representing a wide
range of behavioral and social sciences as well as numerous natural sciences. Sociologists
played a major role in defining and developing the field of study and criminology emerged as
an academic discipline housed in sociology programs. However, with the establishment of
schools of criminology and the proliferation of academic departments and programs
concentrating specifically on crime and justice in the last half of the 20 century, the
criminology emerged as a distinct professional field with a broad, interdisciplinary focus and
a shared commitment to generating knowledge through systematic research. One ultimate
goal of criminology has been the development of theories expressed with sufficient precision
that they can be tested, using data collected in a manner that allows verification and
replication. The personalities of those who commit crimes are assessed in a variety of
contexts, including demographic characteristics. The development of a system of crime
prevention measures, in turn, is impossible without a preliminary assessment and comparison
of current social norms and foundations because any restrictions are a consequence of
specific preventive rules.

1
 This article explores the intersections between criminology and these disciplines,
emphasizing how insights from each contribute to the broader understanding of crime,
criminality, and justice.

2
Criminology and other Social
Sciences
As a subdivision of the larger field of sociology, criminology draws on psychology,
economics, anthropology, psychiatry, biology, statistics, and other disciplines to explain the
causes and prevention of criminal behaviour. Subdivisions of criminology include penology,
the study of prisons and prison systems; bio-criminology, the study of the biological basis of
criminal behaviour; feminist criminology, the study of women and crime; and criminalistics,
the study of crime detection, which is related to the field of Forensic Science. Much research
related to criminology has focused on the biological basis of criminal behaviour. In fact, bio-
criminology, attempts to explore the biological basis of criminal behaviour. Research in this
area has focused on chromosomal abnormalities, hormonal and brain chemical imbalances,
diet, neurological conditions, drugs, and alcohol as variables that contribute to criminal
behaviour.

According to Pridemore1, this discipline is a socio-legal theoretical and applied discipline that
studies crime as a social phenomenon, the essence and forms of its manifestation, as well as
its laws. The reasons and determinants that explain the essence of crime and the motives that
induce individuals to defy the law cannot be analyzed without reference to other areas of
knowledge, for instance, psychology or sociology.2 Moreover, as Nagin and Luab3 argue, this
science is characterized by causal relationships, which is a feature of social research.
Therefore, criminology can be presented as a social discipline that uses the existing legal
framework for the implementation of the tasks set to detect and prevent crime manifestations.

Criminology refers to jurisprudence since the phenomena it analyzes are characterized by the
legal concepts of a crime or a subject of a crime, depending on the task set. The causes and
conditions of crime, in turn, are largely associated with defects in legal consciousness or legal
psychology, and some humanitarian disciplines aim to study the specifics of human behavior
and motives.
1
Pridemore, William Alex and Makel, Matthew C. and Plucker, Jonathan, Replication in Criminology and the
Social Sciences (January 2018). Annual Review of Criminology, Vol. 1, pp. 19-38, 2018, Available at
SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3120371 or http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-091849
2
Id.
3
Katz, Rebecca S. 1999. "Building the Foundation for a Side-by-Side Explanatory Model: A General Theory of
Crime, the Age-Graded Life-Course Theory, and Attachment Theory." Western Criminology Review 1(2).
[Online]. http://www.westerncriminology.org/documents/WCR/v01n2/Katz/Katz.html

3
Criminology and Sociology: The
nexus between Society and
Crime
Sociology is perhaps the closest discipline to criminology, with both fields concerned with
the structure, organization, and functioning of society. Criminology draws heavily on
sociological theories to explain how social factors, such as inequality, poverty, and
socialization, influence criminal behaviour. In defining criminology as a legal subject, Sykes
defines criminology as the study of the social origins of criminal law, the administration of
criminal justice, the causes of criminal behaviour, and the prevention and control of crime. In
this definition, the emphasis is on the function of law and the efficacy of the administration of
justice in the prevention and control of crime. Sutherland and Cressey define criminology as
the body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as social phenomena. According to
them, criminology includes within its scope, the process of making laws, of breaking laws,
and the reacting to the breaking of law. They conclude that criminology consists of the
sociology of law, criminal etiology and penology. This is the aspect of the subject of
criminology in sociology.

i. Social Disorganization Theory and Crime

One of the key sociological theories influencing criminology is the Social Disorganization
Theory, which asserts that a breakdown in the social structure of communities—such as
weakened social institutions—leads to higher rates of crime. Shaw and McKay's work on
urban neighborhoods in the 1940s is a foundational text in this area. They found that
neighbourhoods with high levels of poverty, residential mobility, and ethnic heterogeneity
were associated with higher crime rates.

Indian scholars have also recognized the link between societal structures and crime. In State
of Karnataka v. Muddappa4, the Supreme Court of India emphasized the importance of social
context in understanding criminal behavior, particularly in cases of organized crime. The

4
1999 AIR SCW 4814,

4
Court noted that societal breakdown and lack of education were factors that contributed to an
environment conducive to crime.

ii. Emile Durkheim’s Influence

French sociologist Emile Durkheim’s concept of anomie (a state of normlessness in society)

is critical in understanding crime. Durkheim viewed crime as a social fact, inevitable in all
societies, but its rate and nature are dependent on social cohesion. He indicates that crime is
found in all societies, "Crime is normal because a society exempt from it is utterly
impossible". The "fundamental conditions of social organization-logically imply it." Crime is
not due to any imperfection of human nature or society, any more than birth or death may be
considered abnormal or pathological. It is all a part of the totality of society. "A society
exempt from it (crime) would necessitate a standardization of the moral concepts of all
individuals which is neither possible or desirable." In reality crime can disappear only when
the "collective sentiments" in a community reach such an intensity that all persons concur in
the same common values and when "the horror of bloodshed becomes widespread and deep
in those social strata from much murderers are recruited". Durkheim maintains that crime is
not only normal for society but that is necessary. Without crime there could be no evolution
in law. If society is to progress each person must be able to express himself. 5 Thus, the study
of crime is inevitably related to study of the society as evolution of both is inter-dependent.

5
Walter A. Lunden, Pioneers in Criminology XVI--Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), 49 J. Crim. L. Criminology &
Police Sci. 2 (1958-1959)

5
Criminology and Psychology:
Unveiling the Criminal Mind
Criminology also shares a deep connection with psychology, as both fields seek to understand
the mental processes behind behavior. Psychological criminology examines individual factors
that may contribute to criminality, such as personality traits, cognitive development, and
mental health issues.

i. Psychoanalytic Theory and Criminal Behavior

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has had a significant impact on criminological

studies, particularly regarding the unconscious mind's role in deviant behavior. Freud
believed that unresolved internal conflicts from childhood could manifest as criminal
behavior in adulthood.6 Criminologists often use psychological frameworks to explore how
early childhood experiences, trauma, and mental health disorders contribute to criminal
tendencies.

Indian courts have recognized the role of psychological factors in criminal cases, especially
in cases involving mental health. In Shivaji Sahabrao Bobade v. State of Maharashtra,7 the
Supreme Court of India held that the psychological state of the accused must be taken into
account, especially in cases where the accused's mental health is a critical factor in
determining culpability.

ii. Behavioural Psychology and Crime Prevention

Behavioural psychology has contributed significantly to criminal justice practices, especially

in the field of rehabilitation. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), for instance, is used to
rehabilitate offenders by addressing cognitive distortions and encouraging behavioral change.
Psychology’s focus on individual behavior contrasts with sociology’s broader view of societal
influence, but together they provide a comprehensive understanding of crime.

6
Jindal, G and Mishra K. Interrelation between Criminal Behavior and Psychology, Academic Journal of
Psychological Studies, 1(1), 1-5. Available at
https://www.xournals.com/assets/publications//AJPSt_V01_I01_P01-05_01-2019.pdf
7
AIR 1973 SUPREME COURT 2622

6
Psychology focuses on the behavior of individual offenders and the forces that motivate
individuals to engage in criminal or violent behavior. There have been five established
psychological theories that have been used to explain criminal and delinquent behavior are
explored that are behavior theory, social learning theory, cognitive social learning theory,
attachment theory, and social control theory. Recent researches has pointed to the need for
early intervention to prevent delinquency and later criminal behavior. Childhood behavior
consistently has been found to be the strongest predictor of adolescent and adult problem
behavior. Other studies have recognized the limitations of focusing on the influence parents
have on their children without also looking at the reciprocal nature of the relationships and
influences. The influence of temperament, cognition and motivation in predisposing
individuals to delinquent and criminal behavior have been explored. 8 The relationship, if any,
between mental illness and criminal or violent behavior has also been the subject of study
making the two branches of humanities inter-twined.

8
https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/contribution-psychology-criminal-justice-education

7
Criminology and Economics: The
Economics of Crime
Criminology also overlaps with economics, particularly in the analysis of how economic
conditions affect crime rates and the economic impact of crime on society. Inter-dependence
of both the disciplines is also essential to understand how the structuring of labor market
influence criminal activity, e.g white collar crimes. In order to understand different types of
crimes, criminologists have to understand the processes in the labor market, industrial
relations. There are crimes, such as corporate crime, committed by the organization itself, e.g
pollution, illegal dumping. Criminologists want to understand criminal justice in relation to
corporate crime, why there is different treatment of organizations and how such cases can be
handled.

Criminologists are also interested in electronic crime, who owns the internet, how is it
controlled, who are the perpetrators of such crimes and how do we deal with them; therefore,
there are areas of common interest between criminologists and economists. There are lots of
criminology theories that try to explain relations between the livelihood strategies, poverty
and crime. Economic criminology also explores how factors such as unemployment, income
inequality, and poverty contribute to criminal behavior.9 In India, for example, economic
activities in states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have been historically constrained due to high
levels of crime and weak law enforcement. Economic criminology thus considers the broader
macroeconomic implications of crime, linking it with issues like unemployment, governance,
corruption, and economic inequality.

i. Gary Becker’s Economic Theory of Crime

One of the most significant contributions from economics to criminology is Gary Becker’s
Economic Theory of Crime,10 which posits that individuals engage in criminal behavior after
weighing the costs and benefits. Becker’s rational choice model suggests that if the perceived
benefits of crime outweigh the risks, individuals will choose to commit a crime. This theory
has influenced policies focused on deterrence, such as harsher punishments to increase the
“cost” of criminal behavior. This theory has had a substantial impact on criminal justice

9
https://tnou.ac.in/NAAC/SSR/C1/1.1.5/MCCJN-11.pdf
10
Becker, G., Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, (1968).

8
policies, particularly in the design of deterrence measures like higher penalties, better
policing, and faster legal proceedings to increase the cost of crime. For instance, economic
policies that reduce unemployment or improve income distribution could indirectly reduce
crime, as they shift the cost-benefit analysis for potential offenders.11

ii. Crime and Economic Inequality in India

Economic inequality has been linked to crime in India, as seen in studies showing a
correlation between poverty and higher crime rates. For instance, the Indian Penal Code’s
provisions on theft and robbery often find their roots in economic disparity. In State of
Gujarat v. Shantilal Mangaldas12 the Supreme Court recognized that economic desperation
often drives individuals toward criminal behavior. This case emphasized the importance of
addressing structural economic issues to reduce crime.

iii. Economic Inequality and Crime

There is a strong connection between economic inequality and crime, as disparities in wealth
and income distribution often create conditions that increase criminal activity. Criminologists
and economists alike have observed that crime rates tend to be higher in areas with
pronounced income inequality, where individuals may turn to crime due to lack of legitimate
economic opportunities. The relative deprivation theory, originating from sociology and
economics, suggests that people who perceive themselves as economically deprived
compared to others in their community are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. This
perception of inequality fuels feelings of resentment and frustration, which can manifest as
crime.13

11
Tarun K.S and Vishnu Sudarshan P., Economics and Criminal Law in India, International Journal of Legal
Science and Innovation, Volume 1, Issue 2, ISSN: 2581-9453 available at:
https://ijlsi.com/wp-content/uploads/Economics-and-Criminal-Law-in-India.pdf
12
1969 SCR (3) 341
13
Mojsoska, Snezana and Dujovski, Nikola, Economic Contribution in Criminology: Economics of Crime (January
6, 2017). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2894838 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2894838

9
Criminology and Anthropology:
Crime in Cultural Context
Anthropology provides a cultural and historical perspective on crime, examining how
different societies define and respond to crime. Anthropological criminology focuses on how
cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs influence both criminal behavior and society’s
reaction to it.

i. Cultural Criminology

Cultural criminology explores the relationship between culture and crime, focusing on how
societal values, norms, and media representations shape the perception of crime.
Anthropologists have studied the cultural contexts of crime in various societies, such as tribal
communities in India14. In tribal areas, practices considered criminal under modern Indian
law, such as certain rituals or customs, may have deep cultural significance.

In Nandini Sundar v. State of Chhattisgarh,15 the Supreme Court addressed the intersection of
tribal customs and criminal law, criticizing the state’s approach to dealing with alleged
insurgents from tribal communities. The Court highlighted the need for a culturally sensitive
approach to law enforcement in tribal areas, recognizing that criminal behavior cannot be
understood without considering cultural context.

ii. The Role of Rituals and Norms

Anthropology's contribution to criminology is significant in understanding crimes that have a

cultural or religious component, such as honor killings, dowry deaths, or ritualistic violence.
These crimes cannot be fully comprehended without an appreciation of the cultural norms
that underpin them, a subject explored in depth by scholars like Clifford Geertz.

Anthropological criminology, literally a combination of the study of the human

species and the study of criminals) is a field of offender profiling, based on perceived links
between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The
theory of anthropological criminology was influenced heavily by the ideas of Charles Darwin
(1809–1882). However, the influences came mainly from philosophy derived from Darwin’s

14
https://www.lawyersnjurists.com/article/criminal-anthropology/
15
AIR 2011 SUPREME COURT 2839

10
theory of evolution, specifically that some species were morally superior to others. This idea
was in fact spawned by Social Darwinism, but nevertheless formed a critical part of
anthropological criminology. However, Lombroso thought that criminals were born with
inferior physiological differences which were detectable. He popularized the notion of “born
criminal” and thought that criminality was an atavism or hereditary disposition. His central
idea was to locate crime completely within the individual and utterly divorce it from the
surrounding social conditions and structures. A founder of the Positivist school of
criminology, Lombroso hereby opposed social positivism developed by the Chicago school
and environmental criminology.16

Criminology and Political

Science: The Politics of Crime
The relationship between criminology and political science is centered around how political
institutions, policies, and governance affect crime and its control. Political criminology
examines how laws are created, how justice systems are structured, and how political power
dynamics influence the definition and punishment of crime. Those who are involved with
political criminology focus on the causes of crime, the nature of crime, the social and
political meanings that attach to crime, and crime- control policies, including the study of the
bases upon which crime and punishment is committed and the choices made by the principals
in criminal justice.

i. Michel Foucault’s Influence on Political Criminology

Philosopher Michel Foucault's work, particularly in Discipline and Punish (1975), has had a
profound impact on criminology. Foucault analyzed how power relations and political control
shape the criminal justice system, particularly through institutions like prisons and the police.
His ideas have led to a greater understanding of how crime is not just a legal issue but a
political one, where those in power use criminal law as a tool for maintaining control. 17 The
relationship helps in understanding how laws are created, enforced, and interpreted, focusing

16
https://www.lawyersnjurists.com/article/criminal-anthropology/
17
Stucky, T. D. (2013). Crime, Politics, and Punishment: Criminological Research for Political Sociologists.
Sociology Compass, 7(7), 561-572. http:/dx.doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12048

11
on the political processes that influence crime policies. Legislatures, influenced by political
ideologies and public sentiment, create laws that define what constitutes criminal behavior.

Criminology also examines how crime affects political governance and stability. High
levels of crime can undermine trust in government institutions, weaken the rule of law, and
destabilize political systems. Conversely, political instability can lead to increased crime
rates, as weak governance creates opportunities for criminal activities like corruption,
terrorism, and organized crime.18

ii. Indian Legislative and Judicial Approach

In India, political factors play a significant role in the criminal justice system. The enactment
of laws such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA), and the Prevention
of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA) reflects how the state’s political goals shape criminal law.d
Laws like the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) have been politically contentious,
as they grant extensive powers to security forces, raising concerns about human rights
violations. The political use of such laws highlights the intersection between state power and
crime.

Further, association of Political Science and Criminology could alse be understood when we
try to analyse Naxalite insurgent areas of India, what can easily be assessed is that weak
governance and lack of state presence have contributed to lawlessness and criminal activities.
Political solutions, such as better governance, development policies, and negotiations, are
seen as critical to addressing these issues.

18
Stucky, T. D. (2013). Crime, Politics, and Punishment: Criminological Research for Political Sociologists.
Sociology Compass, 7(7), 561-572. http:/dx.doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12048

12
Conclusion

In conclusion, the relationship between criminology and other social sciences—such as

sociology, psychology, economics, political science, and anthropology—reveals the
interdisciplinary nature of understanding crime. Each social science offers unique
perspectives and methodologies that enrich criminology's insights into criminal behavior, its
causes, and its societal impact.

Sociology helps explain the social structures and institutions that influence crime, while
psychology delves into individual mental processes and motivations. Economics sheds light
on the rational choices and cost-benefit analyses that can drive criminal activity, as well as
the impact of economic conditions on crime rates. Political science examines the role of law,
governance, and power in defining and controlling crime, and anthropology offers a cultural
lens to understand how crime is perceived and addressed in different societies.

By integrating these diverse fields, criminology develops a more holistic understanding of

crime, enabling more effective policies and interventions that consider not just legal but also
social, psychological, economic, and political dimensions. Ultimately, this interdisciplinary
approach is vital for addressing the complexities of crime in modern societies, fostering a
comprehensive framework for both preventing and responding to criminal behavior.

13
References
 Prof. Jain M.P, Indian Constitutional Law, 5th Edi, Reprinted, Wadhwa and Company,
New Delhi, 2005
 Pridemore, William Alex and Makel, Matthew C. and Plucker, Jonathan, Replication
in Criminology and the Social Sciences (January 2018). Annual Review of
Criminology, Vol. 1, pp. 19-38, 2018, Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3120371 or http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-
032317-091849
 Katz, Rebecca S. 1999. "Building the Foundation for a Side-by-Side Explanatory
Model: A General Theory of Crime, the Age-Graded Life-Course Theory, and
Attachment Theory." Western Criminology Review 1(2). [Online].
http://www.westerncriminology.org/documents/WCR/v01n2/Katz/Katz.html
 Walter A. Lunden, Pioneers in Criminology XVI--Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), 49 J.
Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 2 (1958-1959)
 Jindal, G and Mishra K. Interrelation between Criminal Behavior and Psychology,
Academic Journal of Psychological Studies, 1(1), 1-5. Available at
https://www.xournals.com/assets/publications//AJPSt_V01_I01_P01-05_01-2019.pdf
 https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/contribution-psychology-criminal-
justice-education
 https://tnou.ac.in/NAAC/SSR/C1/1.1.5/MCCJN-11.pdf
 Becker, G., Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political
Economy, (1968).
 Tarun K.S and Vishnu Sudarshan P., Economics and Criminal Law in India,
International Journal of Legal Science and Innovation, Volume 1, Issue 2, ISSN:
2581-9453 available at: https://ijlsi.com/wp-content/uploads/Economics-and-
Criminal-Law-in-India.pdf
 Mojsoska, Snezana and Dujovski, Nikola, Economic Contribution in Criminology:
Economics of Crime (January 6, 2017). Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract=2894838 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2894838
 https://www.lawyersnjurists.com/article/criminal-anthropology/

14
 Stucky, T. D. (2013). Crime, Politics, and Punishment: Criminological Research for
Political Sociologists. Sociology Compass, 7(7), 561-572.
http:/dx.doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12048

15