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ESDEP WG 1A

STEEL CONSTRUCTION:

ECONOMIC & COMMERCIAL FACTORS

Lecture 1A.1: Introduction to Steel's Role

in Construction in Europe

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE:

To inspire students with an enthusiasm for steel construction. To identify the advantages
of steel for construction in Europe, emphasising its future potential and the rewarding
challenge it offers to able students. To introduce ESDEP as a response to this potential.

PREREQUISITES

None

RELATED LECTURES

Lecture 1A.2: Steelmaking and Steel Products

Lecture 1A.3: Introduction to Structural Steel Costs

Lecture 1A.4: The European Building Market

SUMMARY

Steel has been produced for about 100 years. It is a modern material with an exciting
future.

The advantages of steel are described together with recent developments which have
enhanced them, i.e. improvements in manufacture, enhanced range of properties,
improvements in fabrication and speed of construction, adaptability, consistent quality,
lightness, stiffness and strength.

The future development of uses of steel, the associated training needs and the role of
ESDEP in meeting those needs are discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

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Steel was first produced in the Middle Ages, but it was not until just over a century ago
that it was used for structural engineering.

Today, many remarkable structures demonstrate the possibilities of this well developed
material in their clear and transparent appearance, Slides 1 - 5.

Slide 1 : Centre Pompidou, Paris, France

Slide 2

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Slide 3 : Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany

Slide 4 : Faro Bridge, Denmark

Slide 5 : North Sea Oil Platform

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The strength-to-volume ratio, the wide range of possible applications, the availability of
many standardised parts, the reliability of the material and the ability to give shape to
nearly all architectural wishes are some of the reasons to choose this material for the
main structure and for other elements of a building or other construction.

Safe and strong steel structures are assured by well-educated designers with a Quality
Assured and Quality Controlled production. A long life with a small amount of
maintenance can be guaranteed by using well designed details, a high level of pre-
production in modern well-equipped shops with skilled employees and modern corrosion-
resistant systems.

2. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRODUCTION AND DESIGN

Many of the inherent advantages of steel have been considerably enhanced by the vigour
with which the steel construction industry has improved its performance in an increasingly
competitive world.

2.1 Steel Production

Early steels were manufactured by a range of processes which produced a material of

uncertain composition and variable properties. Today almost all structural steel is
produced by the BOS (Basic Oxygen Steelmaking) process together with a modern
purification process which produces a fine grained, weldable material of consistent
strength and toughness.

Whilst methods of steel production have improved since the first introduction of the
material, the rate of improvement has been most dramatic in the last decade or so. Since
the mid-1970's steel productivity has increased from 60-100 kg/man hour (depending on
producer) to over 250 kg/man hour for most modern plants. This improvement has had a
significant effect on relative material costs, Slide 6.

Slide 6 : Relative material costs showing the relative change in prices between steel and
concrete in recent years

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Improvements in basic production have been matched by investment in better rolling
mills. The latest hot rolling mill can produce sections to a wider variety of shapes with
close tolerances, good surface finish and consistent, homogeneous composition. Slide 7
gives an indication of the range of sections that are produced. Heat treatments in-line
permit the greater control and enhancement of mechanical properties. Cold rolling can be
used to produce thin gauge strip material which can subsequently be formed into a wide
range of shapes, Slide 8.

Slide 7 : Range of typical standard hot-rolled

sections manufactured by the steelmaking
industry

Slide 8 : Range of typical cold-rolled profiles

manufactured from thin galvanised sheet

This revolution in manufacturing techniques has

been accompanied by, and has probably been
possible because of, a major restructuring of the
entire industry. It is worth recalling that the
European Coal and Steel Community (one of the
founding components of the European
Community) was established in 1952 to ensure
the restructuring of these crucial industries after
World War 2. It has been a difficult and painful
process for both traditional industries but a lean,
fit and modern steel industry has finally
emerged.

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2.2 Range of Steels

While cheap, good quality mild steel remains the backbone of the industry, it is now
complemented by a wider range of commercially available structural steels, Slide 9. High
yield steel has increased in popularity as designers strive for more cost effective
structures. Where necessary, thermo-mechanically controlled rolled steels can be
specified. Slide 9 also shows the mechanical properties that can be obtained with special
steels, in this case a very high strength wire.

Slide 9 : Mechanical properties for a range of steels showing the wide range of
characteristics which different steels exhibit

Improvements in mechanical properties are best typified by a simple example. The Eiffel
Tower was undoubtedly an engineering triumph when it was completed in 1888. Making
the best use of the available materials, it contains around 7000 tonnes of iron. A redesign
today would require just 2000 tonnes.

The breadth of steels also encompasses corrosion resistance. Weather resistant steels
that can, in appropriate circumstances, be left unpainted throughout the life of the
structure are now used for many bridges, Slide 10. Stainless steels are available in an
almost bewildering range of compositions. Appropriate choice of chemistry and finish
produces a durable and attractive structure, Slide 11. Coated steel products are very
widely used for cladding, Slides 12 and 13.

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Slide 10 : Footbridge - York University, UK

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 Slide 11 : Opera de la Bastille, Paris, France (1991).

Slide 12 : Use of cold rolled steel for cladding at Revigny, France

Slide 13 : Use of cold rolled steel for cladding:

(Entrepot de la Societe Calberson, France).

2.3 Design

Design in steel used to be regarded as a 'black art' where one only reached a level of
competence after 20 years of hardwon experience. Whilst, of course, experience is still
very important, the designer is now much better supported and is able to be more
accurate. Computers have made routine, levels of analysis that would otherwise have
taken much manual calculation. Codes of practice have become more comprehensive.
The advent of limit state design concentrates the designer's mind on the most important
aspects of a particular design. The Eurocodes [1 - 4] are the culmination of many years'
hard work, drawing together the best information on steel and composite design.

Two example illustrate the refinements in structural form that have been achieved by the
improvements in understanding of structural behaviour, analysis and design. The portal
frame, the subject of much research from 1950 to the present day, is an elegant,
minimalist structure, see Slide 14. Its inherent efficiency of shape (its centreline closely

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follows the thrust line that would be associated with an axial equilibrium path, thus
minimising bending moments) is enhanced by modern plastic or elastic design. Plastic
design permits redistribution of the moments so that the bending moment envelope is the
closest possible fit to the envelopes of uniform strength associated with prismatic
sections; a haunch is used to resist the peak moment at the eaves. Elastic analysis and
modern methods of fabrication permit the construction of a frame whose varying strength
distribution is a close fit to the elastic bending moment envelope.

Slide 14 : Evolution of portal frame design

The second example is the modern box girder

bridge, see Slides 15 and 16. This elegant form
of construction permits the use of wide flanges,
thus reducing structural depth. The inherent
torsional stiffness of the closed section is used
to distribute the effects of eccentric loading over
the full width of the section, thus reducing
maximum bending stresses. Internal
diaphragms serve both to jig the box during
fabrication and to resist distortion of the cross-
section which could reduce the torsional
resistance of the closed section.

Slide 15 : Box girder bridge near Nijmegen,

Netherlands

Slide 16 : Behaviour of box girder bridges

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2.4 Fabrication

In parallel with the improved efficiency of steel production, there have been significant
increases in the productivity of the steel fabrication industry, with roughly a doubling in
output per man between 1980 and 1990. The introduction of numerically controlled
machine tools has not only greatly reduced the time in both preparing and handling the

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material but has also made an important contribution to achieving higher quality. The shot
blasting of steel sections and the process of painting can now be carried out
automatically, while sawing and drilling operations have also been automated. In the most
modern plants, conveyor systems are available which transfer material from machine to
machine.

A good example of a piece of modern fabrication equipment is the numerically controlled

plant for flame cutting castellated sections. Such equipment offers substantial
improvements in quality and productivity compared to traditional equipment, see Slide 17.

Slide 17 : Numerically controlled cutting of

castellated beams

3. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL

3.1 Speed of Execution

There is increasing pressure on all civil and structural engineering projects to reduce the
periods of execution. Nowhere has this had a more dramatic impact on methods of
execution than in the streamlining and simplification of a modern composite building.

Much execution is now by management contract in which the conventionally sequential

activities of design, substructures execution, superstructure execution, envelope
execution and finishing are overlapped to reduce the overall contract period. The
contractor becomes a member of the design team at an early stage. In many cases the
client becomes involved in the buildability of the project which is divided into self-
contained work packages.

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Structural steel - fast, accurate, prefabricated - lends itself naturally to fast track
execution. Key elements are metal deck for shuttering and reinforcement; through-deck
stud welding for composite and diaphragm action and lightweight fire protection, Slide 18.

Slide 18 : Structural steel in fast track

construction

Metal deck is easily hoisted in bundles and laid

out by hand (Slide 19). Edge trims are available
to level concrete and prevent over-run (Slide 20).
The shear studs which provide the key between
beam, deck and concrete can be placed by a
single operative at 1000 per day (Slide 21).

Slide 19 : Metal decking ready to be laid by hand

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 Slide 20 : Edge trims for metal deck floor construction

Slide 21 : Fixing shear studs

Concrete is placed by pumping (Slide 22).

Services are easily fixed to the underside of the
decking (Slide 23). Prefabricated stairs can be
transported by crane and placed in position to
give rapid and safe access for construction
workers (Slide 24). Cladding units - pre-cast
granite faced or curtain walling -can be lifted
straight from the lorry and into position to avoid
site storage (Slide 25).

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 Slide 22 : Concrete being placed by pumping

Slide 23 : Services fixed to underside of decking

Slide 24 : Pre-fabricated stairs

Slide 25 : Curtain walling

Steel frames with both metal deck and pre-cast

concrete planks permit sequential execution
with following trades able to proceed in safety
and with protection from the weather.

Traditionally, the greatest disincentives to the

use of steel for multi-storey frames were the
additional costs and time for fire protection
(Slide 26). However, the use of new, lower-cost,
lightweight board and spray systems have now
largely replaced in-situ concrete encasement.
Fire protection costs have thereby been halved
and the implications on execution programmes
reduced substantially. (The programme savings
outlined above include the fire protection
systems).

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 Slide 26 : Breakdown of steelwork construction costs

In many cases the benefits of faster speed of execution can be translated into substantial
financial savings for the client. These savings are particularly significant in situations
where he has made substantial initial investment in acquiring the site. Slide 27 shows the
execution programme achieved at the Finsbury Avenue Project in London. This
programme represented a 40 week saving over conventional construction in in-situ
concrete. While, for a typical building the costs of the two solutions are similar, at around
900 ecu/m2 at 1990 prices, studies of London development costs suggest time-related
savings of up to 7 mecu per week (for the whole building) for earlier completion in a
buoyant letting market, potentially dwarfing the total cost of the structure.

Slide 27 : Construction programme for No. 1 Finsbury Avenue, London (1985)

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3.2 Lightness, Stiffness and Strength

Steel structures are generally lighter than those in other materials. In almost all cases this
lower weight leads to lower costs for foundations particularly for sites with poor ground.
Smaller columns increase effective floor utilisation and, where longer spans are required,
the cost savings between steel and other forms of construction increase considerably. For
large column grids in buildings, steel is the only feasible solution.

For multi-storey commercial offices a number of new design approaches are being
introduced to achieve clear spans of 12-18m or more (slides 28 and 29) . These
approaches include composite universal beam and lattice girder arrangements; parallel
beam approaches; tapered, haunched and notched beam and storey deep construction,
Slide 30. These schemes can increase spans in office buildings with only a small
increase, in many cases less than 15%, in structural costs. Since the structural cost is
only a small proportion (< 20%) of the total development cost, clear span offices can be
achieved for less than 3% of total development cost. This cost is a very small premium to
pay for the increased flexibility in usage that results. Office activities are changing rapidly,
following the high rate of change of information technology; one can only speculate on the
requirements 30 years from now, well within the life of the structure. Clear, column-free
space offers the best opportunity of being able to adapt a building to these changing
needs.

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Slide 28 : Long span floor systems for office buildings - alternative solutions

Slide 29 : Long span floor systems for office buildings

Slide 30 : Long span floor systems for office buildings

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For bridges, the strength and toughness of steel have led to the elegant solution of cable
stayed and suspension bridges and the tight tracery of modern truss bridges, Slides 31-
33. Similar design concepts have led to the development of striking structural solutions for
long span roofs.

Slide 31 : Kohlbrand Bridge, Hamburg, Germany

Slide 32 : Humber Suspension Bridge, UK (1982)

Slide 33 : Tonegawa Bridge, Saitama Prefecture, Japan

In other contexts triangulated structures have been refined and lightened to the extent
that they become sculptures, Slide 34.

Slide 34 : Telecommunications mast, Barcelona, Spain

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3.3 Adaptability of Usage of Steel Frames for Refurbishment
Structural steel provides maximum adaptability for changes in building use, because
structural alterations can be accommodated with relative ease. Where additional
members are required, connections can be made to the existing frame with minimum
disturbance and cost. It is for this reason that steel frames have been so popular with
leading retail and industrial groups.

The importance of adaptability in use is also demonstrated by considering the widely

differing life spans of the components of a modern office building, Slide 35. The benefits
of longer spans in this context have already been discussed in the previous Section. It is

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likely that some part of the long-life structure is going to require modification to
accommodate some radical change in information systems or services.

Slide 35 : Differing life spans of building components

The attribute of adaptability is of particular importance in refurbishment contracts, whether

it is a case of strengthening existing structures or complete re-construction behind
retained facades (Slides 36 and 37). Steel is delivered to site pre-fabricated; it does not
need propping once in position nor does it suffer from shrinkage or creep. It can therefore
take load immediately. When it is chosen for the structure behind a retained facade, the
frame can be inserted through pockets cut in the structure. Modern techniques like metal
deck floors can be used with advantage in accommodating irregular floor plans and
extensive services can be installed, just as in a new building.

Slide 36 : Strengthening existing concrete floors

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 Slide 37 : Reconstruction behind retained facades

Steel's adaptability can also be put to good use in bridges. The main towers of the Severn
suspension bridge, Slide 38, were strengthened to absorb a doubling of traffic loading
since the structure was initially designed 40 years ago.

Slide 38 : The Severn Bridge after completion of

major strengthening

3.4 Quality

Employment patterns in construction have recently changed considerably. Most site work
is now carried out by small, labour-only subcontractors. These companies have little long-
term involvement in the construction sector and are too informal to make any investment
in training. The striving for further economy has reduced the overall level of site
supervision.

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In this environment it is difficult to maintain the quality of on-site construction. However, a
steel frame is a factory made, precise product, produced by a stable, well-trained
workforce. Only the erection of pre-fabricated members is left for the site - a process
which is easily controlled.

4. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS

The previous section has drawn attention to the inherent advantages of steel and the way
in which recent developments are strengthening those advantages. It is remarkable that a
material that is 100 years old should still be capable of such worthwhile development. It is
more remarkable still that the rate of development in many sectors appears to be
increasing. Development is in response to the greater rate of change of society's
demands of its built environment and the greater willingness of an increasingly
competitive commercial industry to respond to the needs of society and its customers.

It is possible to speculate on some of the directions that further development might take.

Quality Assured and Quality Controlled production methods will give cheaper and
better results with less time consuming repairs.
An increasing role for computers will lead to a greater refinement of design both to
minimise fabrication and construction costs (for everyday structures) and to permit
the more adventurous use of steel (for monumental structures).
Developments in steel production. At present very high strength steels (fy>500
N/mm2) carry a substantial price premium. However further developments in on-line
thermo-mechanical treatment are likely to reduce this premium considerably. As the
price of high strength steel drops so designers will become more adventurous in
using their full potential. This will tax engineers' ingenuity to the full because the
stiffness of steel (modulus of elasticity) does not vary with strength. Structural forms
with greater inherent stiffness will have to be developed if these higher strengths are
to be mobilised.
Greater range of sections and products. Modern rolling techniques, for both hot and
cold products, are increasing in flexibility of use. Thus a greater range of sections
will be made available to the designer, a further spur to him to use his ingenuity for
greater structural efficiency.
Fire and corrosion resistance. As techniques for fire and corrosion resistance
improve further, designers will have a greater opportunity to express the steelwork
leading to more elegant and exciting structures.
The environment. As society pays greater attention to environmental issues, its
demands for buildings will evolve. Insulation standards will rise requiring more
attention to details of construction. There will be increasing usage of demountable,
recyclable buildings and components, for which steel is eminently suitable.

5. THE FUTURE FOR STEEL: TRAINING AND ESDEP

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It is clear from the foregoing that the demands on engineers' skills and knowledge are
going to increase for the foreseeable future. Within the context of an increasing rate of
change, society will demand an increasing standard from its built environment. Both initial
technical education and in-career training are going to become even more important than
they are today.

The greatest training resources for steel in Europe are in its widely distributed network of
technical skills. A particular strength of the steel construction industry is the existence of
an infrastructure of specialist personnel who have learnt to work together through the
media of both the ECCS technical committees and the drafting committees of Eurocode 3
and Eurocode 4.

ESDEP, the European Steel Design Education Programme, was established in 1988 to
draw on both resources to prepare a comprehensive set of teaching aids on steel design
and construction. It comprises nineteen working groups with an appropriate supporting
network of steering committees. Over 200 specialists from all countries of the European
Community and the European Free Trade Association have contributed to the project,
Slides 39 and 40 summarise how the project was managed and the distribution of
contributors and working groups. The projects was sponsored by the European
Commission and the steel industry from every country in both the EC and EFTA.
Steelwork designers and constructors who will benefit from the improved quality and
performance of the industry, have much cause for gratitude for their farsightedness.

Slide 39 : ESDEP: Distribution of working groups throughout Europe

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 Slide 40 : ESDEP: Distribution of contractors throughout Europe

6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Steel is a modern material, produced in large quantity with high and reliable quality.
Steel is available in a wide range of hot and cold rolled products, as plates and
profiles.
Steel is easily manufactured into end products.
Most of this manufacture takes place in quality controlled workshops.
Site connections can easily be made and can carry load immediately.
Given good corrosion protection and maintenance, steel has an indefinite life.
Erection on site can take place quickly with little risk of delay.
Steel structures are light and strong and only require simple foundations.
Existing steel structures can easily be adapted to new demands.
Quality Control and Quality Assurance will give a further guarantee of the economic
application of steel structures.

7. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation)

[2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules and
Rules for Buildings, CEN Brussels, 1992.

[3] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV 1994-1-1:
Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN (in press).

[4] Eurocode 8: "Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures" CEN (in preparation)

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