RELIGION AS A UNIVERSAL PHENOMENON

Introduction

Religion has been a pervasive and powerful force in human history, shaping cultures, societies, and
individual lives. Across all times and places, humans have sought to understand their place in the universe,
the meaning of life, and the nature of the divine.

This lecture explores religion as a universal phenomenon—its common features, origins, diversity, and the role
it plays in societies.

Definition of Religion: What is it?

 Religion as a universal phenomenon refers to the presence and significance of religious beliefs and
practices across all cultures and societies throughout history.
 Religion is a social institution because it includes beliefs and practices that serve the needs of
society.
 Religion typically encompasses a system of beliefs, practices, and moral values centered on
questions of existence, the nature of the universe, and the divine.
 It often involves rituals, worship, a community of believers, and a framework for understanding the
meaning of life and death.
 Religion is a system of beliefs, practices, moral guidelines, and rituals that relate to the divine or
supernatural.

Though the forms vary, the core function of religion often revolves around providing meaning, order,
and structure to both individual and collective life.

Universal/Common Features/Elements of Religion

While religions differ in many ways, most share key features/elements:

 Belief in the Supernatural: Most religions involve a belief in powers beyond the natural world, such
as gods, spirits, supernatural forces, or an afterlife. This belief satisfies humanity’s deep-seated
curiosity about the universe and our place within it.
 Rituals and Practices: Allows followers to connect with the divine or seek blessings. Rituals can
include prayer, festivals, meditation, worship services, pilgrimages, and rites of passage, which
serve to strengthen community bonds and individual faith.
 Ethics and Morality: Religions often provide a moral framework/codes (such as the Ten
Commandments in Christianity and Judaism or the Eightfold Path in Buddhism) or direction that
shapes/guides the behavior of their adherents, helping to define concepts of right and wrong,
fostering societal cohesion by promoting justice, compassion, and respect. These ethical guidelines
shape behavior, fostering societal cohesion by promoting justice, compassion, and respect.
 Sacred Texts/Stories and Myths. Religions often have sacred stories or myths that explain the
creation of the world, the origin of humanity, and the nature of good and evil. These stories help
followers understand their purpose and destiny. Sacred texts or stories that communicate
fundamental truths or histories.
 Community and Identity: Religions foster a sense of belonging and identity among their followers,
often creating strong community ties. Religion creates a shared identity, connecting people
through common beliefs and practices. It often forms the foundation of social life, as seen in ancient
civilizations where religion and governance were deeply intertwined.
Theories of Religion

 Functionalist Perspective: This view, associated with thinkers like Émile Durkheim, emphasizes
the role of religion in promoting social cohesion, providing meaning, and regulating behavior
within societies.
 Conflict Perspective: Karl Marx and other theorists have critiqued religion as a tool of social
control that perpetuates inequality and hinders social change.
 Phenomenological Approach: This focuses on the individual experience of the divine and the
personal significance of religious beliefs.

Seven Dimensions Of Religion

 The Ritual Dimension. This is the way in which the community re-enacts its myths and confirms
and expresses its beliefs through action.

Example: Worship, Praying, Regular Gatherings, Rites of Passage.

 The Experiential Dimension. This is one of the most attractive dimensions of religion - the
capacity of ritual, prayer, worship to evoke feelings of security and comfort or on the other hand
feelings of awe, inexplicable presence, mystery, ecstasy. People react when they have encountered
something which they believe is very profound.

 The Mythical Dimension. Myths are the sacred stories that pass from generation to generation -
they are sacred because they reveal and explain what that tradition believes to be the ultimate
nature of gods, humans and the universe – One such story is the Hopi tradition of how peaches
became sweet and the bees got wings. – The stories in the 3 case studies of the Australian Aboriginals,
the Tingling, and the Polynesians we studied.

 The Doctrinal Dimension (philosophical). Many religions have a system of doctrines - beliefs about
the nature of Divinity or ultimate reality and the relationship of humans to that ultimate, real,
divinity. Provides rational for many of the practices and ideas of the religion.

 Trinity
 Bodhisattva

 The Ethical Dimension (legal). In every tradition you will find sets of rules, behavioral precepts or
guidelines for conduct according to which the community judges a person good or evil depending
on the level of conformity to those precepts. Ideas and laws that shape behavior.

 Laws of Man
 Beatitudes
 5 Precepts
 Ten Commandments

The Five Precepts are fundamental ethical guidelines in Buddhism, intended to cultivate virtue,
promote mindfulness, and encourage compassionate living. These precepts serve as the moral foundation
for Buddhists, guiding them in their daily lives to avoid harmful behaviors and develop positive qualities.
While they are not strict commandments, they are commitments that Buddhists voluntarily undertake to lead a
more ethical and mindful life.
 The Five Precepts (Buddhist):

a. Abstain from killing living beings

o This precept emphasizes respect for all forms of life, advocating non-violence (ahimsa) and
compassion. Buddhists are encouraged not to harm or kill any living being, whether
human, animal, or insect. This is rooted in the principle of karuṇā (compassion).
b. Abstain from taking what is not given
o This precept encourages honesty and respect for others' possessions. Stealing, cheating, or
exploiting others for personal gain violates this principle. It promotes a sense of fairness
and generosity in dealings with others.
c. Abstain from sexual misconduct
o This precept refers to avoiding inappropriate or harmful sexual behavior. It promotes
respect for others' bodies, relationships, and commitments. In some contexts, this means
refraining from adultery, exploitation, or any form of sexual harm.
d. Abstain from false speech
o This precept focuses on truthfulness and integrity in communication. It discourages
lying, deceit, slander, or harmful speech, emphasizing that one's words should promote
harmony and understanding rather than discord or harm.
e. Abstain from intoxicants that cloud the mind
o This precept discourages the use of alcohol, drugs, or other substances that impair
judgment and mindfulness. It encourages clarity of mind, helping practitioners
maintain self-awareness and responsible behavior.

Purpose of the Precepts:

The Five Precepts serve as a way to reduce suffering and create a harmonious life for oneself and others.
By practicing these precepts, Buddhists aim to avoid actions that cause harm or lead to negative karmic
consequences, fostering a more mindful and compassionate existence.

 The Social Dimension (Institutional). A religious tradition implies some sort of social organization
through which it perpetuates itself. There can be individuals who exemplify the religious tradition, and
who live outside of society, but the teachings and the tradition itself is preserved and passed on
through the social organization of churches, temples, mosques or monasteries.

 Masjid
 Church
 Synagogue
 Sangha

 The Material Dimension. The physical buildings, implements, paintings, statues, books, etc.
associated with a tradition, as well as geographical places and features that are mythically
associated with the tradition.

An outgrowth of religious experience/encounter.

 Music
 Art
 Symbol
 Architecture
Religious Diversity: Different Paths to the Divine

While religion is a universal phenomenon, the expressions of faith vary greatly across cultures. The major world
religions today include:

A. Major World Religions

 Christianity: Centered on the teachings of Jesus Christ, Christianity emphasizes love,

forgiveness, and salvation through faith in God.
 Islam: Based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam teaches submission to the will
of Allah and adherence to the Five Pillars.
 Hinduism: One of the oldest religions, Hinduism involves belief in karma, dharma,
reincarnation, and a multitude of gods and goddesses.
 Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), Buddhism emphasizes the Four
Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to attain enlightenment and escape suffering.
 Judaism: An ancient monotheistic religion, Judaism emphasizes the covenant between God and
the Jewish people, with teachings rooted in the Torah.

B. Indigenous and Folk Religions

 Throughout history, indigenous and folk religions have existed alongside organized religions.
These traditions are often closely tied to the land, nature, and ancestral spirits. Examples include
Native American spirituality, African traditional religions, and Australian Aboriginal beliefs.

THE FIVE MAJOR RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD

The five major religions have incorporated their founders and profounder aims or objectives of
guaranteeing human existence, success and realization of purpose in life as a condition of attaining spiritual
freedom.

1. Hinduism is a form of religion founded by any individual. It is God centered religion, thus; one can call
Hinduism as founded by God. This is because Hinduism is built on psychological principles,
encouraging all human beings to embrace. The followers of Hinduism are called Hindus.
2. Buddhism founder is Sidharta Gautama. He was called Buddha by his adherents, which means the
“awakened one”. Buddha was born around 563BC in a region of the Indian sub-continent. Buddhist
adherents are called Buddhists, and a community of Buddhists is Sangha (congregation). Buddhism has
many gods. They include; Lord Krishna, Vishnu, goddess Lakshami and goddess Saraswati among
others.
3. Islam is a Muslim faith believed to have been born in Mecca in 570. Muhammad, the founder of
Muslims who believe that God sent him as the messenger of good news. The Islam followers are known
as Muslims and they call their God Allah.
4. Judaism is connected with the rabbis of the second century; many historians, however, believe Hillel, a
Pharisee, was the real founder. Hillel immigrated to Palestine during the first century BC. The followers
of Judaic religion are called Jewish or Jews.
5. Christianity is founded by Jesus Christ. Moreman argues that regardless of whether Jesus was a deity or
not, there exists sufficient evidence that He founded Christianity (80). Many religious authors emphasize
that Jesus was baptized at the age of thirty years in River Jordan. He was then anointed with the Holy
Spirit, which sparked His earthly ministry. The early adherents of Christianity were known as the
Nazarenes, however, nowadays they are known as Christians.
Gwynne (95) notes the similarity among the Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, is the
existence of a Supreme Authority. The five religions believe in the existence of Supreme Authority who
controls the earth.

The Supreme Authority is known through various names. For example, Judaism refers to him as Adonai,
Elohim, YAHWEH (in the Tanakh) Judaic sacred writings. Islam call him Allah, Christianity refer to him as
God, Hinduism call him Brahma, whereas Buddhism call him Vairocana/ Dainichi.

All these religions believe the Supreme Authority is Almighty, All pervading and beyond the Law of Change
(Gwynne 123). They also believe that the Supreme Authority is the Creator, The Father of all and the Ruler
of Creation. Therefore, God in their appropriate context is an icon of unity compelling harmony with fellow
human beings. It is therefore, the responsibility of an adherent to seek Him through virtue or just actions.

Here's a comparison of the five major world religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
—across core beliefs, practices, texts, and demographics.

Aspect Hinduism Buddhism Judaism Christianity Islam

Arabian
Ancient India,
Ancient India, Ancient Israel, Israel/Palestine, Peninsula, 7th
Origin ~6th century
2000–1500 BCE ~1800 BCE ~1st century CE century CE
BCE
Siddhartha
Abraham and Prophet
Founder No single founder Gautama Jesus of Nazareth
Moses Muhammad
(Buddha)

Non-theistic,
Polytheistic (many Monotheistic
though some Monotheistic Monotheistic
Deity Concept gods); Brahman as (God/Trinity in
forms are (Yahweh) (Allah)
universal soul some forms)
theistic

Vedas, Tripitaka,
Bible (Old & New
Sacred Texts Upanishads, Mahayana Torah, Talmud Quran, Hadith
Testaments)
Bhagavad Gita Sutras

Dharma (duty),
Four Noble Five Pillars (faith,
Karma, Salvation through
Truths, Covenant, Ten prayer, charity,
Core Beliefs Reincarnation, faith in Jesus
Eightfold Path, Commandments fasting,
Moksha Christ
Nirvana pilgrimage)
(liberation)

Prayer, Fasting
Rituals, Yoga, Meditation, Prayer,
Prayer, Sabbath, (Ramadan),
Practices Meditation, Mindfulness, Sacraments,
Festivals Charity, Hajj
Festivals Monasticism Worship, Charity
Rebirth until Rebirth until Afterlife concepts
Life After
Moksha Nirvana (release vary; some believe Heaven and Hell Heaven and Hell
Death
(liberation) from cycle) in resurrection
Religious Gurus, Priests Monks, Lamas Rabbis Priests, Pastors, Imams
Leadership Ministers
Aspect Hinduism Buddhism Judaism Christianity Islam

Catholicism,
Shaivism, Theravada, Orthodox,
Major Protestantism,
Vaishnavism, Mahayana, Conservative, Sunni, Shia
Branches Eastern Orthodox
Shaktism Vajrayana Reform
Churches,
Places of Temples,
Temples Synagogues Cathedrals Mosques
Worship Monasteries
Dharma Wheel, Crescent Moon,
Symbols Om, Swastika Star of David Cross
Lotus Flower Star
Global, especially
Predominantly in Southeast Asia, Global; largest in Middle East,
Demographics United States, Israel
India, Nepal East Asia religion North Africa,
Southeast Asia

Key Similarities and Differences

 Monotheism vs. Polytheism: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are monotheistic that focus on a
deity/Divine Being, while Hinduism is polytheistic, with various gods representing facets of the supreme
Brahman. Buddhism, while non-theistic, focuses on self-enlightenment rather than a deity/Divine Being.
 Life and Afterlife Beliefs: Eastern religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism embrace reincarnation,
where souls experience rebirth based on karma. In contrast, Abrahamic religions such as Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam focus on judgment and an eternal afterlife.
 Salvation and Enlightenment: Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize personal enlightenment through
practices and moral behavior. In contrast, Christianity and Islam stress salvation through faith,
particularly in God and religious duties.
 Religious Practice and Rituals: Hinduism and Buddhism incorporate meditation and ritual acts as part
of daily life. Abrahamic religions like Christianity, Judaism, and Islam emphasize prayer and specific
rituals, though the practices vary across denominations.

Psychological and Sociological Aspects

 Psychology often explores the cognitive and emotional dimensions of religion, investigating how
belief systems can provide comfort, identity, and coping mechanisms during difficult times.
 Sociology examines the role of religion in society, including its impact on politics, social norms, and
community organization.

Globalization and Religion in the Modern World

In today’s world, the interaction between religions has intensified due to globalization, creating both
opportunities and challenges:

A. Interfaith Dialogue and Syncretism

  As cultures come into contact, religious traditions often blend, leading to the development of
new forms of worship and belief. This process, known as “syncretism”, is evident in regions
where different religious traditions coexist, such as in South America or Southeast Asia.

B. Secularization

 In many modern societies, the role of religion is diminishing, a trend known as “secularization”.
People are increasingly identifying as non-religious, though spiritual practices remain relevant.
This has led to debates about the role of religion in public life.

Origin of Religion

The origins of religion are complex and not definitively known, as religion predates written history. However,
scholars have developed various theories based on archaeological evidence, anthropology, and psychology
to explain how religion may have begun.

These theories focus on the psychological, social, and evolutionary aspects of early human societies.

1. Psychological Theories

 Animism (Edward Burnett Tylor): One of the earliest theories about the origin of religion, Tylor
proposed that early humans believed in spirits or souls, known as animism. This belief may have
stemmed from the experiences of dreams, visions, and death. Early humans, observing the forces of
nature and the mysterious experiences of life, assumed that everything had a spiritual essence. This
led to the worship of spirits in natural elements like trees, rivers, and animals.
 Projection of Human Emotions (Ludwig Feuerbach): Feuerbach suggested that religion is a
projection of human emotions and desires. Humans, faced with suffering, uncertainty, and
mortality, created the idea of gods as a comforting reflection of their own need for protection, justice,
and immortality.

2. Sociological Theories

 Totemism and Social Bonds (Émile Durkheim): Durkheim argued that religion began as a way for
early human communities to establish social cohesion and collective identity. He believed that early
religious practices, such as totemism (the worship of animals or natural objects), helped to solidify
group bonds. The totem became a symbol of the clan, and the rituals associated with it reinforced
social solidarity.
 Religion as a Means of Social Control: Some sociologists, like Karl Marx, suggested that religion
emerged as a tool for social control, particularly by those in power. Religion helped maintain social
order by justifying the status quo, reinforcing hierarchies, and providing explanations for inequality or
suffering.

3. Evolutionary Theories

 Cognitive Evolution: Evolutionary psychologists argue that religious beliefs may have emerged as a
byproduct of human cognitive development. As early humans developed advanced cognitive abilities,
they sought explanations for natural phenomena and began attributing these events to supernatural
causes. The brain's ability to recognize patterns and infer causality (e.g., seeing agency behind
natural events) may have led to the belief in gods or spirits controlling the world.
 Group Selection and Survival: Some evolutionary theorists, like David Sloan Wilson, suggest that
religion evolved because it helped early human groups survive. Religious rituals, beliefs, and
 moral codes fostered group cooperation and altruism, enabling groups with shared beliefs to
outcompete others. Religious practices might have also encouraged behaviors that promoted
survival, such as prohibiting harmful activities (like murder) or fostering social bonding through
rituals.

4. The Role of Death and Mortality

 Fear of Death: The awareness of death and the fear of the unknown likely played a significant role
in the development of religious beliefs. Early humans, grappling with the mystery of death, may
have turned to religion to provide comfort and hope for an afterlife. Burial practices, which date
back to at least 100,000 years ago, suggest early humans believed in some form of life after death.
 Rituals and Funerary Practices: Archaeological evidence of ancient burial sites and offerings
suggests that early humans engaged in religious or spiritual rituals related to death. These
practices may have evolved into more complex belief systems about the soul, the afterlife, and the
supernatural.

5. Shamanism and Early Spiritual Leaders

 Shamans and Healers: Early forms of religion likely included shamanism, in which certain
individuals acted as intermediaries between the human world and the spirit world. Shamans or
spiritual leaders conducted rituals, healed the sick, and communicated with spirits or gods. These
figures held special status in their communities and played a key role in shaping early religious
traditions.
 Hallucinogens and Religious Experiences: Some scholars suggest that the use of psychoactive plants
in early rituals may have influenced the development of religious beliefs. Hallucinogenic
experiences might have been interpreted as encounters with the divine or supernatural forces,
further solidifying the belief in unseen spiritual realms.

6. Agriculture and the Rise of Organized Religion

 Transition to Settled Societies: As human societies transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherer

lifestyles to settled agricultural communities, religion became more organized. The rise of
agriculture brought about the need for fertility rituals, prayers for rain, and ceremonies to ensure
the success of crops.
 Temple Complexes and Priesthoods: Early agricultural societies built temples and developed
priestly classes to oversee religious rituals. Organized religions emerged as powerful institutions,
often linked to the ruling elite. Examples of early organized religions include the ancient Egyptian,
Mesopotamian, and Mesoamerican religions.

7. The Development of Myths and Sacred Texts

 Myth-Making: As societies became more complex, religious myths developed to explain the creation
of the world, the origins of humanity, and the nature of the divine. These myths were often passed
down orally before being recorded in sacred texts. Religious stories served to reinforce cultural
values, moral teachings, and social order.
 Codification of Belief Systems: Eventually, many religious traditions were codified into sacred
texts, such as the Vedas in Hinduism, the Torah in Judaism, or the Quran in Islam. These texts
formalized belief systems, laws, and rituals, contributing to the spread and longevity of religious
traditions.
Conclusion

Religion as a universal phenomenon is a complex and multifaceted subject that encompasses

various dimensions of human experience. Its presence across cultures reflects deep-seated human needs for
meaning, community, and understanding of the universe, making it an enduring aspect of humanity.