12th Physics Important Questions & Answer 2021 - 2022

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XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI 1
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. TEACHER IN PHYSICS
UNIT-1 ELECTROSTATICS
2 Marks Question & Answer
1. Define electric dipole moment. Give its unit.

Electric dipole moment:
The magnitude of the electric dipole moment (𝒑) is equal to the
product of the magnitude of one of the charges (q) and the distance
(2a) between them. (i.e) |𝑝⃗| = 𝒒. 𝟐𝒂 . Its unit is Cm.
2. Define action of point or Corona Discharge.

The electric field near this sharp edge is very high and it ionized
the surrounding air. The positive ions are repelled and negative ions are
attracted towards the sharp edge.
This reduces the total charge of the conductor near the sharp
edge. This is called action of points or corona discharge.
3. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

Coulomb's law: The electrostatic force is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of the two point charges and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the two point charges.
q1 q2
F∝
r2
4. Define electric flux with SI unit.

The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept
normal to the electric field lines is called electric flux (Φ𝐸). Its S.I unit is
Nm2C-1. It is a scalar quantity.
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

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5. What is called electric dipole? Give an example.

Electric dipole moment and its unit:
The magnitude of the electric dipole moment (𝒑) is equal to the
product of the magnitude of one of the charges (q) and the distance
(2a) between them. (i.e) |𝑝⃗| = 𝒒. 𝟐𝒂 . Its unit is Cm.
6. State Gauss law.

Gauss law: states that if a charge ‘Q’ is enclosed by an arbitrary
closed surface, then the total electric flux through the closed surface is
𝟏
equal to times the net charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜺𝟎
𝟏 𝑸 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐝𝐀
= ∮𝐄. ⃗⃗ =
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎
7. A sample of HCl gas is placed in a uniform electric field of magnitude

3×104 N C-1. The dipole moment of each HCl molecule is 3.4×10-30 Cm.
Calculate the maximum torque experienced by each HCl molecule.
The maximum torque experienced by the dipole is when it is aligned

perpendicular to the applied field.
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 900 ; = 3.14x10-19 x 3x104 N m ; 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 10.2x10-26 Nm
8. Define one coulomb (1 C).

The S.I unit of charge is Coulomb (C)
One Coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space or air at a
distance 1 m from an equal and similar charge repels with a force of
9x109 N

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9. Give the vector form of Coulomb’s law.

The force on the point charge 𝒒𝟐 exerted by another point charge 𝒒𝟏
1 q1 q2
⃗⃗21 =
is F r̂12
4πε0 r2
Similarly the force on the point charge q1 exerted by another point charge
1 q1 q2
⃗⃗12 =
q2 is F r̂21
4πε0 r2
Here, ̂r̂12 → unit vector directed from q1 to q2

r̂21 → Unit vector directed from q2 to q1
10. Define superposition principle.

According to Superposition principle, the total force acting on a
given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the
other charges.
11. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge.

Basic properties of electric charge:
(i) Electric charge:
Like mass, the electric charge is also an intrinsic and fundamental
property of particles. The unit of electric charge is coulomb
(ii) Conservation of electric charge:
The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can
neither be created nor be destroyed. In any physical process, the net
change in charge will be zero. This is called conservation of charges.
(iii) Quantization of charge:
The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral multiple of this
fundamental unit of charge ‘e’ (i.e) q = ne.
Where n → integer and1.6 x 10-19 C

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12. A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side 5cm and separated by a
distance of 1mm. (a) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor.
(b) If a 10V battery is connected to the capacitor, what is the charge
stored in any one of the plates? (The value of εo=8.85x10-12 Nm2C-2)
ϵ0 A 8.854 x 10−12 x 25 x 10−4

(a) The capacitance of the capacitor is C = ;
d 1 x 10−3
= 221.2 x 10 -13
F; ; C = 22.12 x 10 -12
F; = 22.12 𝒑F
(b) The charge stored in any one of the plates is Q = CV, Then
Q = 22.12 x 10-12 x 10 = 221.2 x 10-12C ; Q = 221.2 𝒑C
13. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor.

Energy stored in capacitor:
Capacitor is a device used to store charges and energy.
When a battery is connected to the capacitor, electrons of total charge ‘-Q’
are transferred from one plate to other plate. For this work is done by the
battery. This work done is stored as electrostatic energy in capacitor.
To transfer ′𝑑𝑄′ for a potential difference ‘V’, the work done is
𝑸 𝑄
dW = VdQ = dQ [∵V = ]
𝑪 𝐶
𝑄𝑄
The total work done to charge a capacitor, W = ∫0 dQ ;
𝐶
𝑄
1 Q2 Q2
= [ ] ;= This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of the
C 2 0 2C
capacitor, (i.e)
𝐐𝟐 𝟏
UE = = CV2 [∵Q = CV]
𝟐𝐂 𝟐

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14. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
Consider a capacitor consists of two parallel plates
each of area ‘A’ separated by a distance ‘d’
Let ‘𝝈′ be the surface charge density of the plates.
The electric field between the plates,
𝝈 𝑸
E= = ……….. (1)
𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺𝟎
Since the field is uniform, the potential difference
between the plates,
𝑄
V = E.d = [ ]d ……….. (2)
𝐴 𝜀0
𝐐 𝑸
Then the capacitance of the capacitor, C = = 𝑸
𝐕 [ ]𝐝
𝑨 𝜺𝟎
𝜺𝟎𝑨
C= …………. (3)
𝒅
Thus capacitance is,
(i) Directly proportional to the Area (A) and
(ii) Inversely proportional to the separation (d)
15. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors

Applications of capacitor:
1. Flash capacitors are used in digital camera to take photographs
2. During cardiac arrest, a device called heart defibrillator is used to give
a sudden surge of a large amount of electrical energy to the patient’s
chest to retrieve the normal heart function.
3. Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to
eliminate sparking.
4. Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies
and to increase the efficiency of power transmission.

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Disadvantages:
1. Even after the battery or power supply is removed, the capacitor stores
charges and energy for some time. It caused unwanted shock.
16. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed

in the uniform electric field.
Torque experienced by the dipole in electric field:
Let a dipole of moment 𝑝⃗ is placed in an
uniform electric field 𝐸⃗⃗
The force on ‘+q’ = + q𝐸⃗⃗ ; ‘−q’ = − q𝐸⃗⃗
Then the total force acts on the dipole is zero.
The total torque on the dipole about the point
‘O’ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||−𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ |sinθ + |OB
|𝜏⃗| = |OA ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ |sinθ
𝜏 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵) q𝐸 sin ;
𝜏 = 2 𝑎𝑞𝐸 sin 𝜃 ∵ [𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑎]
𝝉 = 𝒑𝑬𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽 (Where, 2 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝 → dipole moment)
⃗⃗ x ⃗E⃗ .
In vector notation, 𝜏⃗ = p
The torque is maximum, when 𝜃 = 900
17. Obtain an expression electric potential at a point due to a point

charge.
Potential due to a point charge:
Consider a point charge +𝒒 at origin.
‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from
origin.
1 q
⃗⃗ =
By definition, the electric field at ‘P’ isE r̂
4πε0 r2
r 𝑟
1 𝑞
Hence electric potential at ‘P’ is V = −∫∞ 𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = −∫∞ 𝑟̂ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
r
1 q
V = −∫∞ r̂ . 𝑑𝑟 r̂ [∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = drr̂]
4πε0 r2

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𝑟
q 1
V=− ∫∞ dr [∵ r̂. r̂ = 1]
4πε0 𝑟2
q 1 𝑟 q 1 1
V= − [− ] ∞; = [ − ]
4πε0 r 4πε0 r ∞
1 𝑞
V= . If the source charge is negative (−𝑞),then the potential also
4πε0 𝑟
1 𝑞
negative and it is given by V = −
4πε0 𝑟
18. Derive an expression for electro static potential due to electric dipole.
Electrostatic potential due to dipole:
Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its dipole moment be p = 2qa
and its direction be along− q to + q. Let ‘P’ be
the point at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ‘O’
Let ∠𝑃𝑂𝐴 = 𝜃, BP = r1 and AP = r2
1 q
Electric potential at P due to +q V1 =
4πε0 r1
1 q
Electric potential at P due to –q V2 =−
4πε0 r2
Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is

1 1 1
V = V1 + V2 ; = q[ − ] ……………. (1)
4πε0 r1 r2
Apply cosine law in ∆ BOP
𝑎2 2𝑎 𝟏 𝟏 𝒂
r12=r2+a2-2ra cosθ ; r12 = r2[1 + − cos 𝜃] ; = [𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽] ……..(2)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝐫𝟏 𝐫 𝒓
Apply cosine law in ∆ AOP
𝑎2 2𝑎 𝟏
r22=r2+a2+2ra cos (1800 – θ); r22= r2[1 + + cos 𝜃] ;
𝑟2 𝑟 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝒂
= [𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽]…(3)
𝐫 𝒓
1 𝑝 1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟̂
𝑝.
= cos 𝜃[p = 2qa] ; Or V = [pcos 𝜃 = 𝑝.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟̂ ]
4πε0 𝑟 2 4πε0 𝑟 2
Special cases:
Case (i) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side
𝟏 𝐩
of +q, then θ = 0. Then the electric potential becomes V =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐

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Case (ii) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the
𝟏 𝒑
side of –q, then θ = 1800, then V =−
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝒓𝟐
Case (iii) If the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole,
then θ = 900. Hence V = 0
19. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its equatorial line.
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line:
Consider a dipole AB
along X - axis. Its dipole
moment be p = 𝟐qa and its
direction be along− q to + q .
Let ‘C’ be the point at a
distance ‘r’ from the midpoint
‘O’ on its equatorial plane.
Electric field at C due to +q (along BC)
1 𝑞
|𝐸⃗⃗+ | =
4πε0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
Electric field at C due to −q (along CA)

1 𝑞
|𝐸⃗⃗− | =
4πε0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
Here |𝐸⃗⃗+ | = |𝐸⃗⃗− | . Resolve 𝐸⃗⃗ +and 𝐸⃗⃗ −in to two components.
⃗⃗+ | sin𝜽 and |𝑬
Here the perpendicular components |𝑬 ⃗⃗− | sin𝜽are
equal and opposite will cancel each other.
⃗⃗+ | cos𝛉 and |𝑬
But the horizontal components |𝑬 ⃗⃗− | cos𝛉are equal
and in same direction (−p̂) will added up to give total electric field. Hence
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = |𝐸⃗⃗+ | cosθ (−p̂) +|𝐸⃗⃗− | cosθ(−p̂) (or) 𝐸⃗⃗ tot = − 2|𝐸⃗⃗+ | cosθ𝑝̂
1 𝑞 1 2𝑞 𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = − 2[ ]cosθp̂ ; 𝐸⃗⃗ tot = − [ ] 1 p̂
4πε0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) 4πε0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2

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1 ̂
𝑝p
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = − 3
4πε0
(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )2
. If r > a then neglecting a2

𝟏 𝑝⃗
⃗⃗tot =−
𝑬 [q 2ap̂ =p p̂ = 𝑝⃗]
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝒓𝟑
20. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator.
Van de Graff Generator:
It is designed by Robert Van de Graff.
It produces large electro static potential difference of about 107V
Principle:
Electro static induction, Action of points
Construction:
It consists of large hollow
spherical conductor ‘A’ fixed on the
insulating stand.
Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre
of the sphere and another pulley ‘C’
is fixed at the bottom. A belt made
up of insulating material like silk or
rubber runs over the pulleys.
The pulley ‘C’ is driven
continuously by the electric motor.
Two comb shaped metallic conductor
D and E are fixed near the pulleys. The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a
positive potential of 104V by a power supply. The upper comb ‘E’ is
connected to the inner side of the hollow metal sphere.

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Working:
Due to the high electric field near comb ‘D’, air between the belt
and comb ‘D’ gets ionized. The positive charges are pushed towards the
belt and negative charges are attracted towards the comb ‘D’.
The positive charges stick to the belt and move up. When the positive
charges reach the comb ‘E’ a large amount of negative and positive
charges are induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to electrostatic
induction.
The positive charges are pushed away from the comb ‘E’ and they
reach the outer surface of the sphere.
The negative charges neutralize the positive charges in the belt
due to corona discharge before it passes over the pulley. When the belt
descends, it has almost no net charge.
This process continues until the outer surface produces the potential
difference of the order of 107V which is the limiting value.
Applications:
The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff generator is used
to accelerate positive ions (Protons and Deuterons) for nuclear
disintegrations and other applications.

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21. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged
wire.
Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire:
Consider an infinitely long straight wire
of uniform linear charge density ‘𝜆’.Let ‘P’ be
a point at a distance ‘r’ from the wire. Let ‘E’
be the electric field at ‘P’. Consider a
cylindrical Gaussian surface of length ‘L’ and
radius ‘r’
The electric flux through the top surface,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟗𝟎𝟎 =0
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝑨
𝚽tap = ∫ 𝑬
The electric flux through the bottom surface,
⃗⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝚽bottom = ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑨 = ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟗𝟎𝟎 =0
Then the total electric flux through the
Curved surface,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟗𝟎𝟎 = E∫ 𝒅𝑨
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝑨
𝚽curve = ∫ 𝑬
Φcurve = E 2𝜋rL
Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface,
𝚽E =𝚽tap+𝚽bottom + 𝚽curve ; 𝚽E = E (2𝝅rL)
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝝀𝑳
By Gauss law, 𝚽E = ; E (2𝝅rL) = ;
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝝀𝑳 𝜆𝐿
E= In vector notation, 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟̂
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 2𝜋𝜀0
Here𝑟̂ → unit vector perpendicular to the curved surface outwards.

If 𝜆> 0 , then 𝐸⃗⃗ points perpendicular outward (𝑟̂ ) from the wire and if 𝜆<
0 , then 𝐸⃗⃗ points perpendicular inward (−𝑟̂ ).

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22. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are
connected in series and in parallel.
Capacitors in series:
Consider three capacitors of
capacitance C1, C2 and C3 connected in series
with a battery of voltage V
In series connection,
1) Each capacitor has same
amount of charge (Q)
2) But potential difference across each capacitor will be different.
Let V1, V2, V3be the potential difference across C1, C2, C3respectively,
then V = V1 + V2 + V3
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
V= + + [∵Q = CV];
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1
V=Q[ + + ] …………… (1)
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Let CS be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor in series

𝑄
connection, then V = …………….. (2)
𝐶𝑆
𝑄 1 1 1
From (1) and (2) , we have =Q[ + + ];
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of capacitors
connected in series is equal to the sum of the inverses of each
capacitance.
This equivalent capacitance CS is always less than the smallest individual
capacitance in the series.

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Capacitors in parallel:
Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3connected
in parallel with a battery of voltage V.
In parallel connection,
1) Each capacitor has same
potential difference (V)
2) But charges on each
capacitor will be different
Let Q1 , Q2 , Q3be the
charge on C1, C2, C3 respectively, then
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q = C1V + C2V + C3V [∵Q = CV]
Q = V [C1 + C2 + C3] ……….. (1)
Let CP be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor in parallel
connection, then Q = CPV …………… (2)
From (1) and (2), CPV = V [C1 + C2 + C3]
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in
parallel is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
The equivalent capacitance CPin a parallel connection is always
greater than the largest individual capacitance.

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23. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plate

capacitor when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery.
Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is disconnected from the

battery:
Consider a parallel plate capacitor. Area of
each plates= A,
Distance between the plates= d ,
Voltage of battery= V0
Total charge on the capacitor= Q0. So the capacitance of capacitor without
𝑸𝟎
dielectric, C0 = .
𝑽𝟎
Electric field without dielectric= E0, Electric field with dielectric= E,
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant = 𝜀𝑟
𝑬𝟎
∴ E= . Since 𝜀𝑟> 1, we have E < E0
𝜺𝒓
Then the capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
𝑸𝟎 𝑸𝟎 𝑸𝟎
C= ;= 𝑽 ; = 𝜺𝒓 ; 𝜺𝒓 C0
𝑽 [ 𝟎] 𝑽𝟎
𝜺𝒓
Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the capacitance.

𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺𝑨
We have, C0 = ;C= ;C=
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
Where, 𝜺𝒓𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺 → permittivity of the dielectric medium.
The energy stored in the capacitor without dielectric,
𝟏 𝑸𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝑸𝟎 𝟐 𝑼𝟎
U= ;= ;=
𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝜺𝒓 𝑪𝟎 𝜺𝒓
Since 𝜀𝑟> 1, we have U < U0

There is a decrease in energy because, when the dielectric is
inserted, the capacitors spend some energy to pulling the dielectric
slab inside.

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24. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its axial line.
Electric field due to dipole on its axial line:

Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its dipole moment be p = 𝟐qa
and its direction be along− q to + q .
Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the midpoint ‘O’ on its
axial line.
Electric field at C due to +q
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ + = p̂
4πε0 (𝑟−𝑎)2
Electric field at C due to −q
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ −= p̂
4πε0 (𝑟+𝑎)2
Since +q is located closer to point ‘C’ than −q ,𝐸⃗⃗ +>𝐸⃗⃗ − .

By superposition principle, the total electric field at ‘C’ due to dipole is,
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = 𝐸⃗⃗ + + 𝐸⃗⃗ −
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = p̂ − p̂
4πε0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4πε0 (𝑟+𝑎)2
1 4𝑟𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ tot = q[(𝑟 2 ] p̂
4πε0 −𝑎2 )2
Here the direction of total electric field is the dipole moment p̂
1 4𝑟𝑎
If 𝑟≫a , then neglecting 𝑎2. We get 𝐸⃗⃗ tot = q[ ] p̂ ;
4πε0 𝑟4
1 4𝑎 1 2𝑝⃗
= q[ 3 ] p̂ 𝐸⃗⃗ tot = [q 2ap̂ = 𝑝⃗]
4πε0 𝑟 4πε0 𝑟 3

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UNIT-2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

25. State Kirchhoff’s first law (Current rule or Junction rule)

Kirchhoff’s first law (current rule or junction rule):
It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any junction in a
circuit is zero. (∑ 𝐼 = 0).It is a statement of conservation of electric charge.
26. Define Peltier effect.

Peltier effect.
When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a
thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the
other junction. This is known as Peltier effect. Peltier effect is reversible.
27. Current is a scalar quantity. Why?

Current is defined as the scalar product of current density (J⃗) and
⃗⃗ ) in which charges crosses. (i.e.) ⃗J . A
area vector (A ⃗⃗ = JA cos θ.
The current can be positive or negative depending on the choice of
unit vector normal to the surface area A.
28. What are the factors that the resistances depend on?
The resistance of the conductor is,
1) Directly proportional to its length (l)
2) Inversely proportional to its area of cross section (A)
𝑙 𝜌𝑙
R= ;= where, 𝝈 → conductivity of the conductor
𝜎𝐴 𝜎
𝝆 → resistivity of the conductor

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29. State Kirchhoff’s second law (Voltage rule or Loop rule)

It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products
of the current and resistance of each part of the circuit is equal to the
total emf included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝝃). It is a statement of
conservation of energy for an isolated system.
30. Define Seebeck effect.

Seebeck effect :
In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the
junctions are maintained at different temperature an emf is developed.
This phenomenon is called Seebeck effect or thermoelectric effect.
31. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.

S. No. Electric Energy Electric Power
𝑑𝑈
1 dW = dU = VdQ P= ; = VI
𝑑𝑡
2 Its SI Unit is joule (J) Its SI Unit is watt (W)
Its practical unit is
Its practical unit is horse
3 kilowatt hour (kwh)
power(HP)1 HP = 746 W
1 kwh = 3.6x106J
32. A copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 carries a current of 0.2 A. If
the free electron density of copper is 8.4 x 1028m-3 then compute the drift
velocity of free electrons.
The relation between drift velocity of electrons and current in a wire

I 0.2
of cross- sectional area A is Vd = ;
neA 8.4x 1028 x 1.6 x 10−19 x 0.5 x 10−6
Vd = 0.03 x 10-3 ms-1

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33. The following figure shows a complex network of

conductors which can be divided into two closed loops
like EACE and ABCA. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage rule (KVR),
Thus applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to the closed loop

EACE I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3= ε
and for the closed loop ABCA I4R4 + I5R5-I2R2= 0
34. Resistance of a material at 100C and 400C are 45 Ω and 85 Ω respectively.

Find its temperature co-efficient of resistance.
T0 = 100C, T = 400C, R0= 45 Ω , R = 85 Ω

1 ΔR 1 85−45 1 40
α= α= ( ) = ( ) α = 00296 /0C
R0 ΔT 45 40−10 45 30
35. The resistance of a nichrome wire at 00C is 10Ω. If its temperature

coefficient of resistance is 0.004/0C, find its resistance at boiling point of
water. Comment on the result.
Resistance of nichrome wire at 00C, R0 = 10Ω

Temperature coefficient of resistance 𝛼 =0.004/0C
Resistance at boiling point of water, RT = ?
Temperature of boiling point of water, T =1000C ?
RT = R0 (1 + 𝛼T) ; = 10[1+(0.004 x 1000]
RT = 10(1+0.4) = 10 x 1.4 ; RT = 14 Ω
As the temperature increases the resistance of the wire also increases.

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36. Explain the determination of unknown resistance using Meter Bridge.
Metre Bridge:
Metre Bridge is another form
of Wheatstone’s bridge. It consists
of uniform manganin wire AB of
1m length. This wire is stretched
along a metre scale between two
copper strips C and D. E is another
copper strip mounted with two gaps
G1 and G2 .An unknown resistance P
is connected in G1 and standard
resistance connected in G2
A jockey J is connected from E through a galvanometer G and high
resistance HR.A Lechlanche cell 𝜉 and key K is connected across the bridge
wire. The position of jockey is adjusted so that the galvanometer shows
zero deflection. Let the point be ‘J’
The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance R and S of the
𝐏 𝐑 R′ AJ
Wheatstone’s bridge. Then = ;=
𝐐 𝐒 R′ JB
𝐏 AJ 𝑙1
Where R′ → resistance per unit length, = = ………(1)
𝐐 JB 𝑙2
𝑙
(or) P = Q 1 ………..(2)
𝑙2
Due to imperfect contact of wire at its ends, some
resistance might be introduced at the contact. These are called end
resistances. By interchange P and Q, This error can be eliminated, and the
average value of P is found. Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire,
𝜌𝐴 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2
its specific resistance (resistivity) is given be.𝜌 = ;= ………….(3)
𝑙 𝑙

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37. What is the value of 𝑥 when the Wheatstone’s network is balanced?

P = 500 Ω, Q = 800 Ω, R = 𝑥+ 400, S = 1000 Ω
𝐏 𝐑 500 𝑥+400 𝑥+400 500
= ; = ; =
𝐐 𝐒 800 1000 1000 800
500 𝟓
𝑥 +400 = x 1000 ; 𝒙 +400 = x 1000
800 𝟖
𝑥 +400 = 0.625 × 1000 ; 𝑥 +400 = 625 ;
𝑥 = 625 – 400 ; 𝒙 = 225 Ω
38. A battery has an emf of 12 V and connected to a resistor of 3 Ω. The
current in the circuit is 3.93A. Calculate (a) terminal voltage and the
internal resistance of the battery (b) power delivered by the battery and
power delivered to the resistor.
The terminal voltage of the battery is equal to voltage drop across the
resistor V = IR = 3.93 × 3 = 11.79 V
𝜉−𝑉 12 – 11.79
r=[ ]; [ ]x3 ; = 0.05 Ω
𝑉 11.79
The power delivered by the battery P= Iε = 3.93 × 12 = 47.1 W
The power delivered to the resistor = I2R= 46.3 W
The remaining power P = (47.1 – 46.3) = 0.8 W is delivered to the
internal resistance and cannot be used to do useful work.
39. Write a note on electric cells in series.

Cells in Series:
Let n cells, each of emf ξ volts and internal
resistance r ohms are connected in series
with an external resistance R.
The total emf of the battery = nξ
The total resistance in the circuit = nr + R
By Ohm’s law, the current in the circuit is
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐟 𝐧𝛏
I= ;= ………… (1)
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐧 𝐫+𝐑
𝐧𝛏 ξ
If r << R, equation (1) becomes, I = ≈n𝒍𝟏 [∵ = 𝑙1 ]
𝐑 𝑅

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(i.e.), if r is negligible when compared to R the current supplied by the

battery is n times that supplied by a single cell. If r>>R, equation (1)
𝐧𝛏 𝛏
becomes I = ;= ≈ 𝒍𝟏 (i.e) If r is very very greater than R, current due
𝐧𝐫 𝐫
to the whole battery is the same as that due to a single cell.
40. Derive the relation between the drift velocity and the current.
Drift velocity and current - Relation:
Area of cross section of the conductor = 𝐴
Number of electrons per unit volume= 𝑛, Applied
electric field=𝐸⃗⃗ ; Drift velocity of electrons= 𝒗𝒅,
Charge of an electrons= 𝑒 . Let ‘𝑑𝑥’ be the
𝑑𝑥
distance travelled by the electron in time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then vd =
𝑑𝑡
(𝑜𝑟) = vd𝑑𝑡
The number of electrons available in the volume of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is
= A 𝑑𝑥 X n ; = A vd𝑑𝑡 X n
Then the total charge in this volume element is, =𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛𝑒
𝑑𝑄
By definition, the current is given by I = ;
𝑑𝑡
𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒
= ; I = n e A Vd
𝑑𝑡

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41. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in Wheatstone’s bridge
Wheatstone’s bridge:
An important application of Kirchhoff’s
laws is the Wheatstone’s bridge. It is used to
compare resistances and also helps in
determining the unknown resistance in the
electrical network. The bridge consists of four
resistances P, Q, R, S connected as shown. A
galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between B and D.
A battery ‘𝜉′ is connected between A and C . Let I1, I2, I3, I4currents through
various branches and IG be the current through the galvanometer.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at B and D,
I1 − IG − I3 = 0 − − − − (1)
I2 + IG − I4 = 0 − − − − (2)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,
I1 P + IGG – I2 R = 0 − − − − (3)
I1P + I3Q − I2R − I4S = 0 − − − − (4)
At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are same, and hence
the galvanometer shows zero deflection. So IG = 0
Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3)
I1 − I3= 0 (or) I1 = I3 − − − − (5)
I2− I4 = 0 (or) I2 = I4 − − − − (6)
I1P − I2R = 0(or) I1P = I2R − − − − (7)
Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)
I1P + I1Q − I2R − I2S = 0 ; I1 (P+Q) − I2 (R + S) = 0
∴I1 ( P+Q) = I2 (R + S) − − − − (8)

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Divide equation (8) by (7)

I1 (P + Q) I2 (R + S) (P + Q) (R + S)
= ; =
I1 P I2 R P R
Q S Q S 𝐏 𝐑
1+ =1+ ; = (or) = ………..(9)
P R P R 𝐐 𝐒
42. Obtain the macroscopic form of ohm’s law from its microscopic form and
discuss its limitation.
Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law:
Consider a segment of wire of length
land cross sectional area A.
When a potential difference V is applied
across the wire, a net electric field is created
in the wire which constitutes the current. If
assume that the electric field is uniform in the entire length of the
𝑽
wire, the potential difference is given by, V = E𝒍(or) E =
𝒍
𝑉
From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law, J = 𝜎E ; = 𝜎
𝑙
I
By definition, the Current density is J =
A
I 𝑉 𝑙
Hence, = ; ∴ V = I [ ]; V = IR
A 𝑙 𝜎𝐴
𝑙
Where, = R →Resistance of the conductor. This is called
𝜎𝐴
macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.The resistance is the ratio of potential
difference across the given conductor to the current passing through the
conductor.
From Ohm’s law, the graph between current versus voltage is
straight line with a slope equal to the inverse of resistance R of the
conductor
Materials, for which the current against voltage graph is a straight
line through the origin, are said to obey Ohm’s law and their behaviour is
said to be ohmic.

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Materials or devices that do not follow Ohm’s law are said to be

non-ohmic. These materials have more complex (non - linear)
relationships between voltage and current.
43. Explain the method of measurement of internal resistance of a cell using

Potentiometer.
Internal resistance by potentiometer:
Potentiometer wire CD is connected
to battery (Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This
is the primary circuit. The cell 𝜉 whose
internal resistance ‘r’ to be measured is
connected to the secondary circuit. A
resistance box R and a key K2 is connected
across the cell 𝜉. With key K2 open, the
balancing point J is found out and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.
By the principle, 𝜉∝𝑙1 − − − −(1)
A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is closed. The
𝜉
current flows through R and cell is, I =
𝑅+𝑟
𝝃
Hence potential difference across R , V = IR = R
𝑹+𝒓
For this potential difference, again the balancing point J is found out
and the balancing length CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.
𝝃
By the Principle R ∝𝑙2 ………… (2)
𝑹+𝒓
Divide equation (1) by (2)
𝜉 𝑙1 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1 𝑟 𝑙1
𝜉 = ; = ;1+ = ;
( R) 𝑙2 𝑅 𝑙2 𝑅 𝑙2
𝑅+𝑟
𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 −𝑙2 𝒍 −𝒍𝟐
= −1 ; ; r = R[ 𝟏 ]………. (3)
𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2 𝒍𝟐

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By substituting, 𝑙1, 𝑙2 in equation (3) the internal resistance of the cell

can be measured. Here the internal resistance is not constant, and it
increased with increase of external resistance R.
44. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and parallel resistance

network.
Resistors in Series:
When two or more resistors are
connected end to end, they are said to be in
series. Let R1, R2, R3 be the resistances of
three resistors connected in series. Let “V”
be the potential difference applied across
this combination. In series connection i)
Current through each resistor will be same (I) ii) But potential difference
across different resistor will be different.
Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential
difference across R1, R2, R3respectively, then
from Ohm’s law. V1 = IR1 ; V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
Total potential difference, V = V1 + V2+V3 ;
= IR1 + IR2 + IR3
V = I[R1 + R2 + R3] ……………. (1)
Let Rs be the equivalent resistance in series connection, then
V = IRs ………..(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we have
IRs = I [R1 + R2 + R3] ; ∴ Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
When resistances are connected in series, the equivalent resistance
is the sum of the individual resistances. The equivalent resistance in
series connection will be greater than each individual resistance.

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Resistors in Parallel:
When two or more resistors are connected across the same potential
difference, they are said to be in parallel. Let R1, R2, R3 be the resistances
of three resistors connected in parallel. Let “V” be the potential
difference applied across this combination.
In parallel connection, i) Potential difference across each resistance will be
the same (V) ii) But current flows through different resistors will be
different.
Let I1, I2, I3 be the currents flow through R1, R2, R3 respectively, then
V V V
from Ohm’s law. I1 = ; I 2= ; I3 =
R1 R2 R3
V V V 1 1 1
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ; = + + ; I = V[ + + ]………(1)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance in parallel connection, then
V
I= ……………….. (2)
Rp
V 1 1 1
From equation (1) and (2), we have = V[ + + ]
Rp R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
∴ =[ + + ]
Rp R1 R2 R3
When resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of

equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the values
of resistance of the individual resistor.
The equivalent resistance in parallel connection will be lesser than
each individual resistance.

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UNIT-3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

45. The repulsive force between two magnetic poles in air is 9x10-3N. If the
two poles are equal in strength and are separated by a distance of 10 cm,
calculate the pole strength of each pole.
q q
The force between two poles are given by ⃗⃗⃗
F = k mA2 mB r̂
r
𝑞𝑚𝐴 𝑞𝑚𝐵
The magnitude of the force is F = k
𝑟2
Given : F = 9 x 10-3N, r = 10 cm = 10 x 10-2 m
q2m
Therefore, 9 x 10-3 = 10-7 x (10 x 10−2 )2
⟹ 30 NT-1
46. State Ampere’s circuital law.

It state that the line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is μ0
times net current enclosed by the loop. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝟎
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍
47. A coil of 200 turns carries a current of 0.4 A. If the magnetic flux of
4 mWb is linked with the coil, find the inductance of the coil.
Number of turns of the coil, N = 200 , Current, I = 0.4 A

Magnetic flux linked with coil, ϕ = 4mWb = 4 x 10-3 Wb
𝐍𝛟 200 x 4 x 10−3
Inductance of the coil, L = ;= ;
𝐈 0.4
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= ;L=2H
𝟎.𝟒
48. Why Phosphor - bronze is used as suspension wire?

Because, for phosphor - bronze wire, the couple per unit twist is very
small.

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49. An electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field 0.500 T

undergoes circular motion of radius 2.80 mm. What is the speed of
electron?
Charge of an electron q = -1.60 × 10-19 C ⟹ |𝑞| = 1.60 × 10-19 C

Magnitude of magnetic field B = 0.500 T
Mass of the electron, m = 9.11 × 10-31 kg
Radius of the orbit, r = 2.50 mm = 2.50 × 10-3m
𝑟𝐵
Velocity of the electron, 𝑣 = |𝑞|
𝑚
2.50 x 10−3 x 0.500
𝑣 = 1.60 x 10 −19
x ; 𝒗 = 2.195 x 108 ms-1
9.11 x 10−31
50. State Fleming’s Left Hand Rule (FLHR).

FLHR: Stretch for finger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand
in mutually perpendicular directions. If,
(i) Fore finger points the direction of magnetic field,
(ii) The middle finger points the direction of the electric current, then
(iii) Thumb will point the direction of the force experienced by the
conductor.
51. Define one ampere.

One ampere is defined as that current when it is passed through each of
the two infinitely long parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of
one metre apart in vacuum caused each conductor to experience a force
of 2 x 10−7 Newton per metre length of conductor.

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52. Give the properties of Lorentz magnetic force.
Properties of Lorentz magnetic force:
(i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the magnetic field (⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩)
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the velocity (⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒗
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to sine of the angle between the
velocity and magnetic field.
(iv) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge
(v) The direction of⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is always perpendicular to⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗and
𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵
(vi) If the of the charge is along the magnetic field, then⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 is zero.
53. How Galvanometer can be converted in to Voltmeter?

Galvanometer to a Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure potential
difference across any two points. A galvanometer is converted in to
voltmeter by connecting high resistance in
series with the galvanometer. The scale is
calibrated in volts.
Galvanometer resistance= RG, High resistance= Rh
Current flows through galvanometer= IG
Voltage to be measured= V, Total resistance of this circuit = RG + Rh
Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as the current passing
through the galvanometer. (i.e) IG= I
𝑉 V 𝐕
IG= (or)RG + Rh = ; ∴ Rh = −RG
𝑅𝐺 +𝑅ℎ IG 𝐈𝐆
Let RV be the resistance of voltmeter, then RV = RG + Rh . Here, RG<Rh<Rv

Thus an voltmeter is a high resistance instrument, and it always
connected in parallel to the circuit element. An ideal ammeter has zero
resistance.

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54. State and explain Biot-Savart law.

Biot - Savart law :
According to Biot - Savart law, the magnitude
of magnetic field at a point ‘P’ at a
distance ‘r’ from the small elemental length
‘dl’ of the current ‘I’ carrying conductor
varies,(i) 𝑑𝐵∝𝐼(ii) 𝑑𝐵∝𝑑𝑙(iii) 𝑑𝐵∝ sin 𝜃(iv)
1 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵∝ 2Hence, dB∝ ; (or)
𝑟 𝑟2
𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
dB=k ………..(1)
𝒓𝟐
𝜇0
Where k→constant, SI unit, k = k =
4𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence, dB = k = ………..(2)
4𝜋 𝑟2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐱𝒓̂
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍
In vector notation, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = ………..(3)
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑟̂ . From superposition
𝑑𝐵 is perpendicular to both 𝐼𝑑𝑙
principle the total magnetic field due to entire conductor is,
𝝁𝟎 𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐱𝒓̂
𝒅𝒍
𝑩 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝑩 = ∫
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
55. How Galvanometer can be converted in to Ammeter.

Galvanometer to an Ammeter:
Ammeter is an instrument used to
measure current. A galvanometer is
converted into an ammeter by connecting
a low resistance called shunt in parallel with
the galvanometer. The scale is calibrated in
amperes. Galvanometer resistance= RG; Shunt resistance = S
Current flows through galvanometer= IG
Current flows through shunt resistance = IS
Current to be measured= I

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The potential difference across galvanometer is same as the potential

difference shunt resistance. (i.e.) V Galvanometer =V shunt
𝐼𝐺
IG RG = ISS ; IG RG = ( I - IG) S − − −(1) ; S= RG
𝐼−𝐼𝐺
From equation (1) IG RG= S I – IG S

𝑆
IG (S + RG) = S I ; IG = I
𝑆+𝑅𝐺
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Let Ra be the resistance of ammeter, then = +
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝑮 𝑺
𝑅𝐺 𝑆
⟹ Ra = Here,RG> S > Ra
𝑅𝐺 +𝑆
Thus an ammeter is a low resistance instrument, and it always connected

in series to the circuit. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
56. What are the properties of bar magnet?

Properties of magnet:
(i) A freely suspended bar magnet will always point along the north -
south direction.
(ii) The attractive property of the magnet is maximum near its end or
pole. This is called pole strength.
(iii) Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to one another.
(iv) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece behaves like a
magnet with poles at its ends.
(v) The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical length and
length between two magnetic poles in a bar magnet is called
magnetic length. The magnetic length is always slightly smaller than
geometrical length.
(i.e.) magnetic length: geometrical length = 5 ∶ 6

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57. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely
long straight conductor carrying current.
Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying conductor:
Consider a long straight wire Y𝑌′ carrying a
current I
Let P be a point at a distance ‘a’ from ‘O’
Consider an element of length ‘𝑑𝑙’ of the wire at
a distance ‘𝑙’ from point ‘O’ Let ⃗⃗⃗𝑟 be the vector
joining the element ‘𝑑𝑙’ with the point ‘P’ and ‘𝜃’
𝒓 and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
be the angle between ⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍. Then the
magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the element is,
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ̂ − − − − − (1)
𝒏
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗𝑟
Where, 𝑛̂ − unit vector normal to both 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
To apply trigonometry, draw a perpendicular AC to the line BP
𝐴𝐶
In triangle ∆ ABC, sin𝜃 = ⟹ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝐴𝐵
But AB = dl ⟹ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Let d𝜙 be the angle subtended between AP and BP
i.e. ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝑃𝐶 = 𝑑𝜙
𝐴𝐶
In triangle ∆ APC, sin(𝑑𝜙) = ; since, 𝑑𝜙 is very small, sin(𝑑𝜙) ≃ 𝑑𝜙
𝐴𝑃
But AP = r ⟹ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑟𝑑𝜙 ∴ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒓𝒅𝝓
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝜙
⃗⃗ =
∴ 𝑑𝐵 (𝑟𝑑𝜙) ̂𝑛 ; = ̂𝑛
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑟
Let 𝜙 be the angle between BP and OP
𝑂𝑃 𝑎 𝑎 𝜇0 𝐼
In a ∆ OPA, cos𝜙 = = ; ⟹𝑟= ⃗⃗ =
; 𝑑𝐵 𝑎 𝑑𝜙 ̂𝑛
𝐵𝑃 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 4𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝜇0𝐼
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑑𝜙. ̂𝑛
4𝜋𝑎
𝜙2
The total magnetic field at P due to the conductor Y𝑌′ is ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐵 =∫−𝜙1 𝑑𝐵

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𝝓𝟐 𝝁𝟎𝑰
=∫−𝝓𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒅𝝓. ̂𝒏 ;
𝟒𝝅𝒂
𝜇0𝐼
[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙]𝜙2
𝜙1 ̂
𝑛
4𝜋𝑎
𝜇0𝐼
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙) ̂𝑛
4𝜋𝑎
For infinitely long conductor , 𝛟𝟏 = 𝛟𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝜇 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 0 [2] ̂𝑛 ;
4𝜋 𝑎
𝝁𝟎 𝑰
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵= ̂𝒏 ---------- (3)
𝟐𝝅 𝒂
58. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long current carrying
solenoid.
Magnetic field due to current carrying solenoid:
Consider a solenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns. To calculate the
magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid,
consider an Amperian loop ‘abcd’. From Ampere circuital law,

∮⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵.𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜𝐼0 −−−−− (1)
The LHS of equation (1) can be written as
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
∮⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵.𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑎 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 00 = B ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑙 = Bh
𝑐 𝑐 𝑑
∫𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 = 0 ; ∫ = 0
𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑑 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 900 = 0
Here ab = h . If we take large loop such that it isequal to
length of the solenoid, we have∮⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵.𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗⃗ = B 𝑳− − − − − − − (2)

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Let ‘I’ be the current passing through the solenoidof ‘N’ turns, then
𝐼0 = N𝐼− − − − − − − (3)
Put equation (2) and (3) in (1) BL = 𝜇𝑜N𝐼

𝑁
B = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼− − − − − − − (4)
𝐿
𝑁
Let “n” be the number of turns per unit length, then = n. Hence,
𝐿
μ0NI
B= = 𝜇𝑜n 𝐼− − − − − − − (5)
𝐿
Since ‘n’ and μ0 are constants, for fixed current ‘I’ the magnetic field
‘B’ inside the solenoid is also constant.
59. Obtain a relation for the magnetic induction at a point along the
axis of a circular coil carrying current.
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil:
Consider a circular coil of radius ‘R’ carrying a current ‘I’ in anti-
clock wise direction. Let ‘P’ be the point on the axis at a distance ‘z’
from centre ‘O’.Consider two diametrically opposite line elements of the
⃗⃗⃗⃗ at C and D. Let ⃗⃗⃗be
coil of each of length 𝑑𝑙 𝑟 the vector joining the current
⃗⃗⃗⃗ at C to the point P.
element 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
⃗⃗ is 𝑑𝐵
According to Biot - Savart law, The magnitude of 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗= ̂
𝒏
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗is, 𝑑𝐵
The magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗ = ̂𝑛
4𝜋 𝑟 2
∵ 𝜃 = 900]

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⃗⃗can be resolved in to two components.

Here, 𝑑𝐵
(i) ⃗⃗Sin𝜃 − horizontal component (Y - axis)
𝑑𝐵
(ii) ⃗⃗cos 𝜃 − vertical component (Z - axis)
𝑑𝐵
Here horizontal components of each element cancel each other.
But vertical components alone contribute to total magnetic field at
the point ‘P’⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝜙 ̂𝑘 ;
𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝐵
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝐵 = 0 ∫ sin 𝜙 ̂𝑘 ………… (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
4𝜋 𝑟2
R
Also from ∆OCP, sin 𝜙 = 1 and r2 = R2 + z2
(R2 +Z2 )2
μ0 I d𝑙 R
But from equation (1) ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵= ∫ (R2+Z2) 1
̂𝑘
4π
(R2 +Z2 )2
μ0 I R
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵= 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 ̂𝑘 , Where, ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋R →total length of the coil.
4π(R2 +Z2 )2
μ0 I R 𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐑𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵= 3 [2 𝜋𝑅] ̂𝑘 ; 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟑
̂
𝒌
4π(R2 +Z2 )2 𝟐(𝐑𝟐 +𝐙𝟐 )𝟐
μ0 NIR2
⃗⃗ =
If the circular coil contains N turns , then the magnetic field 𝐵 3 𝑘̂
2(R2 +Z2 )2
μ0 NI
⃗⃗ =
The magnetic field at the centre of the coil z=0𝐵 𝑘̂
2R
60. Obtain an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor

placed in a magnetic field.
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic field:
When a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, the force
experienced by the wire is equal to the sum
of Lorentz forces on the individual charge
carriers in the wire.
Let a current ‘I’ flows through a
conductor of length ‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘A’. Consider a small
segment of wire of length ‘𝑑𝑙’

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The free electrons drift opposite to the direction of current with

velocity 𝑣𝑑 .
The relation between current and drift velocity is, I = nAevd
If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average force
experienced by the electron in the wire is
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = −e (⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗dx⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵) . Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit
volume, then the total number of electrons in the small element of volume
(V = A 𝑑𝑙) is N = 𝑛A . Hence Lorentz force on the small element,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − e n A 𝑑𝑙(⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗) − − − − − − (1)
𝒗dx𝑩
Here length 𝑑𝑙 is along the length of the wire and hence the current
element is= − 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗d
Put this in equation (1),⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 x⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 − − − − − − (2)
Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying conductor of length
𝐹 = 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝑙 x⃗⃗⃗⃗
‘𝒍’ placed in a uniform magnetic field. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵 − − − − − − (3)
In magnitude, F = BI𝑙 sin𝜽 − − − − − − (4)
Special cases:
(i) If the current carrying conductor placed along the direction of
magnetic field, then = 00 ∴ 𝑭 = 𝟎
(ii) If the current carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to
the magnetic field, then= 900 ∴ F = BI𝒍 = maximum.

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61. Describe the principle, construction and working of moving coil

galvanometer.
Moving coil galvanometer:
It is a device which is used to indicate the flow of current.
Principle:
When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic
field it experiences a torque.
Construction:
It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated thin copper wire.
A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed symmetrically inside the coil. This
rectangular coil is suspended freely between two pole pieces of a
horse-shoe magnet by means of phosphor - bronze wire. Lower end of
the coil is connected to a hair spring which is also made up of
phosphor bronze.
A small plane mirror is attached on the suspension wire to
measure the deflection of the coil with help of lamp and scale
arrangement. In order to pass electric current through the galvanometer,
the suspension strip W and the spring S are connected to terminals.
Working:
Consider a single turn of
rectangular coil PQRS of length 𝑙 and
breadth 𝑏, such that PQ = RS = 𝑙 ;
QR = SP = b
Let ‘I’ be the electric current flowing
through the rectangular coil
The horse-shoe type magnet has hemi-spherical magnetic poles
which produces a radial magnetic field. Due to this radial field, the sides

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QR and SP are always parallel to the magnetic field ‘B’ and experience no
force. But the sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the
magnetic field ‘B’ and experience force and due to the torque is
produced. For single turn, the deflecting couple is, 𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = F b = B I𝑙
b=BIA
For coil with N turns, we get 𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = NBIA …………(1)
Due to this deflecting torque, the coil gets twisted and restoring
torque is developed. The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional
to amount of twist and it is given by 𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔 = K 𝜽…………(2)
Where𝐾 → restoring couple per unit twists (or) torsional constant
𝐊
At equilibrium, 𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔 ; NBIA = K 𝛉 ; I = 𝛉 = G 𝛉…………(3)
𝐍𝐁𝐀
𝐊
Where, G = → Galvanometer constant (or) current reduction factor.
𝐍𝐁𝐀
62. Obtain a force between two long parallel current carrying conductors.
Force between two parallel conductors carrying current:
Consider two straight parallel current carrying conductors ‘A’ and ‘B’
separated by a distance ‘r’ kept in
air. Let I1 and I2 be the currents
passing through the A and B in
same direction (z-direction). The net
magnetic field due to I1 at a distance
‘r’.
𝝁𝟎𝒍𝟏 𝝁𝟎𝒍𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟏 = ̂ =−
(−𝒊) 𝒊̂
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒓
Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟏 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and inwards.
Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in conductor ‘B’
carrying current I2 due to this magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵1
𝜇0𝑙1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵1 = −𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 ̂𝑘 x
𝑑𝑙 x⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑖̂
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0𝑙1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝜇0𝑙1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 =− ( ̂𝑘 x 𝑖̂) ; ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 =− 𝑗̂
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

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By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts leftwards. The force
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 𝝁𝟎𝒍𝟏 𝑰𝟐
per unit length of the conductor B. =− 𝒋̂− − − − − − (1)
𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝜇0𝑙2
Similarly, net magnetic field due to I2at a distance ‘r’ is⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵2 = 𝑖̂
2𝜋𝑟
Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟐 acts perpendicular to planeof paper and outwards.
Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in conductor ‘A’
carrying current I1 due to this magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵2 .
𝜇0𝑙2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵2 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 ̂𝑘 x
𝑑𝑙 x⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑖̂
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0𝑙1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝜇0𝑙 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = ( ̂𝑘 x 𝑖̂) ; ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 1 2 𝑗̂
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts rightwards. The force
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 𝝁𝟎𝒍𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝒍
per unit length of the conductor A. = 𝒋̂− − − − − − (2)
𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
Thus the force experienced by two parallel current carrying
conductors is attractive if they carry current in same direction. On the
other hand, the force experienced by two parallel current carrying
conductors is repulsive if they carry current in opposite direction.

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UNIT-4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

63. Define RMS value of AC

RMS value of AC:
The square root of the mean of the square of all currents over one
𝑰𝒎
cycle. 𝑰RMS = = 0.707𝑰𝒎 .
√𝟐
64. Define quality factor or Q-Factor.

Q-Factor : The ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied voltage at
resonance.
65. Define coefficient of self-induction.

The flux linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through it. Its S.I
unit is H (or) WbA-1(or) VsA-1 and its dimension is [ML2T-2A-2]
66. How the current sensitivity of galvanometer can be increased?

By increasing the number of turns (N)
By increasing the magnetic induction (B)
By increasing the area of the coil (A)
By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire
67. Define Power factor.

Power factor: The cosine of the angle of lead or lag. Power factor is
also defined as the ratio of true power to the apparent power.
68. What the methods of producing induced emf?

By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
By changing the area ‘A’ of the coil
By changing the relative orientation 𝜽 of the coil with magnetic field.

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69. State Fleming’s right hand rule.

The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand are
stretched out in mutually perpendicular directions. If index finger points
the direction of magnetic field and the thumb points the direction of
motion of the conductor, then the middle finger will indicate the
direction of the induced current. Fleming’s right hand rule is also known
as generator rule.
70. Define the efficiency of the transformer.

The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
useful output power to the input power. 𝜂 = x 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

71. Find the impedance of a series RLC circuit if the inductive reactance,
capacitive reactance and resistance are 184 Ω, 144 Ω and 30 Ω
respectively. Also calculate the phase angle between voltage and current.
XL= 184 Ω; XC= 144 Ω ; R = 30 Ω

(i ) The impedance is Impedance, Z = √R2+(XL−XC )
2
= √302+ (184 − 144)2 ; = √900 + 1600 ; Impedance, Z=50Ω

XL −XC 184−144
(ii) Phase angle is tan ϕ = ; ; = 1.33 ; ϕ = 53.10
𝑅 30
Since the phase angle is positive, voltage leads current by 53.10 for this
inductive circuit.

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72. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC over DC?

Advantages of AC over DC:
The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC
When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the transmission losses are
small compared to DC transmission. AC can easily be converted into DC
with the help of rectifier.
Disadvantages of AC over DC:
Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain application. (e.g)
charging of batteries, electroplating, electric traction etc.,
At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.
73. What are the applications of series RLC resonant circuit?

Applications of series RLC resonant circuit:
RLC circuits have many applications like filter circuits, oscillators, voltage
multipliers etc., An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is in the
tuning circuits of radio and TV systems. To receive the signal of a
particular station among various broadcasting stations at different
frequencies, tuning is done.
74. The equation for an alternating current is given by i = 77 sin 314t. Find the
peak value, frequency, time period and instantaneous value at t = 2 ms.
𝑖 = 77 sin 314t; t = 2 ms = 2×10-3 s
The general equation of an alternating current is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡.
On comparison, (i) Peak value, 𝐼𝑚 = 77 A
𝝎 𝟑𝟏𝟒
(ii) Frequency, 𝒇 = = ; = 50Hz
𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒
1 1
(iii) Time period, T = = = 0.02 s
𝑓 50
(iv) At t = 2 m s, Instantaneous value, 𝑖 = 77 sin (314 x 2×10-3)
𝑖 = 45.24 A

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75. How will you induce an emf by changing the area enclosed by the coil.
EMF induced by changing area enclosed by the coil:
Consider a conducting rod of length ‘𝑙’
moving with a velocity ‘𝑣’ towards left on a
rectangular metallic frame work. The whole
arrangement is placed in a uniform magnetic
field ⃗⃗⃗⃗
B acting perpendicular to the plane
of the coil inwards. As the rod moves from AB
to DC in a time ‘dt’, the area enclosed by the loop and hence the
magnetic flux through the loop decreases.
The change in magnetic flux in time ’dt’ is 𝑑ϕ𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵(𝑙 x 𝑣 𝑑𝑡)
𝒅𝛟𝑩
= 𝑩 𝒍𝒗
𝒅𝒕
This change in magnetic flux results and induced emf and it is given by,
𝒅𝛟𝑩
∈= ; ∈ = 𝑩 𝒍𝒗
𝒅𝒕
This emf is called motional emf. The direction of induced current is
found to be clock wise from Fleming’s right hand rule.
76. A 200 turn coil of radius 2 cm is placed co-axially within a long solenoid of
3 cm radius. If the turn density of the solenoid is 90 turns per cm, then
calculate mutual inductance of the coil.
Number of turns of the solenoid, N2 = 200;

Radius of the solenoid, r = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
Area of the solenoid, A = πr2 = 3.14 x (2 x 10-2)2 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
Turn density of long solenoid per cm, N1 = 90 x 102
𝛍𝟎 𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟐 𝐀
Mutual inductance of the coil, M =
𝒍
𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐱 𝟗𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐱 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏.𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
=
𝟏
= 283956.48 x 10-8 ⟹ M = 2.84 mH

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77. An ideal transformer has 460 and 40,000 turns in the primary and
secondary coils respectively. Find the voltage developed per turn of the
secondary if the transformer is connected to a 230 V AC mains. The
secondary is given to a load of resistance 104Ω. Calculate the power
delivered to the load. (March 2020)
NP = 460 turns; NS = 40,000 turns ; VP = 230 V; RS = 104 Ω

VP N S 230 x 40000
(i) Secondary voltage, VS = = ; VS = 20000V
NP 460
VS 20000
Secondary voltage per turn, = ; = 0.5 V
NS 40000
V2S 20000 x 20000
(ii) Power delivered = VSIS = = ; = 40 kW
RS 104
78. Explain various energy losses in a transformer.

Energy losses in a transformer:
(i) Core loss or Iron loss:
Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss are known as core loss or Iron
loss. When transformer core is magnetized or demagnetized repeatedly by
the alternating voltage applied across primary coil, hysteresis takes place
and some energy lost in the form of heat. It is minimized by using silicone
steel in making transformer core.
Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces eddy currents in it.
Therefore there is energy loss due to the flow of eddy current called eddy
current loss. It is minimized by using very thin laminations of transformer
core.
(ii) Copper loss:
The primary and secondary coils in transformer have electrical
resistance. When an electric current flows through them, some amount of
energy is dissipated due to Joule’s heating and it is known as copper loss.
It is minimized by using wires of larger diameter (thick wire)

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(iii) Flux leakage:

The magnetic flux linked with primary coil is not completely linked
with secondary. Energy loss due to this flux leakage is minimize by winding
coils one over the other.
79. Obtain the expression for average value of alternating current.

Average or Mean value of AC:
The average value of AC is defined as the
average of all values of current over a
positive half-cycle or negative half-cycle.
Expression:
The average or mean value of AC over
one complete cycle is zero. Thus the average or mean value is measured
over one half of a cycle.
The alternating current at any instant is
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The sum of all currents over a half-cycle is given by area of positive half-
cycle (or) negative half- cycle. Consider an elementary strip of thickness
‘𝑑𝜃’ in positive half-cycle, Area of the elementary strip = 𝑖𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Then area of positive half-cycle, = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑖𝑚 [− cos 𝜃 ]0
0 0
−𝑖𝑚 [cos 𝜋 − cos 0] ; −𝑖𝑚 [−1 − 1] ; = 2𝑖𝑚
Then Average value of AC,
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = ; = 0.637𝐼𝑚
𝜋
For negative half-cycle ; Iavg = − 0.637𝑰𝒎

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80. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a magnetic field over
one rotation induces an alternating emf of one cycle.
Induction of emf by changing relative orientation of the coil with the
magnetic field:
Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns kept in a uniform magnetic field
‘B’. The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an angular velocity ‘𝜔’
about an axis. Initially let the plane of the coil be perpendicular to the
field (𝜃 = 0) and the flux linked with the coil has its maximum value.
(i.e.) Φ𝑚 = 𝐵𝐴
In time ‘t’, let the coil be rotated
through an angle𝜃 (= 𝜔𝑡), then the total flux
linked is,
N𝚽𝑩 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 = N𝚽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
According to Faraday’s law, the emf
induced at that instant is,
𝑑 𝑑
∈= − (𝑁Φ𝐵 ) = − (𝑁Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑁Φ𝑚 (– sin 𝜔𝑡)
∈ = 𝑁Φ𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 …………….. (1)
When 𝜃 = 90°, then the induced emf becomes maximum and it is
given by,∈𝑚 = 𝑁Φ𝑚 𝜔 ; = N B A 𝜔 …………….. (2)
Therefore the value of induced emf at that instant is then given by,
∈ =∈𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕…………….. (3)
Thus the induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle and
this is called sinusoidal emf or alternating emf.

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If this alternating voltage is given to a closed circuit, a sinusoidal

varying current flows in it. This current is called alternating current an is
given by, = Im𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (4)
Where, Im → peak value of induced current
81. Find out the phase relationship between voltage and current in a pure
capacitive circuit.
AC circuit containing pure capacitor:
Let a pure capacitor of capacitance ‘C’
connected across an alternating voltage source ‘𝑣’.
The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is
given by, = sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)
Let ‘q’ be the instantaneous charge on the
capacitor. The emf across the capacitor at that instant is,
𝑞
∈ = − − − − (2)
𝐶
From Kirchhoff’s loop rule, 𝑣− ∈ = 0 (or) 𝑣 = ∈
𝒒
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = ∴ q = C𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑪
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(sin 𝜔𝑡)
By the definition of current,𝑖 = ; C𝑉𝑚 ; = C𝑉𝑚(cos𝜔𝑡)𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝑣𝑚 𝜋
𝑖 = ωC𝑉𝑚 sin ( + 𝜔𝑡) ;= 1 sin ( + 𝜔𝑡)
2 ( ) 2
𝜔𝑐
𝝅
𝑖 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + )− − − − (3)
𝟐
𝑣𝑚
Where, 1 = 𝐼𝑚 → Peak value of AC
( )
𝜔𝑐
From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current leads the applied
𝝅
voltage by .This is indicated in the phasor and wave diagram.
𝟐

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Capacitive reactance (XC) :

1
In pure capacitive circuit, ‘ ’ is the resistance offered by the capacitor
𝜔𝑐
and it is called capacitive reactance (XC). Its unit is ohm (𝜴)

𝟏 𝟏
XC = =
𝝎𝒄 𝟐𝝅 𝒇 𝒄
82. Discuss the advantages of AC in long distance power transmission.

Long distance power transmission:
The electric power is
generated in power stations using
AC generators are transmitted over
long distances through transmission
lines to reach towns or cities. This
process is called power
transmission.
But during power transmission, due to Joule’s heating ((I2R) in the
transmission lines, sizable fraction of electric power is lost. This power loss
can be reduced either by reducing current (I) or by reducing resistance
(R)
Here the resistance ‘R’ can be reduced with thick wires of copper
or aluminium. But this increases the cost of production of transmission
lines and hence this method is not economically viable.
Thus by using transformer, the current is reduced by stepped up the
alternating voltage and thereby reducing power losses to a greater extent.
Illustration:
Let an electric power of 2 MW is transmitted through the
transmission lines of resistance 40 Ω at 10 kv and 100 kv
P 2 x106
(i) P = 2 MW, 𝑅 = 40 Ω, 𝑉 = 10 kv, then I= = = 200A
V 10 x103
Power loss = I2R = (200)2x 40 = 1.6 x 106𝑊 1.6 x 106W

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1.6 x106
% of Power loss = = 0.8 = 𝟖𝟎 %
2 x106
(ii) 𝑃 = 2 MW, R = 40 Ω, V = 100 kv , then
P 2 x106
I= = = 20A
V 100 x103
Power loss = I2R = (20)2x 40 = 0.016 x 106w 0.016 x 106 W
0.016 x106
% of Power loss = = 0.008 = 𝟎. 𝟖 %
2 x106
Thus it is clear that, when an electric power is transmitted at high
voltage, the power loss is reduced to a large extent.
So at transmitting point the voltage is increased and the
corresponding current is decreased by using step-up transformer. At
receiving point, the voltage is decreased and the current is increased by
using step-down transformer.
83. Obtain an expression for RMS value of alternating current.

RMS value of AC (IRMS ) :
The root mean square value of an
alternating current is defined as the square root
of the mean of the squares of all currents over
one cycle.
Expression:
The alternating current at any instant is 𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
The sum of the squares of all currents over one cycle is given by the area
of one cycle of squared wave. Consider an elementary area of thickness
‘𝑑𝜃’ in the first half-cycle of the squared current wave.
Area of the element = 𝑖2𝑑𝜃
Area of one cycle of squared wave,
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
1−cos 2𝜃
=∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 2
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ; = 𝐼𝑚
2
∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃
2
0 0 0
[∴ cos 2𝜃 = 1 – 2 sin2𝜃]

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2𝜋 2𝜋
2
𝐼𝑚 2
𝐼𝑚 sin 2𝜃 2𝜋
= [∫0 𝑑𝜃 − ∫0 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ] ; = [𝜃 − ]
2 2 2 0
2
𝐼𝑚 sin 4𝜋 sin 0
= [2𝜋 − −0+ ][∴sin 0 = sin 4𝜋 = 0] ;
2 2 2
2
𝐼𝑚
= [2𝜋] ; = 𝐼𝑚
2
𝜋
2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
Hence, IRMS = √
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝐼 𝜋 2
𝐼 𝐼 2
IRMS = √ 𝑚 = √ 𝑚IRMS = 𝑚 = 0.707 Im
2𝜋 2 √2
Similarly for alternating voltage, it can be shown that,
𝑽𝒎
VRMS = = 0.707 Vm
√𝟐
84. Derive an expression for phase angle between the applied voltage and
current in a series RLC circuit.
Series RLC circuit:
Consider a circuit containing a resistor of
resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductance ‘L’ and
a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across
an alternating voltage source.
The applied alternating voltage is given by,
𝒗 = 𝒗𝒎 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − (1)
Let ‘𝑖’ be the current in the circuit at that instant.
Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C
𝝅
𝑽𝑹 = 𝒊𝑹 (VR is in phase with𝒊 ) ; 𝑽𝑳 = 𝒊𝑿𝑳 (VL leads 𝒊by )
𝟐
𝝅
𝑽𝑪 = 𝒊𝑿𝑪 (VC lags 𝒊 by )
𝟐
The Phasor diagram is drawn by representing current along
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐼 , VR along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and VC along𝑂𝐶
𝑂𝐴, VL along𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,
If VL> VC then the net voltage drop across LC combination is (VL –
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VC) which is represented by 𝐴𝐷

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives the resultant

By parallogram law, the diagonal 𝑶𝑬
voltage”v”
𝒗 = √𝐕𝐑𝟐 + (𝐕𝐋 − 𝐕𝐂 )𝟐 ;
𝑣 = √i2 R2 + (iXL − iXC )2
𝑣 = 𝑖√R2 + (XL − XC )2 (or)
𝑣 𝑣
𝑖= (or) 𝑖 =
√R2 +(XL −XC )2 𝑍
Where, Z = 𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 is called
impedance of the circuit, which refers to the effective opposition to the
circuit current by the series RLC circuit.
From the Phasor diagram, the phase angle between ‘𝑣’ and ‘𝑖’ is
VL −VC XL −XC
found out by tan ϕ = =
VR R
85. Explain the principle, construction and working of transformer.

Transformer:
It is a stationary device used to transform electrical power from one
circuit to another without changing its frequency. It is done with either
increasing or decreasing the applied alternating voltage with corresponding
decrease or increase of current in the circuit.
If the transformer converts an alternating current with low voltage
in to an alternating current with high voltage, it is called step-up
transformer. If the transformer converts an alternating current with
high voltage in to an alternating current with low voltage, it is called
step-down transformer.
Principle:
Mutual induction between two coils.

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Construction:
It consists of two coils of high mutual
inductance wound over the same transformer
core made up of silicone steel. To avoid eddy
current loss, the core is generally laminated.
The alternating voltage is applied across
primary coil (P), and the output is taken across
secondary coil (S)
The assembled core and coils are kept in a container which is filled
with suitable medium for better insulation and cooling purpose.
Working:
The alternating voltage given to the primary coil, set up an
alternating magnetic flux in the laminated core. As the result of flux
change, emf is induced in both primary and secondary coils.
The emf induced in the primary coil ‘∈𝑃’ is almost equal and
opposite to the applied voltage ‘𝑉𝑃’ and is given by,
𝑑ϕ𝐵
VP = ∈𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃 --------- (1)
𝑑𝑡
The frequency of alternating magnetic flux is same as the frequency of
applied voltage. Therefore induced in secondary will also have same
frequency as that of applied voltage, The emf induced in the secondary
𝑑ϕ𝐵
coil ‘∈𝑆’ is, VS = ∈S = −𝑁𝑆 --------- (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
Dividing equating (1) by (2), = --------- (3)
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
Where, K → Transformation ratio
For an ideal transformer, Input Power = Output Power
𝑉𝑆 𝑖
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆 ; = 𝑃 --------- (4)
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑆
From equation (3) and (4), we have
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑃
= = = K --------- (5)
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑆

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(i) If K > 1 (or) NS>NP, then 𝑉𝑆 >𝑉𝑃 and 𝒊s<𝒊P

This is step up transformer in which voltage increased and the
corresponding current is decreased.
(ii) If K < 1 (or) NS<NP, then VS<VP and 𝒊s>𝒊P

This is step down transformer in which voltage decreased and the
corresponding current is increased.
Efficiency of a transformer:
The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the
useful output power to the input power.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= x 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

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UNIT-5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

86. If the relative permeability and relative permittivity of the medium is 1.0
and 2.25, respectively. Find the speed of the electromagnetic wave in this
medium.
𝟏
Speed of electromagnetic wave, 𝒗 =
√𝛍𝛜
1 C 1
= ;= [Where, C = ]
√μr μ0 ϵr ϵ0 √μr ϵr √μ0 ϵ0
3 x 108 3 x 108
= ;= ; 𝒗 =2 x 108 ms-1
√1 x 2.25 1.5
87. Define Fraunhofer lines.

When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is examined, it consists of
large number of dark lines (line absorption spectrum).These dark lines in
the solar spectrum are known as Fraunhofer lines.
88. What are the uses of Fraunhofer lines?

The absorption spectra for various materials are compared with the
Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, which helps to identifying
elements present in the Sun’s atmosphere.
89. A pulse of light of duration 10-6 s is absorbed completely by a small object

initially at rest. If the power of the pulse is 60x10-3 W, calculate the final
momentum of the object.
U
Final momentum of the object, P =
C
Velocity of light, C = 3 x 10 8;
Energy U = power x time
60 x 10−3 x 10−6
Momentum, P = ; P = 20 x 10-17 kg ms-1
3 x 108

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90. Write any four applications of ultra violet rays.

(i) Destroy bacteria (ii) Sterilizing the surgical instruments,
(iii) Burglar alarm (iv) Detect the invisible writing, finger prints
and (v) Study of molecular structure
91. Define absorption spectra.

Absorption spectra:
When light is allowed to pass through an absorbing substance,
then the spectrum obtained is known as absorption spectrum. It is the
characteristic of absorbing substance.
92. Give the modified form of Ampere’s circuital law.

If IC and ID are the conduction and displacement current, then the
modified Ampere’s circuital law is given by, ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 ) (or)
𝑑
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
This is also known as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.
93. What is called pointing vector? Give its unit.

The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as pointing
vector for electromagnetic waves. The pointing vector at any point gives the
direction of energy transport from that point. The unit for pointing vector
is Wm-2

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94. Write a note on ultra violet rays and radio waves.
Ultra violet rays: It is used to,
(i) Destroy bacteria (ii) Sterilizing the surgical instruments,
(iii) Burglar alarm (iv) Detect the invisible writing, finger prints and
(v) Study of molecular structure
Radio waves: It is used in,
(i) Radio and television communication systems
(ii) Cellular phones to transmit voice communication in the ultra high
frequency band.
95. Write a note on infrared rays.

Infrared rays:
It is produced from hot bodies and also when the molecules undergo
rotational and vibrational transitions.
It provides electrical energy to satellites by means of solar cells
It is used in,
(i) Producing dehydrated fruits
(ii) Green housed to keep the plants warm,
(iii) Heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain
(iv) TV remote as a signal carrier, to look through haze off or mist
(v) Night vision or infrared photography

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96. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form.
Maxwell equations-Integral form:
Electrodynamics can be summarized into four basic equations,
known as Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s equations completely explain the
behaviour of charges, currents and properties of electric and magnetic
fields.
This equation ensures the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Equation - 1 :
The net electric flux to net electric charge enclosed in a surface.
𝑸𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
Gauss law is expressed as,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬. 𝒅𝑨 ……..(1)
𝜺𝟎
Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 →Electric field,𝑄𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 →Charge enclosed
Equation - 2 :
It has no name. But this law of similar to Gauss law in electrostatics.
Hence this law can be called as Gauss’s law in magnetism. The surface
integral of magnetic field over a closed surface is zero.
Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎……..(2)
𝑩. 𝒅𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 → Magnetic field.
This equation implies that the magnetic field lines form a continuous
closed path. (i.e.) no isolated magnetic monopole exists
Equation - 3 :
This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒅𝛟𝑩 …………...(3) ;
𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 →Electric field
𝒅𝒕
Equation - 4 :
It is modified Ampere’s circuital law and also called as Ampere -
Maxwell’s law. This law relates the magnetic field around any closed path
to the conduction current and displacement current through that path.

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Mathematically,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝑫 ) (or)

𝑩. 𝒅𝒍
𝑑
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴. Here, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 →Magnetic field.
𝑑𝑡
It implies that both conduction and displacement current produces
magnetic field.
97. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law.

Ampere’s circuital law:
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the change
in magnetic field produces an electric field. Mathematically
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝝏 𝛟𝑩 = − 𝝏 ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬. 𝒅𝒍 𝑩. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
It implies that the electric field 𝐸⃗ is induced along a closed loop
by the changing magnetic flux ϕ𝐵 in the region encircled by the loop.
The converse of this statement that is change in electric flux
produces magnetic field is explained by Maxwell.
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝝏 𝛟𝑩𝑬 = − 𝝏 ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑨
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
This is known as Maxwell’s law of induction.
To understand how the changing electric field
produces magnetic field, let us consider the
situation of charging a parallel plate capacitor.
The electric current passing through the wire is the conduction
current ‘IC’.
This current generates magnetic field around
the wire connected across the capacitor. To
calculate the magnetic field at a point ‘P’ near the
wire, let us consider an amperian loop which
encloses the surface S1 . Thus from Ampere
circuital law,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝑪 …………..(1)
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍

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Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon shaped surface S2,

then the boundaries of two surfaces are same but shape of the enclosing
surfaces are different. Ampere’s law does not depend on shape of the
enclosing surface and hence the integrals will give the same answer.
But there is no current in between the plates of the capacitor, the
magnetic field on the surface is zero. So the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero.
Hence,∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎…………..(2)
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍
Here there is an inconsistency between
equation(1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this
inconsistency as follows.
Due to external source, the capacitor gets
charged up because of current flowing through the
capacitor. This produces an increasing electric field
between the capacitor plates. This time varying electric field (or flux)
existing between the plates of the capacitor also produces a current
known as displacement current.
𝒒
𝑬. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
From Gauss’s law, 𝛟𝑬 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨 =
𝜺𝟎
𝒅𝛟𝑩 𝟏 𝒅𝒒 𝟏
The change in electric flux is, = = 𝑰
𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝟎 𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝟎 𝒅
𝑑ϕ𝐵 𝑑𝑞
∴ 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 . Where, = 𝐼𝑑 →Displacement Current
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The displacement current can be defined as the current which comes
in to play in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux are
changing with time.
So Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰 = (𝑰𝒄 + 𝑰𝒅 )…………..(3)
𝑩. 𝒅𝒍
Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑 →Total Current

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98. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves.

Properties of electromagnetic waves:
Electromagnetic waves are produced by any accelerated charge.
They do not require any medium for propagation. So electromagnetic
waves are non-mechanical wave. They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the
oscillating electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field vector and
direction of propagation are mutually perpendicular to each other. They
travel with speed of light in vacuum or free space and it is given by,
𝟏
C= = 3x108ms-1
√𝜺 𝟎 𝝁𝟎
In a medium with permittivity ‘𝜀’ and permeability ‘𝜇’, the speed of

electromagnetic wave is less than speed in free space or vacuum.
(i.e.) 𝒗<𝒄
𝑪
Hence, refractive index of the medium is, 𝝁 = = √𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓
𝒗
They are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
They show interference, diffraction and polarization.
The energy density (energy per unit volume) associated with and
𝟏
electromagnetic wave propagating in free space is 𝒖 = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑩𝟐
𝝁𝟎
The average energy density for electromagnetic wave is
1 1
(𝑢) = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 = 𝐵2
2 2𝜇0
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time and perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave is called the
intensity.
They carry energy and momentum. The force exerted by an
electromagnetic surface is called radiation pressure.
If the electromagnetic wave incident on a material surface is
completely absorbed, then the energy delivered is ‘U’ and the
𝑼
momentum imparted on the surface is 𝒑 = ,
𝑪

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If the incident electromagnetic wave of energy ‘U’ is totally reflected

from the surface, then the momentum delivered to the surface is
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
∆𝑝 = − (− ) = 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
The rate of flow of energy crossing a unit area is known as pointing
1
vector for electromagnetic waves.⃗⃗⃗
𝑆= (⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 x⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵) = 𝑐 2 𝜀0 (⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 x⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵)
𝜇0
99. Explain in detail the emission spectra.

Emission spectra: The light from self-luminous source gives
emission spectrum. Each source has its own characteristic emission
spectrum.
The emission spectrum can be divided in to three types;
(i) Continuous emission spectra:
Incandescent solids, liquids give continuous spectra.
It consists of wavelengths containing all the visible colours ranging
from violet to red.
(e.g.)Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent filament lamp, etc
(ii) Line emission spectra:
Light from excited atoms gives line spectrum. They are also known
as discontinuous spectra. The line spectra are sharp lines of definite
wavelengths or frequencies. It is different for different elements
(e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, etc
(iii) Band emission spectra:
The light from excited molecules gives band spectrum. It consists of
several numbers of very closely spaced spectral lines which overlapped
together forming specific coloured bands. This spectrum has a sharp edge
at one end and fades out at the other end.
Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule.
(e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the discharge tube, etc

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100. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.

When light is allowed to pass through an absorbing substance, then
the spectrum obtained is known as absorption spectrum. It is characteristic
of the absorbing substance.
Absorption spectrum is classified into three types;
(i) Continuous absorption spectrum:
When the light is passed through a medium, it is dispersed
by the prism, we get continuous absorption spectrum. For instance,
when we pass white light through a blue glass plate, it absorbs everything
except blue. This is an example for continuous absorption spectrum.
(ii) Line absorption spectrum:
When light from incandescent lamp is passed through cold
gas, the spectrum obtained through the dispersion due to the prism is
line absorption spectrum.For example, when light from carbon arc is
made to pass through sodium vapour, a continuous spectrum of carbon
arc with two dark lines in the yellow region of sodium vapour is obtained.
iii) Band absorption spectrum:
When the white light is passed through the iodine vapour,
dark bands on continuous bright background is obtained. This is known
as band absorption spectra. It is also obtained when white light is passed
through diluted solution of blood or chlorophyll or through certain
solutions of organic and inorganic compounds.

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UNIT-6 ORAY OPTICS

101. What are the conditions to achieve total internal reflection?
1) Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
2) Angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle (𝑖>𝑖C)
102. One type of transparent glass has refractive index 1.5. What is the speed
of light through this glass?
𝑐 𝑐 3 x 108
n= ;𝑣= ;𝑣= ; = 2 x 108 ms-1
𝑣 𝑛 1.5
Light travels with a speed of 2 × 108 ms-1 through this glass.
103. State the laws of reflection.

Laws of reflection:
(1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the surface all are
coplanar.
(2) The angle of incidence (𝑖) is equal to angle of reflection (𝑟). 𝒊 = 𝒓
104. State the laws of refraction.

The incident ray, refracted ray and normal are all coplanar.
The ratio of angle of incident ‘i’ in the first medium to the angle
of reflection ‘r’ in the second medium is equal to the ratio of refractive
index of the second medium ‘𝑛2’ to that of the refractive index of the
first medium ‘𝑛1’
sin 𝑖 𝑛2
= . (or) 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
sin 𝑟 𝑛1

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105. Obtain the relation between focal length (f) and radius of curvature (R)
of the spherical mirror.
Relation between f and R :
Let ‘C’ be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
Consider a light ray parallel to the principal axis and incident at ‘M’ on the
mirror. After reflection, it will passes through principal focus ‘F’. The line ‘CM’
is the normal to the mirror at ‘M’. From the
figure (a),
Angle of incidence; = ∠i ;
Angle of reflection; = ∠𝐶𝑀𝐹
By the law of reflection. we have, 𝒊 = 𝒓
Thus, , ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝑖 & ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2 𝑖
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
From ∆𝑀𝐶𝑃 and ∆ ; tan 𝑖 = ; tan 2𝑖 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
As the angles are small, we have 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒊 ≈ 𝒊and 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝒊 ≈ 𝟐𝒊. So
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
𝑖= ………..(1) ; 2𝑖 = ………..(2)
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
Put equation (1) in equation (2)
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀
2 = (or) 2 PF = PC (or)
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹
𝑹
2𝑓 = R ; 𝒇= ………..(3
𝟐

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106. What is the focal length of the combination if the lenses of focal lengths
–70 cm and 150 cm are in contact? What is the power of the
combination?
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Equation for focal length of lenses in contact, = +
𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Substituting the values, = + ;= − +
𝑭 −𝟕𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟕𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎
1 −150 + 70 −80
= ;= ;
𝐹 70 x 150 70 x 150
80 1050
=− ;F=− ; = −131.25 cm
10500 8
As the focal length is negative, the combination of two lenses is a
diverging system of lenses.
1 1
The power of combination is, P = = = −0.76 diopter
𝐹 −1.3125 𝑚
107. The thickness of a glass slab is 0.25 m. it has a refractive index of 1.5. A
ray of light is incident on the surface of the slab at an angle of 600. Find
the lateral displacement of the light when it emerges from the other side
of the mirror.
Given, thickness of the lab, t = 0.25 m,

Refractive index, n = 1.5, angle of incidence,
𝑖 = 600. Using Snell’s law, 1 × sin 𝑖 = n sin r ;
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎
sin r = = = 0.58
𝒏 𝟏.𝟓
R = sin-1 0.58 = 35.250
𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒊−𝒓)
Lateral displacement is, L = t( );
𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝒓)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟔𝟎−𝟑𝟓.𝟐𝟓)
L = (0.25) x ( ) ; = 0.1281 m
𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟑𝟓.𝟐𝟓)
The lateral displacement is, L = 12.81 cm

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108. Calculate the distance for which ray optics is good approximation for an
aperture of 5 mm and wavelength 500 nm.
a = 5 mm = 5 x 10-3m, 𝜆 = 500nm = 500 x 10-9m ; z = ?

𝒂𝟐
Equation for Fresnel’s distance, z =
𝟐𝝀
2
(5 x 10−3 ) 25 x 10−6
Substituting, z = ;= ; z = 25 m
2 x 500 x 10−9 1 x 10−6
109. Why does cloud appears as white colour?

When size of particles or water drops are greater than the wavelength
of light (𝑎≫𝜆), the intensity of scattering is equal for all the wavelength.
Since clouds contains large amount of dust and water droplets, all the
colours get equally scattered irrespective of wavelength.
This is the reason for the whitish appearance of cloud. But the rain clouds
appear dark because of the condensation of water droplets on dust particles
that make the cloud become opaque.
110. Find the dispersive power of flint glass if the refractive indices of flint
glass for red, green and violet light are 1.613, 1.620 and 1.632 respectively.
Given, nV =1.632; nR =1.613; nG =1.620

(𝒏𝑽 − 𝒏𝑹)
Equation for dispersive power is, 𝝎 = (𝒏𝑮 −𝟏)
𝟏.𝟔𝟑𝟐 − 𝟏.𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟗
Substituting the values, 𝝎 = ;= ; = 0.0306
𝟏.𝟔𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏 𝟎.𝟔𝟐𝟎
The dispersive power of flint glass is, 𝝎 = 0.0306

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111. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for lateral magnification.
Mirror equation: The equation which
gives the relation between object
distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣) and
focal length (𝑓) is of spherical mirror
is called mirror equation. Let an
object AB is placed on the principle
axis of a concave mirror beyond the centre of curvature ‘C’
The real and inverted image 𝐴′𝐵′ is formed between C and F
By the laws of reflection,
Angle of incidence (𝑖) = angle of reflection (𝑟) ∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝐵′ 𝑃𝐴′
From figure, ∆𝐵𝑃𝐴 and ∆𝐵′ 𝑃𝐴′ are similar triangles. So
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑷𝑨′
= ………….. (1)
𝑨𝑩 𝑷𝑨
From figure, ∆𝐷𝑃𝐹 and ∆𝐵′ 𝐹𝐴′ are similar triangles.
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑨𝟏 𝑭
So = [PD = AB] = ………….. (2)
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹 𝑨𝑩 𝑷𝑭
𝑃𝐴′ 𝐴′ 𝐹 𝑷𝑨′ 𝑷𝑨′ −𝑷𝑭
From equation (1) and (2), = ; = ……….(3)
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹 𝑷𝑨 𝑷𝑭
By applying sign conventions, 𝑃𝐴 = −𝑢; 𝑃𝐴′ = −𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓
−𝒗 −𝒗−(−𝒇) 𝑣 𝑣 −𝑓 𝑣 𝑣
= (or) = (or) = −1
−𝒖 −𝒇 𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Dividing both sides by ; = − ; + = ………… (4)
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
This is called mirror equation. It is also valid for convex mirror.

Lateral Magnification:
It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (h1) to the
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝑃𝐴′ −ℎ 1 −𝑣
height of the object (h). From equation (1) = ; =
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 ℎ −𝑢
ℎ1 𝑣
Hence magnification, 𝑚 = = − ………… (5)
ℎ 𝑢
𝒉𝟏 𝒇−𝒗 𝒇
Using equation (4) 𝒎 = = = ……… (6)
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇− 𝒖

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112. Obtain Lens maker formula and mention its significance

Lens maker’s formula:
A thin lens of refractive index n2 is
placed in a medium of refractive index n1. Let
R1 and R2 be radii of curvature of two
spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively
Let P be pole of the lens and O be
the Point object.
Here 𝐼′ be the image to be formed due
the refraction at the surface ① and 𝐼 be the final image obtained due the
refraction at the surface ②
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏
We know that, equation for single spherical surface − =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
For refracting surface ①, the light goes from𝑛1 to 𝑛2 , Hence
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
− = ………….. (1)
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝑹𝟏
For refracting surface ②, the light goes from𝑛2 to 𝑛1 , Hence
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
− = ………….. (2)
𝒗 𝒗′ 𝑹𝟏
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
− + − = + ;
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝒗 𝒗′ 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 (𝑛2 −𝑛1 ) 1 1
− = [ − ]
𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
− =( − 𝟏) [ − ]………..(3)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the forcus of the lens.
Thus,𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓
1 1 𝑛2 1 1
Then equation becomes, − =( − 1) [ − ]
𝑓 ∞ 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑛2 1 1
=( − 1) [ − ]…………..(4)
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2

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Here first medium is air and hence n𝟏 = 1 and let the refractive
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
index of second medium be𝑛2 = 𝑛. Therefore = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ]…………..(5)
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
The above equation is called lens maker’s formula.

1 1 1
By comparing equation (3) and (4) − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
This equation is known as lens equation
113. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed of light.

Fizeau’s method:
The light from the source
S was first allowed to fall on a
partially silvered glass plate G
kept at an angle of 450 to the
vertical. The light then allowed
to pass through a rotating
toothed-wheel with N -teeth and
N -cuts.
The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied through an
external mechanism. The light passing through one cut in the wheel get
reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance ‘d’(about 8 km) from
the toothed wheel. If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected
light from the mirror would again pass through the same cut and reach
the observer through G.
Working: The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed wheel was
increased until light passing through one cut would completely be
blocked by the adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be 𝜔
The total distance traveled by the light from the toothed wheel to
the mirror and back to the wheel is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
𝟐𝒅
Then the speed of light in air,𝒗 =
𝒕

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𝜃
But the angular speed is, 𝜔 =
𝑡
Here 𝜃 is angle between the tooth and the slot which is rotated by
the toothed wheel within that time “t”. Then,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 2𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= ; 𝜃= = ;
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ+𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠 2𝑁 𝑁
𝜋
( ) 𝜋 𝜋
Hence, angular speed, 𝜔 = 𝑁
= (or) 𝑡 =
𝑡 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝜔
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝟐 𝒅 𝑵𝝎
Therefore the speed of light in air, = = 𝜋 ;𝑣=
𝑡 ( ) 𝝅
𝑁𝜔
The speed of light in air was determined as , 𝒗 = 2.99792x108 ms-1
114. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.

Apparent depth:
We observe that the bottom of a tank filled with water
with water appears raised as shown. Light OB from the object
’O’ passes through water get refracted in air. The refracted ray
BC appears to come from ‘I’ which is just
above ‘O’ (i.e) the object is appears to be at ‘I’
Refractive index of water = 𝑛1 ,
Refractive index of air = 𝑛2
Angle of incidence in water = 𝑖,
Angle of incidence in air = 𝑟
Original depth of tank = DO = 𝑑,
Apparent depth of tank = DI = 𝑑′
Here 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 . Hence, 𝑖 < 𝑟,
By Snell’s law in product from,
𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
As the angles are small, we can write
sin 𝑖 ≈ tan 𝑖 and sin 𝑟 ≈ tan 𝑟
Hence, 𝒏𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒓……………(1)

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𝑫𝑩 𝑫𝑩 𝑫𝑩 𝑫𝑩
In ∆𝐷𝑂𝐵 and ∆𝐷𝐼𝐵, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒊 = = , 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒓 = =
𝑫𝑶 𝒅 𝑫𝑰 𝒅′
𝑫𝑩 𝑫𝑩
Put this in equation (1) 𝒏𝟏 [ ] = 𝒏𝟏𝟐 [ ]
𝒅 𝒅′
𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏𝟏 ; ∴ 𝒅′ = 𝒅
𝒅 𝒅′ 𝒏𝟏
𝒅
For air ; 𝑛2 = 1 and let 𝑛2 = n, then apparent depth 𝒅′ =
𝒏
Thus the bottom appears to be elevated by (𝑑 − 𝑑′)
𝒅 𝟏
𝒅 − 𝒅′ = 𝒅 = = 𝒅 (𝟏 − )
𝒏 𝒏
115. Obtain the equation for lateral displacement of light passing through a
glass slab.
Refraction through a glass slab:
Consider a glass slab of thickness t
and refractive index n kept in air medium. If
the path of the light is ABCD, the refractions
occur at two points B and C in the glass
slab. The angles of incidence i and refraction
r are measured with respect to the normal
N1 and N2 at the two points B and C
respectively. The lateral displacement L is
the perpendicular distance CE drawn
between the paths of the deviated light and
the un-deviated light at point C. The
perpendicular distance “CE” between
refracted ray and incident ray at C gives the lateral displacement (L).
𝐿
In∆𝐵𝐶𝐸, sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) = ;
𝐵𝐶
𝐿
𝐵𝐶 =
sin (𝑖−𝑟)
𝑡
In ∆𝐵𝐶𝐸, cos r = ;
𝐵𝐶
𝑡
𝐵𝐶 =
cos 𝑟

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𝐿 𝑡
Hence, = ;
sin (𝑖−𝑟) cos 𝑟
sin(𝑖− 𝑟)
L = t[ ]
cos 𝑟
Therefore, lateral displacement depends on,
Thickness of the glass slab, Angle of incidence.
116. Derive the equation for effective focal length for lenses in contact.
Focal length of lenses in contact:
Let us consider two lenses ① and ②
of focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed co-axially in
contact with each other. Let the object is
placed at ‘O’ beyond the principal focus of
① on the principal axis.
It forms an image at ′ . This image 𝐼′
acts as an object for lens ② and hence the final image is formed at ‘I’
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Writing the lens equation for lens ① − = …………..(1)
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝒇𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Writing the lens equation for lens ② − = …………..(2)
𝒗 𝒗′ 𝒇𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get, − + − = +
𝒗′ 𝒖 𝒗 𝒗′ 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = + ………….. (3)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
If this combination acts as a single lens of focal length “F”, then,

1 1 1
− = ………….. (4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝐹
1 1 1
Compare equation (3) and (4) = + ………….. (5)
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
For any number of lenses, = + + + +….
𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝟒
Let P1, P2, P3, P4 …. be the power of each lens then the net
power of the lens combination, P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + ….
Let m1, m2, m3, m4 …. be the magnification of each lens then
the net magnification of the lens combination, m = m1 x m2 x m3 x m4 x ….

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UNIT-7 WAVE OPTICS

117. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish during sunset and sunrise?
During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun travels a greater
distance through atmosphere. Hence the blue light which has shorter
wavelength is scattered away and less scattered red light of longer
wavelength reaches observer. This is the reason for reddish appearance of
sky and Sun during sunrise and sunset.
118. Why does sky appear blue?

According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter wavelengths (violet)
scattered much more than longer wavelengths (Red). As our eyes are
more sensitive to blue colour than violet, the sky appears blue during day
time.
119. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a distant source falls on a single
slit 1 mm wide and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
2 m away. What is the distance between the first dark fringes on either side
of the central bright fringe?
𝝀𝑫
Fringe width in single slit experiment 𝛃 =
𝒅
2
β = 600x10 x -9
(1X10−3 )
;
𝛃 =1.2 mm
Distance between dark fringes which are on either side of the central
bright fringe =2x12=24 mm

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120. What is bandwidth of interference pattern?

The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
What are the conditions for obtaining clear and broad interference bands?
(1) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
(2) The wavelength of light used must be larger.
(3) Two coherent sources must be as close as possible
121. A monochromatic light is incident on an equilateral prism at an angle 300

and emerges at an angle of 750. What is the angle of deviation produced
by the prism?
Given, as the prism is equilateral,

A=600; 𝑖1 =300; 𝑖2 =750
Equation for angle of deviation, d = 𝒊1 + 𝒊2 – A
Substituting the values, d = 300 +750 – 600 = 450
The angle of deviation produced is, d = 450
122. What is Rayleigh’s scattering?

The scattering of light by atoms and molecules which have size
(𝒂) very less than that of the wavelength (𝜆) of light is called Rayleigh’s
scattering. (i.e) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is 𝒂 << 𝜆
123. State Rayleigh’s scattering law.

The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely proportional to
1
fourth power of wavelength (𝜆) . 𝐼 ∝
𝜆4

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124. State Huygens’s principle.

Huygens’s principle:
Each point of the wave front is the source of secondary wavelets which
spreading out in all directions with speed of the wave. The envelope to
all this wavelet gives the position and shape of the new wave front at a later
time.
125. State Malus’ law.

Malus’s law :
When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity I0 is incident on
an analyzer, the light transmitted of intensity I from the analyzer varies
directly as the square of the cosine of the angle 𝛉 between the
transmission axis of polarizer and analyzer. This is known as Malus’ law.
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛉
126. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.

Interference Diffraction
Superposition of two waves Bending of waves around edges

Superposition of waves from two Superposition wave fronts
Coherent sources. emitted from various points of
the same wave front.
Equally spaced fringes. Unequally spaced fringes
Intensity of all the bright fringes is Intensity falls rapidly for higher
almost same orders
Large number of fringes are Less number of fringes are
obtained obtained

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127. In Young’s double slit experiment, 62 fringes are seen in visible region for
sodium light of wavelength 5893 Å. If violet light of wavelength 4359 Å
is used in place of sodium light, then what is the number of fringes seen?
𝜆1 = 5893 Å; 𝜆2 = 4359 Å , n1 = 62 , n2 = ?
𝑛1 𝜆1 𝐷 𝑛2 𝜆2 𝐷
From young’s double slit experiment. =
𝑑 𝑑
The above condition is total extent of fringes is constant for both
62 x 5893 x 10−10 x D n2 x 5893 x 10−10 x D
wavelengths. = ;
d d
62 x 5893 365366
n2 = ;= ; = 83.8
4359 4359
128. The angle of minimum deviation for a prism is 370. If the angle of prism is
600, find the refractive index of the material of the prism.
A+D
sin ( )
Equation for refractive index is, n = 2
A
Sin ( )
2
0
60 +37 0
sin ( ) sin (48.50 ) 0.75
2
Substituting the values, n = 0 ;= ;= ; = 1.5;
Sin (
60
) Sin (300 ) 0.5
2
The refractive index of the material of the prism is, n = 1.5
129. What are called constructive and destructive interference?

Constructive interference:
During superposition of two coherent waves, the points where the
crest of one wave meets the crest of other (or) the trough of one wave
meets the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase. Hence the
displacement is maximum and these points appear as bright.
This type of interference is said to be constructive interference.

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Destructive interference:
During superposition of two coherent waves, the points where the
crest of one wave meets the trough of other (or) vice versa, the waves
are out-of-phase. Hence the displacement is minimum and these points
appear as dark. This type of interference is said to be destructive
interference.
130. State and prove Brewster’s law.

Brewster’s law:
The angle of incidence at which a beam of
un-polarized light falling on a transparent
surface is reflected as a beam of plane
polarized light is called polarizing angle or
Brewster’s angle (𝑖𝑃). Sir David Brewster found
that, at polarizing angle, the reflected and
transmitted rays are perpendicular to each
other.
Let, incident polarizing angle = Angle of refraction (𝑟)
From the figure,
𝑖𝑃 + 900 + 𝑟𝑃 = 1800 ;
r𝑃= 𝟗𝟎0 − 𝒊𝑷 − − − −(1)
sin 𝑖𝑝 sin 𝑖𝑝 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒑
From Snell’s law =𝑛 ; =𝑛 ; = 𝒏 ; 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝒊𝑷 = 𝒏
sin 𝑟𝑝 sin(900 −𝑖𝑝 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊𝒑
This relation is known as Brewster’s law. This law states that, the
tangent of the polarizing angle for a transparent medium is equal to
its refractive index.

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131. Two light sources with amplitudes 4 units and 2 units respectively
interfere with each other. Calculate the ratio of maximum and minimum
intensities.
Amplitudes, a1 = 4, a2 = 2
Resultant amplitude, A = √𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛟
Resultant amplitude is, maximum when,

ϕ = 0, cos 0 = 1, Amax = √a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2
Amax = √(a1 + a2 )2 ; = √(4 + 2)2 ; = √(6)2 ; = 6 units
Resultant amplitude is, minimum when,
ϕ = π, cos π = −1, Amin = √a21 + a22 − 2a1 a2
Amin = √(a1 − a2 )2 ; = √(4 − 2)2 ; = √(2)2 ; = 2 units
I𝑚𝑎𝑥 (A𝑚𝑎𝑥 )2 I𝑚𝑎𝑥 (6)2 36
I ∝ A2 ; = (A𝑚𝑖𝑛 )2
; Substituting = (2)2 ; = ; 9 Imax : Imin = 9 : 1
I𝑚𝑖𝑛 I𝑚𝑖𝑛 4
132. Write a note on pile of plates.

Pile of plates:
It works on the principle of polarization by reflection.
It consists of a number of glass plates placed one
over the other in a tube. These plates are inclined
at an angle 33.70 to the axis of the tube.
A beam of un-polarized light is allowed to fall on
the pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So
the angle of incidence of light will be 56.30
which is the polarizing angle for glass.
The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence are reflected at each surface and those
parallel to it are transmitted. The pile of plates is used as a polarizer
and also as an analyzer.

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133. A microscope has an objective and eyepiece of focal lengths 5 cm and

50 cm respectively with tube length 30 cm. Find the magnification of the
microscope in the (i) near point and (ii) normal focusing.
f0 = 5cm = 5 x 10-2 m ; fe = 50 cm = 50 x 10-2 m

L = 30 cm = 30 x 10-2m ; D = 25 cm = 25 x 10-2 m
(i) The total magnification m in near point focusing is ,
𝑳 𝑫
m = mome = ( ) (𝟏 + )
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝒆
30 x 10−2 25 x 10−2
Substituting, mome = ( ) (1 + ) ; = (6) (1.5) = 9
5 x 10−2 50 x 10−2
(ii) The total magnification m in normal focusing is,
𝑳 𝑫
m = m o me = ( ) ( )
𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝒆
30 x 10−2 25 x 10−2
Substituting, mome = ( −2 ) ( ) ; = (6) (0.5) = 3
5 x 10 50 x 10−2
134. List the uses of Polaroid’s.

Uses of Polaroid’s:
Used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light
Used in holography (three dimensional motion pictures)
Used to improve contrast in old oil paintings
Used in optical stress analysis.
Used as window glasses to control the intensity of incoming light
Polarized needle beam acts as needle to read/write in compact discs (CDs)
Polaroid produce polarized lights to be used in liquid crystal display
LCD)

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135. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to interference of light.
Resultant intensity due to interference:
Let S1 and S2 are the two light waves meeting
at a point ‘P’ At any instant ‘t’, the displacement
equations,
𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 −−−− (1)
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) − − − − (2)
Where, 𝜙→ phase difference between them
Then the resultant displacement,
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
By solving this, we get,𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) − − − − (3)
𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜙
Where, A = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑎1 +𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
(1) When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4, … …. .the resultant intensity becomes maximum.
Amax = √(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
(2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant intensity becomes
minimum.
Amin = √(𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
The intensity of light is directly proportional to the square of the
amplitude. 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 ; 𝐼 ∝ 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
𝐼 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐√𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛟− − − − (4)
1) When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4, … …. .the resultant intensity becomes maximum.
This is called constructive interference. 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 − − − − (5)

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(2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant intensity becomes

minimum.
This is called destructive interference.𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 − − − − (6)
Special case:
If 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎, then resultant amplitude,
A = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 ; A = √2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝜙
A = √2𝑎2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) ; A = √2𝑎2 [2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )]
2
𝜙
A = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )− − − − (7)
2
If 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼0 , then the resultant intensity, 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 ;
𝜙 𝜙
𝐼 ∝ 4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) ; 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )…………….. (8)
2 2
When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4, … ….𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 𝐼0 and
𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … ….𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
Thus the phase difference between the two waves decides the
intensity of light at the point, where the two waves meet.
136. Prove laws of refraction using Huygens’ Principle.

Laws of refraction - Proof:
Let XY be the refracting surface.
𝐴𝐴′= 𝑣2 𝑡 and 𝐵𝐵′ = 𝑣1 𝑡
𝐵𝐵′ 𝑣1
∴ = …………… (1)
𝐴𝐴′ 𝑣2
Law (1):
The incident rays, refracted rays
and the normal are in the same plane.
Law (2):
Angle of incidence, ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐿 = 900− ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐴𝑩′
Angle of refraction, ∠𝒓 = ∠𝑵′ 𝑩′ 𝑴′ = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 − ∠𝑵′ 𝑩′ 𝑨′ = ∠𝑨′𝑩′𝑨

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𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 ( ) 𝐵𝐵′ 𝑣1 ( ) 𝑛2
𝑛1
From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐵′ and ∆𝐵 𝐴 𝐴; ′ ′
= 𝐴𝐵′
𝐴𝐴′ = = = 𝐶 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 ( ) 𝐴𝐴′ 𝑣2 ( ) 𝑛1
𝐴𝐵′ 𝑛2
In product form, 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒓
137. Obtain the equations for constructive and destructive interference for
transmitted and reflected waves in thin films.
Interference in thin films:
Consider a thin film of transparent
material of refractive index “𝜇” and thickness
“t”. A parallel beam of light is incident on
the film at an angle ‘𝑖’
At upper surface, the light wave is
divided in to two parts. One part is reflected
and other part is refracted.
Interference due to transmitted light:
If we approximate the incidence to be nearly normal (𝑖 = 0), then
the points ‘B’ and ‘D’ are very close to each other. The extra distance
travelled by the wave transmitted at ‘D’ is (BC +CD). Hence the path
difference between the waves transmitted from ‘B’ and ‘D’ is
𝛿 = 𝜇 (𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) = 𝜇 (𝑑 + 𝑑)
𝜹 = 𝟐𝝁𝒅 − − − (1)
(1) The condition for constructive interference in transmitted ray is, 𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆
(𝑜𝑟) 𝟐𝝁 = 𝒏𝝀 − − − (2)
(2) The condition for destructive interference in transmitted ray is, 𝜹
𝜆 𝜆
=(2𝑛 − 1) (𝑜𝑟) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 = (2𝑛 − 1) ……………..(3)
2 2
Interference due to reflected light:
When light travelling in a rarer medium and getting reflected by a
denser medium, undergoes a phase change of𝜋.

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𝜆
Hence an additional path difference of is introduced.
2
Again for normal incidence (𝑖 = 0), the points ‘A’ and ‘C’ are very close to
each other. The extra distance travelled by the wave coming out from ‘C’
is (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) . Hence the path difference between the waves reflected at ‘A’
and ‘C’ is𝛿 = 𝜇 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) = 𝜇 (𝑑 + 𝑑) = 2 𝜇𝑑
𝜆
Since additional path difference is introduceddue to reflection at A,
2
𝜆
the total path difference, = 𝟐𝝁𝒅 + ……………..(4)
2
1) The condition for constructive interference in reflected ray is
𝜆 𝜆
𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 (or) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 + = (or) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 = (2𝑛 − 1) ……………..(5)
2 2
2) The condition for destructive interference in reflected ray is,
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
𝜹 =(2𝑛 + 1) (or) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 + = (2𝑛 + 1) (or)
2 2 2
𝟐𝝁𝒅 = 𝑛𝜆………………(6)
Equation (5) and (6) shows that the bright and darkfringes are of same
width equally spaced on either side of central bright fringe
138. Discuss about astronomical telescope.

Astronomical telescope:
An astronomical
telescope is used to get
the magnification of
distant astronomical
objects like stars, planets.
The image formed by this
will be inverted. It has an
objective of long focal
length and a much larger aperture than eye piece. Light from a distant
object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its
second focal point.

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The eye piece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.
Magnification (m) :
The magnification ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle 𝛽 subtended at the
eye by the final image to the angle 𝛼 which the object subtends at the
𝛽
lens or the eye.𝑚 =
𝛼
ℎ
[ ] 𝑓0
𝑓𝑒
From figure, = ℎ ; 𝑚=
[ ] 𝑓𝑒
𝑓0
The length of the telescope is approximately, 𝑳 = 𝒇𝟎 + 𝒇𝒆
139. Obtain the equation for Path difference and bandwidth in Young’s double
slit experiment.
Path difference (𝜹) :
Let distance between S1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 S2 =𝑑,
Distance of the screen from double slit = D,
Wavelength of coherent light wave= 𝜆
Hence path difference between the
light waves from S1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 S2to the point ‘P’
is 𝛿 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑠2 𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑀
From the figure,∠𝑂𝐶𝑃 = ∠𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 = 𝜃
𝑠2 𝑀 𝛿
In ∆𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 , 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = = ; ∴ 𝜹 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽. 𝒅
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑑
Here 𝜃 is small. Hence, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝜹 = 𝜽. 𝒅……………. (1)
𝑂𝑃 𝑦
Also. in ∆𝑂𝐶𝑃, 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐶 𝐷
𝒚
Put this in equation (1) 𝜹 = 𝒅--------------- (2)
𝑫
Point ‘P’ may be appear either bright or dark depending on the
path difference.

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Condition for bright fringe (maxima):

For constructive interference, the path difference will be,
𝑦
𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 [𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … ] ; 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷
Thus the distance of the nth bright fringe from “O” is
𝑫
𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏𝝀--------------- (3)
𝒅
Condition for dark fringe (minima):
For destructive interference, the path difference will be,
𝜆
𝛿 = (2𝑛 − 1) [𝑛 = 1, 2, … ]
2
𝑦 𝜆
𝑑 = (2𝑛 − 1)
𝐷 2
Thus the distance of the nth dark fringe from “O” is
𝑫 𝝀
𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) ---- (4)
𝒅 𝟐
Band width (𝛃) :
The band width is defined as the distance between any two
consecutive bright or dark fringes. The distance between (n+1)th and nth
consecutive bright fringes from ‘O’ is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝛽= (𝑛 + 1)𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆 ; 𝛽 = 𝜆 ----------- (5)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Similarly the distance between (n+1)th and nth Consecutive dark
fringes from ‘O’ is 𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
𝐷 𝜆 𝐷 𝜆
𝛽= [2(𝑛 + 1) − 1] − (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
𝐃
𝜷 = 𝛌----------- (6)
𝐝
Equation (5) and (6) shows that the bright and dark fringes are of
same width equally spaced on either side of central bright fringe.

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140. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle.

Laws of reflection - Proof:
𝑋𝑌 − Reflecting surface, 𝐴𝐵 −Incident plane wave front.
The incident rays from L and M are
perpendicular to this incident wave
front. Initially the point ‘A’ reaches
reflecting surface.
Then the successive points between
AB reach the surface.
Finally, by the time B reaches 𝐵′, the point A would have reached 𝐴′
This is applicable to all the points on the wave front AB. Thus the
reflected wave front𝐴′𝐵′ emanates as a plane wave front.
The line from 𝑳′𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑴′ perpendiculars to 𝑨′𝑩 represent reflected rays.
.As the reflection happens in the same medium, the speed of light is
same before and after reflection. Hence, 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐵𝐵′
Law (1):
The incident rays, the reflected rays and the normal are in the same
plane.Law (2):
Angle of incidence, ∠𝒊 = ∠𝑵𝑨𝑳 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 − ∠𝑵𝑨𝑩 = ∠𝑩𝑨𝑩′
Angle of reflection, ∠𝒓 = ∠𝑵′ 𝑩′ 𝑴′ = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝑵′ 𝑩′ 𝑨′ = ∠𝑨′𝑩′𝑨
In ∆𝑨𝑩𝑩′ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∆𝑩′𝑨′𝑨, ∠𝑩 = ∠𝑨′ = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 ; 𝑨𝑨′ = 𝑩𝑩′ and
Hypotenuse 𝐴𝐵′ is common
Thus the two triangles are congruent. (i.e) ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵′ = ∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐴
∴ ∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓
Hence laws of reflection are proved.

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UNIT-8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

141. How many photons of frequency 1014 Hz will make up 19.86 J of energy?
Total energy emitted per second = Power x time

19.86 = Power x 1 s ; ∴ Power = 19.86 W
𝑃 𝑃 19.86
Number of photons, n = = ;=
𝐸 ℎ𝜐 6.6 x 10−34 x 1014
= 3.009 x 1020 n = 3 x 1020 ; np = 3 x 1020
142. List the properties of X-rays.

Properties of X - rays:
They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
They are not deflected both by electric and magnetic field
X-ray photons are highly energetic
They pass through materials which are opaque to visible light.
143. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.

Work function of a metal.
The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the
metal surface is called work function of that metal. It is denoted by ϕ0 .
Its unit is electron volt (eV).
144. Define threshold frequency.

Threshold frequency:
For a giver surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only
if the frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum
frequency called threshold frequency.

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145. Define stopping potential.

The negative or retarding potential given to collecting electrode
which is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons emitted
and make the photo current zero is called stopping potential or cut - off
potential.
146. Derive an expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electrons.
de-Broglie wavelength of electrons:
An electron of mass m is accelerated through a potential difference of
1
V volt. The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is given by 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑣
2
2𝑒𝑉 2𝑒𝑉
Hence the speed of the electron is , 𝑣 2 = ;𝑣=√ ………(1)
𝑚 𝑚
ℎ ℎ
The de Broglie wavelength of electron is 𝜆 = =
𝑚𝑣 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚√
𝑚
h
𝜆= ……….……(2)
√2 m e V
Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 JS. e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕 𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
∴ 𝛌= = Å
√𝐕 √𝐕
147. Derive the expression of de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves.

De-Broglie wavelength of matter waves:
The momentum of photon of frequency ′𝜈′ is,
𝐄 𝐡𝐯 𝐡
𝐩 = = = [c = 𝜆𝑣]
𝐜 𝐜 𝛌
According to de Broglie, this equation is applicable to matter particle also.
Let ‘m’ be the mass and ‘𝒗’ be the velocity of the particle, then the
𝐡 𝐡
wavelength. 𝛌 = =
𝐦𝐯 𝐩
This wavelength of the matter waves is known as de Broglie wavelength.

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148. Explain the applications of X -rays

(1) Medical diagnosis:
X - Rays can pass through flesh more easily than through bones. Thus X -
ray radiograph containing a deep shadow of the bones and a light shadow
of flesh. So X -rays radiographs are used to detect fractures, foreign
bodies, diseased organs etc.,
(2) Medical therapy:
X - ray can kill diseased tissues. So they are employed to cure skin diseases,
malignant tumours etc.,
(3) Industry:
They are used to check for flaws in welded joints, motor tyres, tennis balls
and wood, At the custom post, they are used for detection of contraband
goods.
(4) Scientific Research:
X - ray diffraction is important tool to study the structure of the crystalline
materials (i.e) the arrangement of atoms and molecules in crystals.
149. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a proton whose kinetic energy is

equal to 81.9 × 10–15 J. (Given: mass of proton is 1836 times that of
electron).
Mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg, KE = 81.9 x 10-15 J

𝒉
de Broglie wavelength of a proton, 𝝀 =
√𝟐𝒎𝑲
6.6 x 10−34
= ;
√2 x 1.67 x 10−27 x 81.9 x10−15
6.6 x 10−34
= ; = 3.99 x 10-14
1.6539 x 10−20
𝝀 = 4 x 10-14 m

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150. List out the laws of photoelectric effect.

Laws of photoelectric effect:
For a given frequency of incident light, the number of photoelectrons
emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
The saturation current is also directly proportional to the intensity
of incident light.
Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of
intensity of the incident light.
Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons from a given metal is
directly proportional to the frequency of incident light.
For a given surface, the emission of photo electrons takes place only
if the frequency of incident light is greater than a certain minimum
frequency called the threshold frequency.
There is no time lag between incidence of light and ejection of
photoelectrons. (i.e.) photo electric effect is an instantaneous process

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151. Write a note on characteristic X - ray spectra.

When the target is hit by fast
electrons, the obtained X - ray spectra
shows some narrow peaks at some
well-defined wavelength.
The line spectrum showing these
peaks is called characteristic X - ray
spectrum. This X -ray spectrum is due to
the electronic transitions within the
atoms. For example, when an energetic
electron penetrates in to the target atom
and removes the electrons in K - shell and
create a vacancy in it.
Such wavelengths, characteristic of
the target, constitute the line spectrum. It
is evident that K - series of lines in the
X - ray spectrum arise due to the electronic transitions from
L, M. N, O, …..shells to K - shell.
Similarly L - series originates due to electronic transition from M, N, O,
……… shells to L - shell.

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152. Describe briefly Davisson-Germer experiment which demonstrated the
wave nature of electron.
Davisson - Gerner experiment:
De Broglie hypothesis of matter
waves was experimentally confirmed by
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in
1927.They demonstrated that electron
beams are diffracted when they fall
on crystalline solids. Since crystal can
act as a three-dimensional diffraction
grating for matter waves, the electron
waves incident on crystals are
diffracted off in certain specific
directions.
The filament F is heated by a low
tension (L.T.) battery so that electrons are emitted from the hot filament
by thermionic emission. They are then accelerated due to the potential
difference between the filament and the anode aluminium cylinder by a high
tension (H.T.) battery.
Electron beam is collimated by using two thin aluminium diaphragms
and is allowed to strike a single crystal of Nickel. The electrons scattered
by Ni atoms in different directions are received by the electron detector
which measures the intensity of scattered electron beam.
The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper so that the angle
𝜃 between the incident beam and the scattered beam can be changed at

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our will. The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured as a

function of the angle θ.
The graph shows the variation of
intensity of the scattered electrons with the
angle θ for the accelerating voltage of
54V.For a given accelerating voltage V, the
scattered wave shows a peak or maximum
at an angle of 500 to the incident electron
beam. This peak in intensity is attributed to
the constructive interference of electrons
diffracted from various atomic layers of the
target material.
From the known value of inter planar spacing of Nickel, the
wavelength of the electron wave has been experimentally calculated as
1.65Å.
The wavelength can also be calculated from de Broglie relation
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
for V = 54 V as 𝝀 = Å= Å = 1.67Å
√𝑽 √𝟓𝟒
This value agrees well with the experimentally observed wavelength
of 1.65Å.Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s hypothesis of
the wave nature of moving particles.

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153. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo electric current.

Effect of potential difference on photoelectric current:
Let the frequency and intensity of
the incident light are kept constant. Now,
the potential of A is increased and the
corresponding photocurrent is noted.
Similarly, a negative (retarding) potential is
applied to A and again the photocurrent is
noted. Plot a graph by taking anode
potential along x -axis and photo current
along y - axis
From the graph,
(1) When the potential of A increases, the photo current also increases
and reaches a saturation value called saturation current.
(2) When a negative potential is applied to A, the photo current does
not immediately drop to zero, because the photo electrons are
emitted with some definite and different kinetic energies.
(3) If the negative or retarding potential of A gradually increased, the
photo current starts decreasing and becomes zero at one particular
negative potential 𝑣0
(4) The value of negative or retarding potential give to anode A which is
just Sufficient to stop the most energetic photo electrons emitted
and make the photo current zero is called stopping potential or
cut-off potential (𝑣0 )
(5) Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron (0 is equal to
the work done by the stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.)
𝟏 𝟐 𝒆 𝒗𝟎
𝒆𝒗𝟎 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 (or) 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ = 5.93 x 105√𝒗𝟎
𝟐 𝒎

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154. Give the construction, working and applications of photo emissive cell.
Photo emissive cell:
It consists of an evacuated glass or
quartz bulb in which two metallic electrodes a
cathode and an anode are fixed. The cathode C
is semi- cylindrical in shape and is coated with
a photosensitive material. The anode A is a thin
rod or wire kept along the axis of the
semi- cylindrical cathode.
A potential difference is applied between
the anode and the cathode through a
galvanometer G.
Working:
When cathode is illuminated, electrons are
emitted from it.
These electrons are attracted by anode and hence a current is
produced which is measured by the galvanometer. For a given cathode,
the magnitude of the current depends on(1)the intensity to incident
radiation and (2)the potential difference between anode and cathode.
Applications of photo cells:
1) Switches and sensors. Automatic lights that turn on when it gets
dark use photocells,
2) Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in motion pictures.
3) Measure the speeds of athletes during a race.
4) Photography are used to measure the intensity

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155. Briefly explain the principle and working of electron microscope.

Electron microscope:
Principle:
The wave nature of the
electron is used in the construction
of microscope called electron
microscope. The resolving power of
a microscope is inversely
proportional to the wavelength of
the radiation used. Thus higher
resolving power can be obtained by
employing the waves of shorter
wavelengths.
De Broglie wavelength of
electron is very much less than (a few
thousands less) that of the visible light. As a result, the microscopes
employing de Broglie waves of electrons have very much higher resolving
power than optical microscope. Electron microscopes giving magnification
more than 2,00,000 times are common in research laboratories.
Working:
The construction and working of an electron microscope is similar to
that of an optical microscope except that in electron microscope focusing
of electron beam is done by the electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
The electron beam passing across a suitably arranged either electric
or magnetic fields undergoes divergence or convergence thereby focusing
of the beam is done

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The electrons emitted from the source are accelerated by high

potentials. The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser lens.
When the beam passes through the sample whose magnified
image is needed, the beam carries the image of the sample. With the
help of magnetic objective lens and magnetic projector lens system, the
magnified image is obtained on the screen. These electron microscopes are
being used in almost all branches of science.
156. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with necessary explanation.

Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation:
When a photon of energy ‘ℎ𝜈’ is incident on a metal surface, it is
completely absorbed by a single electron and the electron is ejected.
In this process, the energy of incident photon is utilized in two ways.
(1) Part of the photon energy is used for the ejection of the
electrons from the metal surface and it is called work function (𝜙0 )
(2) Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K) of the ejected
electron.
From the law of conservation of energy,ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾 (or)
1
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + 𝑚𝑣 2 ……………….. (1)
2
Where m →mass of the electron and υ → velocity
At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of ejected electrons will
be zero. (i.e.)when𝑣 = 𝑣0 then 𝐾 = 0 Thus equation (1) becomes
ℎ𝑣0 = 𝜙0 ……………….(2)
1
Put equation (2) in (1)ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣0 + 𝑚𝑣 2 ……………….. (3)
2
The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

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1
Kmax. Thenℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣0 + [ 𝑚𝑣 2 ]
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
(or) 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝑣0 (or)
2
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0 ……………….. (4)
A graph between maximum kinetic
energy Kmax of the photoelectron and
frequency ν of the incident light is a
straight line.
UNIT-9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

157. What is meaning by decay rate? Give its unit.

Activity: or decay rate which is the number of nuclei decayed per second
𝑑𝑁
and it is denoted as R. R = . Its unit is Becquerel (Bq) and curie (Ci)
𝑑𝑡
158. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay.

Alpha decay:
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an α-particle ( 42He), its
Atomic number (Z) decreases by2, the mass number (A)
decreases by 4.The α- decay process symbolically written as
A
ZX → A−4
Z−2Y + 42He . (e.g.) 238
92U →
234
90Th + 42He
159. Define one Becquerel.

One Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per second.
𝟏𝑩𝒒 = 𝟏 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐲 /𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝
160. What is radio carbon dating?

Radioactive dating or carbon dating: The technique to estimate the age
of ancient object by using radio carbon isotope (14C)

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161. Define one curie.

One curie:
One curie was defined as number of decays per second in 1 g of
radium. 1 Ci =3.7x1010 decay / second.
162. Define impact parameter.

The impact parameter (b) is defined as the perpendicular distance
between the centre of the gold nucleus and the direction of velocity
vector of alpha particle when it is at a large distance.
163. Define ionization potential.

Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy per unit charge.
The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is, 𝑽𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝑽
164. Give the properties of nuclear forces?

Properties of Nuclear forces:
The strong nuclear force is of very short range, acting only up to a
distance of a few Fermi. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts with an equal strength
between proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron – neutron.
Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons. So it does not
alter the chemical properties of the atom.
165. Define radioactivity.

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating
radiations such as α, β and γ rays by an element is called radioactivity
and the substances which emit these radiations are called radioactive
elements.

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166. State the properties of neutrino.

Properties of neutrino:
It has zero charge; It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has very tiny mass.
It interacts very weakly with the matter. Therefore, it is very difficult to
detect.
167. Explain any three important inferences of the average binding energy
curve.
Binding energy:
(1) The value of ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 rises as the mass number A increases until it reaches
a maximum value of 8.8 MeV for A = 56(iron) and then it slowly
decreases.
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV for nuclei
having mass number between A = 40 and 120. These elements are
comparatively more stable and not radioactive.
(3) For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces lowly and for uranium is
about 7.6 MeV. They are unstable and radioactive.
(4) If two light nuclei with A<28 combine to form heavier nucleus, the
binding energy per nucleon is more for final nucleus than initial nuclei.
Thus, if the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus of
medium value A, a large amount of energy will be released. This is
the basis of nuclear fusion and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.
(5) If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into two or more nuclei
of medium value A, the energy released would again be large. The
atom bomb is based on this principle.

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168. Give the properties of cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays:
1) Cathode rays possess energy and momentum
2) They travel in a straight line with high speed of the order of
107m s-1.
3) It can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
4) The direction of deflection indicates that they are negatively charged
particles.
5) When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on matter, they produce
heat.
6) They affect the photographic plates
7) They produce fluorescence
8) When the cathode rays fall on a material of high atomic weight, x-
rays are produced. Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they
pass.
1
9) The speed of cathode rays is up to ( )th of the speed of light.
10
169. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, beta decay and
gamma decay.
(1) Alpha decay:
When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an α-particle( 42He), its
Atomic number (Z)decreases by 2, the mass number(A)
decreases by 4. The α- decay process symbolically written as
A
ZX → A−4
Z−2Y + 42He . (e.g.) 238
92U →
234
90Th + 42He
(2) Beta decay:
In 𝛃− - decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one
but mass number remains the same.
A
ZX → A
Z+1Y + −10e + 𝑣̅ . (e.g.) 144C → 14
7N + −10e + 𝑣̅

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In 𝛃+ - decay, the atomic number of thenucleus decreases by one

but mass number remains the same.
A
ZX → A
Z−1Y + 01e + 𝑣 . (e.g.) 22
11Na →
22
10Ne + 01e + 𝑣
(3) Gamma decay:
In α and β decay, the daughter nucleus is in the excited state most
of the time. So this excited state nucleus immediately returns to the
ground state or lower energy state by emitting highly energetic
photons called γ rays.
During gamma decay there is no change in atomic number and mass
number. A ∗
ZX → AZX +gamma rays (𝛾)
(e.g.) 125B → 12 ∗
6C + −10e + 𝑣̅ ; 12 ∗
6C → 12
6C +γ
170. Write a note on proton - proton cycle.

According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by proton-proton cycle of
fusion reaction.
This cycle consists of three steps:
Step – 1 : 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯 → 𝟐𝟏𝑯 + 𝟎𝟏𝒆 + 𝒗 ;
Step – 2 : 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟐𝟏𝑯 → 𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝒗
Step – 3 : 𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯
In general, the above three steps can be written as.
4 𝟏𝟏𝑯 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟐 𝟎𝟏𝒆 + 𝟐𝒗 + 𝟐𝟕 𝑴𝒆𝑽

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171. Characol pieces of tree is found from an archeological site. The carbon-14
content of this characol is only 17.5% that of equivalent sample of carbon
from a living tree. What is the age of tree?
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
R0 = 100% , R = 17.5%, 𝛌 = , T1/2 = 5730 years
𝐓𝟏/𝟐
𝑹𝟎
According to radioactive law R = R0𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ; 𝒆𝝀𝒕 =
𝑹
1 𝑅0
Taking log on both sides t = In ( ) ;
𝜆 𝑅
Half-life of carbon, T1/2 = 5730 years
𝑇1/2 1 𝟓𝟕𝟑𝟎 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬
T= in ( ); x 1.74297
0.6931 0.175 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
= 14409.49 years; t = 1.44 x 104 years
172. Calculate the energy released per fission:

235 1 141 92 1
92U + 0𝑛 → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄
Energy released in one fission:

Consider the following fission reaction.
235 1 141 92 1
92U + 0𝑛 → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑄
Total mass before fission;
Mass of 235
92U = 235.045733 𝑢
Mass of 10𝑛 = 1.008665 𝑢
= 236.054398 𝒖
Total mass after fission;
Mass of 141
56Ba = 140.9177 𝑢
Mass of 92
36Kr = 91.8854 𝑢
Mass of3 10𝑛 = 3.025995 𝑢
= 235.829095 𝒖
Mass defect; ∆𝑚 = 236.054398 𝑢
(−) = 235.829095 𝑢
∆𝑚 = 0.225303 𝒖

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Then energy released during this fission reaction,

Q = ∆𝑚x 931 MeV ; Q = 0.225303 x 931 MeV ; Q = 𝟐𝟎𝟎MeV
173. Find the (i) angular momentum (ii) velocity of the electron in the
5th orbit of hydrogen atom.
Solution:
𝑛ℎ 5 x 6.6 x10−34
(i) Angular momentum is given by= 𝑛ℏ = ;=
2𝜋 2 x 3.14
= 5.25 x 10
-34
kgm s
2 -1
𝑙 (5.25 x 10−34 kgm2 s−1)

(ii) Velocity is given by velocity, = ;= −10 m)
𝑚𝑟 (9.1 x 10−31 kg) (13.25 x 10
𝒗 =4.4 x 105 ms-1
174. State the postulates of Bohr’s atom model.

Postulates of Bohr’s atom model:
Postulate (1):
The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in circular orbits
under the influence of Coulomb electrostatic force of attraction. This
Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal force for the electron to
undergo circular motion.
Postulate (2):
Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus only in certain
discrete orbits called stationary orbits where it does not radiate
electromagnetic energy. The angular momentum (𝑙) of the electron in
ℎ
these stationary orbits are quantized (i.e.) integral multiple of ;
2𝜋
𝒉
𝒍=𝒏 = 𝒏ℏ . Where n → principal quantum number. This condition is
𝟐𝝅
known as angular momentum quantization condition.

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Postulate (3) :
Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. This is called the
quantization of energy. An electron can jump from one orbit to another
orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy is equal to the
difference in energy (ΔE) between the two orbital levels.
𝑐
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖 = ℎ𝑣 = ℎ ;Where c → speed of light
𝜆
λ → wavelength of the radiation used and 𝝂→ frequency of the radiation
175. Calculate the time required for 60% of a sample of radon undergo decay.
(Given T½ of radon =3.8 days.)
Here consider Rn – 222 with a half-life of 3.823 days.

From decay equation, Current amount = Initial amount x (2)-n
𝒕
𝐍 −
N = N0 (𝟐)−𝒏 ; = (𝟐) 𝑻𝟏/𝟐
𝐍𝟎
N
N 𝒕 log ( ) 𝒕
N0
log ( ) = log (2) x (− ); = (− )
N0 𝑻𝟏/𝟐 log (2) 𝑻𝟏/𝟐
log(0.4)
t= x (−3.823) ; time t = 5.05 days.
log(2)
176. What are the constituent particles of neutron and proton?

Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks which are now considered as
elementary particles. According to quark model,
2
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks (+ 𝑒)
3
1
and one down quark (− 𝑒)
3
2
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark (+ 𝑒)
3
1
and two down quarks (− 𝑒) 1
3

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177. Derive the energy expression for an electron is the hydrogen atom using
Bohr atom model.
Radius of nth orbit:
Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at rest which is made
up of protons and neutrons. Let an electron revolving around the state
nucleus
Atomic number= 𝑍,
Total charge of nth nucleus= + 𝑒;
Charge of an electron= −e ,
Mass of the electron= 𝑚
From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the electron
1 (+𝑍𝑒) (−𝑒) 1 𝑍𝑒2
is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑟̂ ; ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = − 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2
This force provides necessary centripetal force given by.

𝑚𝑣 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑛 𝑟̂ ;
𝑟𝑛
At equilibrium, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
1 𝑍𝑒2 2
𝑚𝑣𝑛 1 𝑍𝑒2 2
𝑚𝑣𝑛
− 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂ ; = …………… (1)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛
2 𝑟2
(4𝜋𝜖0 ) 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 2 𝑟2
(4𝜋𝜖0 )𝑚2 𝑣𝑛 (4𝜋𝜖0 )[𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ]2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
; 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
; 𝑟𝑛 =
𝑍 𝑒2 𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚
ℎ
From Bohr’s Postulate,𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 = 𝑛ℏ
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ 2
(4𝜋𝜖0 )[𝑙𝑛 ]2 (4𝜋𝜖0 )[ ]
Hence, 𝑟𝑛 = ; 𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚
(4𝜋𝜖0 )𝑛2 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 𝜖0 𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 = ; 𝑟𝑛 = [ ] …………… (2)
𝑍 𝑒 2 𝑚 x 4𝜋2 𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
𝑛2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝛼0 …………… (3)
𝑍
ℎ 2 𝜖0
Where, 𝛼0 → = 0.529Å →Bohr Radius
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2
For hydrogen, (Z = 1), So radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit,𝑟𝑛 = 𝛼0 𝑛2 …………… (4)
For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level)𝑟1 = 𝛼0 = 0.529Å

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For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level)

𝑟2 = 4𝛼0 = 4 x 0.529Å = 2.116 Å
For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)
𝑟3 = 9𝛼0 = 9 x 0.529Å = 4.761 Å
Thus, radius of the orbit, 𝒓𝒏∝𝒏𝟐
178. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)

Law of radioactivity:
At any instant t, the number of decays per unit time, called rate of
𝒅𝑵
decay( ) is proportional to the number of
𝒅𝒕
nuclei (N) at the same instant. This is called
law of radioactive decay.
Expression:
Let N0 be the number of nuclei at initial time
(t = 0)
Let ‘N’ be the number of un-decayed nuclei
at any time ‘t’
If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ then,
𝑑𝑁
rate of decay =
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑵 𝒅𝑵
From law of radioactivity, ∝ 𝑵 (or) = −𝝀𝑵− − − − − (1)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Here, 𝜆 → decay constant
Decay constant (𝜆 ) is different for different radioactive sample and the
negative sign in the equation implies that the N is decreasing with time.
𝒅𝑵
By rewriting the equation (1), we get = −𝝀𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝑵 𝒕 𝑵
𝒅𝑵
Integrating on both sides, ∫𝑵 = −𝝀 ∫𝟎 𝒅𝒕 ; [𝑰𝒏 𝑵]𝑵𝟎 = −𝝀𝒕
𝟎 𝑵
𝑁
[𝐼𝑛 𝑁 − 𝐼𝑛 𝑁0 ] = −𝜆𝑡 ; In[ = −𝜆𝑡]
𝑁0
𝑵
Taking exponential on both sides, = 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ; N = No𝒆−𝝀𝒕 − − − − − (2)
𝑵𝟎

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Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay. Here the number
of atoms is decreasing exponentially over the time.
This implies that the time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to
decay will be infinite.
179. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine the specific charge of
electron.
Specific charge of electron - J J Thomson Experiment:
𝑒
Charge per unit mass of an electron is called specific charge ( )
𝑚
Principle:
Cathode a ray (electron beam) deflects by both electric and
magnetic fields is the principle involved in this method.
Set up:
It is highly evacuated discharge tube. Cathode rays (electron beam)
produced at cathode ‘C’ are
attracted towards anode disc A
which allow only a narrow
beam of cathode rays.
These cathode rays are
now allowed to pass through
the parallel plates and strike the
screen coated with ZnS, a light
spot is observed at O
The metal plates are maintained at high voltage.
Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between pole pieces of
magnet such that both electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
each other.

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Velocity of cathode rays (𝒗):

Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray
particle. The upward force acting on
cathode rays due to electric field ‘E’ is;
𝑭𝑬 = 𝒆𝑬
The downward force acting on cathode
rays due to magnetic field is ;
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑒𝐵𝑣
In un-deflected equilibrium position,𝐹𝐸 =
𝐹𝐵 ; 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐵𝑣
𝑬
𝒗= ……………..(1)
𝑩
Method (1) - To find specific charge:
Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between anode and cathode.
Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are accelerated from cathode
to anode, the potential energy ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode
is converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam at the anode.
Hence,
1 𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝑬𝟐
eV = 𝑚𝑣 2 ; ∴ = =
2 𝒎 𝟐 𝑽 𝟐 𝑽𝑩𝟐
𝒆
The value of specific charge is , =1.7 x 1011Ckg-1m
𝒎
Method (2) - Deflection due to electric field:
When the magnetic field is
turned off (𝐵 = 0), the deflection is
only due to electric field. Let ‘m’ be
the mass of the electron, the upward
acceleration due to electric field ‘E’
𝐹𝐸 𝑒𝐸
is 𝑎𝐸 = =
𝑚 𝑚
Upward initial velocity; = 0

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Let ‘𝑙’ be the length of the deflecting plate, then time taken to travel
𝑙
in electric field is,𝑡 =
𝑣
1
Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field𝑦 ′ = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1 1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2
=0+ 𝑎𝐸 𝑡 2 ; 𝑦 ′ = ( ) ;
2 2𝑚 𝑣
1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2 1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2 𝐵2
𝑦′ = ; 𝑦′ =
2 𝑚 𝑣2 2 𝑚 𝐸2
𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝒚′ = ………………. (2)
𝟐 𝒎 𝑬𝟐
Then the deflection on the screen,𝑦 ∝ 𝑦 ′ (𝑜𝑟)𝑦 = 𝐶𝑦′
C →Proportionality constant.
𝟏 𝐞 𝐥𝟐 𝐁𝟐
Using equation (2), 𝐲 = 𝐂 ;
𝟐 𝐦 𝐄𝟐
𝒆 𝟐𝒚𝑬
= ………………. (3)
𝒎 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝒆
By substituting the known values, we get = 1.7 x 1011Ckg-1m
𝒎
Method (3) - Deflection due to magnetic field:
When the electric field is turned off (𝐸 = 0), the deflection is only
due to magnetic field. The magnetic force provides the centripetal force,
𝑚𝑣 2
the electron beam undergoes semi-circular path. Hence, 𝑒 𝑣 𝐵 =
𝑅
𝐸
𝑚𝑣 𝑚( ) 𝑚𝐸
𝑒𝐵 = ; 𝑒𝐵= 𝐵
;
𝑅 𝑅 𝐵𝑅
𝑒 𝐸
= ………………. (4)
𝑚 𝐵2𝑅
The specific charge is independent of (1) Gas used
(2) Nature of the electrodes

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180. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.

Spectral series of hydrogen atom:
When an electron jumps from nth orbit to nth orbit, a spectral line
was obtained whose wave number (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
1 1 1
𝑣̅ = = 𝑅 [ − ]. Here, R →Rydberg Constant
𝜆 𝑛2 𝑚2
(R = 1.097 x 107 ms-1)
From m>n, various spectral series are obtained.
(1) Lyman Series:
n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
1 1 1
Hence the wave number, 𝑣̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − ]
𝜆 1 𝑚2
They lie in ultra violet region.
(2) Balmer Series:
n = 2 and m = 3, 4, 5, …..
1 1 1
Hence the wave number, 𝑣̅ = = 𝑅 [ − ]
𝜆 22 𝑚2
They lie in visible region.
(3) Paschen Series:
n = 3 and m = 4, 5, 6,…..
1 1 1
𝜆 32 𝑚2
They lie in infra red region.
(4) Brackett Series:
n = 4 and m = 5, 6,7,…..
1 1 1
𝜆 42 𝑚2
They lie in middle infra red region.
(5) Pfund Series:
n = 5 and m = 6, 7, 8,…..
1 1 1
𝜆 42 𝑚2
They lie in far infra red region.

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181. Describe the working of nuclear reactor.

(1) Fuel:
The commonly used fuels are 235
92U and 239
94𝑃𝑢
Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.7% of 𝟐𝟑𝟓

𝟗𝟐𝑼 and 99.3%
are only 𝟐𝟑𝟖

𝟗𝟐𝐔. So the 92𝑈 must
238
be enriched such that it92contains at least 2
to 4% of 92U.
235
(2) Neutron source:

A neutron source is required to initiate the chain reaction for the first
time. A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or polonium is used as the
neutron source.
(3) Moderators:
The probability of initiating fission by fast neutron in another nucleus
is very low. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for sustained nuclear
reactions. The moderator is a material used to convert fast neutrons into
slow neutrons.
Usually the moderators having mass comparable to that of
neutrons. Hence, these light nuclei undergo collision with fast neutrons and
the speed of the neutron is reduced. Most of the reactors use water, heavy
water (D2O) and graphite as moderators.
(4) Control rods:
The control rods are used to adjust the reaction rate. During each
fission, on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted. In order to have the
controlled chain reactions, only one neutron is allowed to cause fission and
the remaining neutrons are absorbed by the control rods. Usually cadmium
or boron acts as control rod material.

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(5) Coolants:
The cooling system removes the heat generated in the reactor core.
Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid sodium are used as coolant
since they have very high specific heat capacity and have large boiling
point under high pressure. This coolant passes through the fuel
block and carries away the heat to the steam generator through
heat exchanger. The steam runs the turbines which produces
electricity in power reactors.
UNIT-10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

182. List the applications of Zener diode.

Give the applications of Zener diode.
Voltage regulators, Peak clippers, Calibrating voltages, Provide fixed
reference voltage in a network for biasing, Meter protection against
damage from accidental application of excessive voltage/
183. What is meant by rectification?

Rectification:
The process of converting alternating current into direct current is
called rectification. The device used for rectification is called rectifier.
A P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.
184. What is called Zener diode? Give its circuit symbol.

Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped
Silicon diode which is specially designed to be
operated in the breakdown region. The circuit
symbol of Zener diode is given.

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185. Define Doping.

The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor is
called doping. The impurity atoms are called doping.
186. In a transistor connected in the common base configuration, a 𝛼 =0.95 ,

IE = 1 mA . Calculate the values of IC and IB .
IC
α= ; IC = αIE = 0.95 x 1 = 0.95 mA
IB
IE = IB + IC ∴ IB = IC − IE ; = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05 mA
187. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

The semiconductor obtained by doping either pentavalent impurity
or trivalent impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor. (e.g.) P - type and
N-type semiconductor.
188. Give the limitations of amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency

modulation (FM).
Limitations of amplitude modulation (AM):

Noise level is high, Low efficiency, Small operating range
Limitations of frequency modulation (FM):
FM requires a much wider channel.
FM transmitters and receivers are more complex and costly.
In FM reception, less area is covered compared to AM.

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189. Give the relation between 𝜶 and 𝛃.

Δ𝐼𝑐
Forward current gain in common base mode, 𝛼 = [ ]
Δ𝐼𝐸 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
Δ𝐼𝑐
Forward current gain in common emitter mode, β = [ ]
Δ𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
From the above two equations, we have

𝛽 𝛼
𝛼= (or) β =
1+𝛽 1−𝛼
190. The current gain of a common emitter transistor circuit shown in figure is
120. Draw the DC load line and mark the Q point on it.
(VBE to be ignored).
25 𝑉 25
Base current, IB = = ; IB =25𝛍A
1 𝑀Ω 1x106
IC
We know that β = (or)
IB
IC = 𝛃IB = 120x25𝛍A ; 3000 𝛍A = 3mA
VCE = VCC – ICRC
VCE =25 – (3mA x 5k) = 10V

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191. Write a note on bipolar junction transistor (BJT).

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT):
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of a
semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) crystal in
which an N-type material is sandwiched between
two P-type materials called PNP transistor or a
P -type material sandwiched between two N-type
materials called NPN transistor.
The three regions formed are called emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C).
192. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter configurations of NPN

transistor.
Input terminal – Base, Output terminal-Collector,
Common terminal -Emitter, Input
current= IB; Output current=IC
The input signal (VBE) is applied
across base - emitter junction. The
output signal (VCE) is measured across
collector - emitter junction.

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193. What is called modulation? Give its types.

For long distance transmission, the low frequency base band signal
(input signal) is superimposed on to a high frequency carrier signal
(radio signal) by a process called modulation.
(1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
(2) Frequency Modulation (FM)
(3) Phase Modulation (PM)
194. Elucidate the formation of n-type extrinsic semiconductor.

N-type semiconductors:
A n-type semiconductor is obtained by
doping a pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal
with a doping from pentavalent elements like
Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony. The
doping has five valence electrons while the
Silicon atom has four valence electrons.
During the process of doping, four of
the five valence electrons of the impurity atom
are bound with the 4 valence electrons of the
neighbouring replaced Silicon atom. The fifth
valence electron of the impurity atom will be loosely attached with the
nucleus as it has not formed the covalent bond.
The energy level of the loosely attached fifth electron is found
just below the conduction band edge and is called the donor energy
level.
The energy required to set free a donor electron is only 0.01 eV
for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.

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At room temperature, these electrons can easily move to the

conduction band with the absorption of thermal energy.
The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons to the conduction
band and are called donor impurities. Therefore, each impurity atom
provides one extra electron to the conduction band in addition to the
thermally generated electrons
Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the majority carriers -
Electrons minority carriers – Holes.
195. Explain the construction and working of a full wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier:
The positive and negative half cycles
of the AC input signal pass through this
circuit and hence it is called the full wave
rectifier.
It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a
center tapped transformer, and a load resistor
(RL).
The centre (C) is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage
reference point. Due to the centre tap transformer, the output voltage
rectified by each diode is only one half of the total secondary voltage.
During positive half cycle of During negative half cycle of
input AC input AC
Terminal M is positive, G is at Terminal M is negative, G is at
zero potential and N is at zero potential and N is at
negative potential. positive potential.
Diode D1 is forward biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased.
Diode D2 is reverse biased. Diode D2 is forward biased.

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D1 conducts and current flows D2 conducts and current flows

along the path MD1AGC along the path ND2BGC
The voltage appears across RL in The voltage appears across RL in
the direction G to C the same direction G to C
Hence in a full wave

rectifier both positive and
negative half cycles of the input
signal pass through the circuit
in the same direction. The
output waveform is shown.
Though both positive and

negative half cycles of ac input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature. The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that of a half wave
rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
196. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier and explain its working.
In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half or the negative
half of the AC input is passed through while the other half is blocked.
Only one half of the input wave reaches the output. Therefore, it is
called half wave rectifier.
This circuit consists of a transformer, a P-N junction
diode and a resistor (RL)here, P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.

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During positive half cycle of During negative half cycle of input

input AC AC
Terminal A becomes positive Terminal B becomes positive
with respect to terminal B with respect to terminal A.
The diode is forward biased The diode is reverse biased
and hence it conducts and hence it does not conducts
The current flows through the No current passes through RL and
load resistor RL and AC voltage there is no voltage the drop across
developed across RL constitutes RL. (The reverse saturation current
the output voltage 𝑣0 in a diode is negligible)
The output waveform is shown below.
The output of the half wave
rectifier is not a steady dc voltage but
a pulsating wave. A constant or a
steady voltage is required which can be
obtained with the help of filter circuits
and voltage regulator circuits.
Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the
output dc power to the ac input power
supplied to the circuit. Its value for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %

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197. Explain Transistor functions as a switch.

Transistor as a switch:
The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions functions like an
electronic switch that helps to turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small
control signal.
Presence of dc source at the input (saturation region):
When a high input voltage
(Vin = +5 V) is applied, the base current
(IB) increases and in turn increases the
collector current. The transistor will
move into the saturation region
(turned ON).The increase in collector
current (IC) increases the voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
output voltage, close to zero. The transistor acts like a closed switch and
is equivalent to ON condition.
Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region):
A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V), decreases the base current (IB) and in
turn decreases the collector current (IC). The transistor will move into the
cut-off region (turned OFF). The decrease in collector current (IC)
decreases the drop across RC, thereby increasing the output voltage,
close to +5 V.
The transistor acts as an open switch which is considered as the
OFF condition. It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output and a
low input gives a high output. Therefore, a transistor can be used as an
inverter in computer logic circuitry.

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198. What is called modulation? Explain the amplitude modulation with help
of necessary diagrams.
Modulation:
For long distance transmission, the low frequency baseband signal
(input signal) is superimposed onto a high frequency radio signal by a
process called modulation. In the modulation process, a very high frequency
signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used to carry the baseband signal.
Amplitude modulation (AM) :
If the amplitude of the carrier signal
is modified according to the
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband
signal, then it is called amplitude
modulation. Here the frequency and the
phase of the carrier signal remain
constant. We can see clearly that the
carrier wave is modified in proportion
to the amplitude of the baseband
signal. Amplitude modulation is used in
radio and TV broadcasting.
Advantages of AM :
Easy transmission and reception, lesser bandwidth requirements ,
Low cost
Limitations of AM:
Noise level is high, Low efficiency, Small operating range

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199. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second theorems.

De Morgan’s First Theorem:
The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the
product of its complements. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A + B = A̅ . ̅B
Proof:
The Boolean equation for NOR gate is Y = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A+B
The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is Y = A̅ . ̅B
A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐀+𝐁 ̅
𝐀 ̅
𝐁 A̅ . ̅B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved. It also says that a NOR
gate is equal to a bubbled AND gate.
The corresponding logic circuit diagram.
De Morgan’s Second theorem:

The complement of the product of two logical inputs is equal to
̅̅̅̅̅
the sum of its complements. A. B=A̅+B
̅
Proof:
̅̅̅̅̅
The Boolean equation for NAND gate is Y = A. B
The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is Y = 𝐴̅ + ̅𝐵

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A B A.B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐀. 𝐁 ̅
𝐀 ̅
𝐁 A̅ + ̅B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved. It also says, a NAND
gate is equal to a bubbled OR gate.
The corresponding logic circuit diagram
UNIT-11 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN PHYSICS

200. List the applications of Nano technology.
Energy storage, Defense and security, Metallurgy and materials
Electronics, Optical engineering and communication
Biomedical and drug delivery, Agriculture and food, Cosmetics and paints
Bio-technology, Textiles
201. What is artificial intelligence? What are its work?

The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in human like behaviour
in robots. It works on, (1) Face recognition
(2) Providing response to player’s actions is computer games
(3) Taking decisions based on previous actions
(4) To regulate the traffic by analyzing the density of traffic on
roads
(5) Translate words from one language to another

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202. Give the applications of robot in various fields.

Applications of robot:
Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing, cutting, under water, agriculture,
pool cleaning Welding, cutting, assembling, litter robot, transport.
Vacuum cleaners, hospitals, surgery, laboratory Exploring stars, planets etc.,
investigation of the mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis of
elements found in rocks and soils.
203. Explain how nano structures are made in the laboratory?

Nano in laboratories:
The nano structures made in the laboratory mimic some of the nature’s
amazing nano structures.
There are two ways of preparing the nano materials. They are.
(1) Top - Down approach, (2) Bottom - Up approach
(1) Top - Down approach:
Nano materials are synthesized by breaking down bulk solids in
to nano sizes. (e.g) Ball milling, sol-gel, lithography
(2) Bottom - up approach:
Nano materials are synthesized by assembling the atoms or
molecules together. Selectively atoms are added to create
structures.
(e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour deposition

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204. What is particle physics? Write down its recent development.

Particle physics and its development:
The study of the theory of fundamental particles of nature is called
particle physics. Initially it was thought that atom is the fundamental entity
of matter. But in 1930, it was established that atoms are made up of
electrons, Protons and neutrons.
In 1960, it was discovered that protons and neutrons were made up
of quarks. Later it was found that quarks interact through gluons. Recently
in 2013, famous Higgs particles also known as God particles were
discovered which gives mass to many particles like protons, neutrons etc .,
205. What are called gravitational waves?

The disturbance in the curvature of space-time is called gravitational
waves. Its travels with speed of light, any accelerated charge emits
electromagnetic waves. Similarly any accelerated mass emits gravitational
waves. But these gravitational waves are very weak even for masses like
earth. The strongest sources of gravitational waves are black holes.
The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are emitted by two black
holes when they merge to a single black hole. In 1915, Albert Einstein
theoretically proposed the existence of gravitational waves. After 100
years, it is experimentally proved that his predictions are correct.

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206. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of Robotics.
Advantages of robotics:
The robots are much cheaper than humans. Robots never get tired
like humans. Hence absenteeism in work place can be reduced. Robots are
more precise and error free in performing the task.
Stronger and faster than humans Robots can work in extreme
environmental conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or underwater.
In dangerous situations like bomb detection and bomb
deactivation, In warfare, robots can save human lives. Robots are
significantly used in handling materials in chemical industries especially
in nuclear plants which can lead to health hazards in humans.
Disadvantages of robotics:
Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience; they lack empathy
and hence create an emotionless workplace. If ultimately robots would do
all the work, and the humans will just sit and monitor them, health hazards
will increase rapidly. Unemployment problem will increase.
Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot handle unexpected
situations the robots are well programmed to do a job and if a small
thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to the company. If a robot
malfunctions, it takes time to identify the problem, rectify it, and even
reprogram if necessary.
This process requires significant time. Humans cannot be replaced
by robots in decision making.
Till the robot reaches the level of human intelligence, the humans in work
place will exit.

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207. Explain the various components of robotics.

Power conversion unit:
Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and hydraulics.
Actuators:
Converts energy into movement. The majority of the actuators
produce rotational or linear motion.
Electric motors:
They are used to actuate the parts of the robots like wheels, arms,
fingers, legs, sensors, camera, weapon systems etc. Different types of
electric motors are used. The most often used ones are AC motor,
Brushed DC motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
They are devices that can contract and expand when air is pumped
inside. It can replicate the function of a human muscle. eye contract
almost 40% when the air is sucked inside them.
Muscle wires:
They are thin strands of wire made of shape memory alloys. eye can
contract by 5% when electric current is passed through them.
Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
Sensors:
Generally used in task environments as it provides information of
real-time knowledge.
Robot locomotion:
Provides the types of movements to a robot. The different types are
(a) Legged, (b) Wheeled, (c) Combination of Legged and
Wheeled Locomotion, (d)Tracked slip/skid

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ePq;fs; gpwe;J ,Uf;fpwPHfs;; vd;gNj nka;;.
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PREPARED BY
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A.,
P. G. Teacher in Physics,
Department of Physics,
SRM Higher Secondary School,
Kaveriyampoondi,
Tiruvannamalai District – 606603.
For your Feedback & Suggestion:
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

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XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

1. Define electric dipole moment. Give its unit.

2. Define action of point or Corona Discharge.

3. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

4. Define electric flux with SI unit.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

5. What is called electric dipole? Give an example.

6. State Gauss law.

7. A sample of HCl gas is placed in a uniform electric field of magnitude

The maximum torque experienced by the dipole is when it is aligned

8. Define one coulomb (1 C).

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

9. Give the vector form of Coulomb’s law.

Here, ̂r̂12 → unit vector directed from q1 to q2

10. Define superposition principle.

3 Marks Question & Answer

11. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

ϵ0 A 8.854 x 10−12 x 25 x 10−4

13. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

14. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

15. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

16. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed

17. Obtain an expression electric potential at a point due to a point

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

5 Marks Question & Answer

Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

Electric field at C due to −q (along CA)

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XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

. If r > a then neglecting a2

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

Here𝑟̂ → unit vector perpendicular to the curved surface outwards.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

Let CS be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor in series

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

23. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plate

Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is disconnected from the

Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the capacitance.

Since 𝜀𝑟> 1, we have U < U0

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - 2021- 2022

XII Std. PHYSICS IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWER, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,