INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions
1) Ability to learn quickly how to solve problems and understand complex issues and
generally behave in a reasonable and purposeful manner
2) IQ is measured using the formula below
I Q = MA X 100:
CA
If a learner is 15 years old, and his IQ is 100, what is the mental age?

Mental Age = 15 x 100:

100
Thus the mental age is 15

Classification of intelligence on the basis of IQ scores

Above 145 is a genius
130 – 145 is gifted
100 – 115 is above average
85 – 100 is average
65-85 is below average
50-65 is a slow learner
20-50 is severe retardation
Below 20 is profound mental retardation

IQ= mental age/chronological age X 100 i.e. IQ=MA/CA x 100

E.g. 16/12 X 100=133…. gifted child.
Assuming a student has 15years and his IQ is 100, calculate the mental age.

MA/CA X 100=_IQ
100= MA/15 X 100
=15years.

A child whose chronological age is 20 years has the IQ of 100. What is the mental age?
MA= IQ X CA/100
MA=100X 20/100
= 20years.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Factor theory
2. Cognitive theory
Factor theories
a) Unitary or monarchic theory
According to this theory, intelligence consists of one factor, a fund of intellectual competence
which is universal to all activities of the individual. It claims that a good standard in mathematics
should be good in all other subjects.

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b) Anarchic theory/ multi factor theory
proposed by E.L. Thorndike, the theory is also called atomistic theory of intelligence. It
considers intelligence to be a combination of numerous separate elements/ factors each one being
a minute element of one ability. There are highly independent specific abilities that go into the
accomplishment of different tasks. (we are borne with different abilities.) e.g. auditory abilities
are good for politicians and teachers.

a) Group factor theory.

It was proposed by L.L. Thurstone. It refers to a situation whereby we have factors not common
to all intellectual abilities but common to certain activities compromising a group. Certain mental
operations have a common primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity
and which differentiates them from other mental operations. E.g.
-Verbal factors
This is concerned with comprehension of verbal relations, words or ideas.
-spatial factors
it involves manipulation of objects imaginative in space.
-Numerical factors
It involves calculations
-Memory factor
Deals with recall or memorizing this
-Perceptual factors
Deals with the ability to perceive objects accurately.
-Problem solving ability factor
Involves solving problems independently.

Cognitive theories of intelligence

1) Cattel’s and Horns theory
Cattel (1965) and Horn (1978) develop a theory of intelligence distinguishing between two types
of intelligence. The theory suggests that Intelligence is composed of different abilities that
interact and work together to produce overall individual intelligence.
a) Fluid intelligence
This is a Mental capacity required for learning and problem solving.
It is dependent on genetic or biological factors normally used when individual is facing new or
strange situations requiring adaptation, comprehension, problem solving and identifying
relationships
It reaches maturity at the end of adolescence stage. It is the intelligence we are born with.

b) Crystallized intelligence
This is intelligence that is learnt and depends on education and individuals’ culture. Displayed or
manifested in the general knowledge of current affairs, endowment in vocabulary, knowledge of
customs and traditions, knowledge of keeping records of accounts etc.
Its characterized by high degree of socio-cultural experiences, Education, reasoning and
imagination
2) Theory of mental functioning by Jensen Arthur
According to this theory, the functioning of a person’s mind depends upon the type and degree of
intelligence one possesses. Intelligence is composed of two types.

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A. Associate abilities
Involves the ability to remember, reproduce, identify, discriminate, synthesize, assimilate,
transfer and apply the task measured include, free re-call. It is dependent on biological or
maturational factor.

B. Conceptual abilities
This Involves one’s ability to carry out high order thinking, reasoning, analyzing, and
capacity to solve problems. It is measured by tasks that involve the use of conceptual ability,
abstract reasoning, analytical and divergent thinking. It’s dependent on individual’s
educational level and culture. Its acquired as people interact with others in school or wider
society.
3.Campion’s and Brown Theory
It was proposed by Joe Campion and Ann Brown (1979) According to this theory, an
individual’s intelligence is composed of two parts system: -
i) Architectural system (biological)
These are systems that form the base of the individuals intellectual functioning. It includes basic
mental abilities such as memory capacity, rate of loss of memory and information processing
ability based on biological or innate factors (inborn).
ii) Executive system(environmental)
This system is influenced by the environment and it works as a store house of knowledge. It
includes cognitive abilities e.g. mental schemata and Cognitive learning strategies. It is the
ability to plan, evaluate, and regulate learning. It is dependent on training, culture, education and
experience.

4. Information processing theory of intelligence by Robert Sternberg.

Robert Stenberg was an American psychologist who observed that information processing as a
manner in which a person proceeds to perform a mental task or solve the problem from the time
he comes across it. Information processing involves the following steps.
a) Encoding –identify information relevant in the mind.
b) Inferring – includes interpreting the problem the way it is.
c) Mapping –draws some relationship between current and previous events.
d) Application- applies the inferred relationship.
e) Rational –give a rationale of the solution of the problem
f) Response – possible solution to the problem.
He also developed a trichic structure of the theory of intelligence based on some sub-theories.
A. Component sub theory
Decides mainly on the functioning and therefore it includes knowledge, cognition component
and performance component.
B. Experimental sub theory components
Intelligence represents the ability of the person to deal with new tasks, problems and situations
with little effort.
C. Contextual sub theory

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Individual’s mental activity is directed towards purposive adaptation to a selection and shaping
of the real world environment relevance to his own life.
5. Gardner Multiple intelligence theory
According to the theory human intelligence or competence can be better described as a set of
a person’s multiple abilities, talents and mental skills related to a number of domains of
knowledge in a particular cultural setting types of intelligence. The following type of
intelligence are identified;
a) Linguistic intelligence
Responsible for linguistic abilities and talent revealed especial in teachers, lawyer and doctors.
b) Logical-mathematic intelligence
Responsible for all type of abilities, talents or even skills related to logic and mathematics.
Common among mathematicians, physicist and philosophers
c) Spatial intelligence
Abilities and skills involving the representation manipulation of spatial configuration and
relationships -Architects, neurological engineers and painters.
d) Musical intelligence
Abilities and skills that pertain to music where we look at things like rhythm and pitch.
e) Intra- personal intelligence
Individual’s ability to understand him in terms of cognitive strength and size, manifesting in
things like language music.
f) Inter-personal intelligence
Individual to understand other people common among teachers, politicians, religions.
g) Bodily-Kinesthetic- individual’s abilities and talents that involve the use of the body and its
part. Common among dancers, sportsmen.
Factors that influence the development of individual’s intelligence/intellectual
development:
a. Influence of heredity- identical twins similar IQ e.g. reasoning and clothing.
b. Nature of home environment enough
c. Multi- media, enough resources to able to be exposed.
d. Nature of schools and associated facilities.
e. Size of he of the family- large families have a tendency of children.
f. Ordinal positions in the family- later born children score lesser IQ than earlier born
children.
g. Education background of the parents- low performers would produce children with
low IQ.
h. Social economic status- baring on health condition e.g. nutritional level
i. Physical and social surrounding of the home

INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Are two common types
Wechsler Bellevue intelligence test
This is based on language or verbal competence of an individual which involve testing on
comprehension, vocabulary and arithmetic reasoning.
Stanford Binet intelligence scale
Was developed by A. Binet, a French psychologist. It was used as a tool for identifying
children who are ready for formal schooling from those who needed remedial program. It

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 was used for approximating the mental age of children. It was based on the principal of
normal distribution of intelligence. It encompasses the following areas
i. verbal reasoning
ii. Quantitative reasoning
iii. abstract reasoning
iv. short term memory

Merits of intelligence testing

It is used to select suitable candidates for admission to special education programs, for
scholarship and admission to vocational programs or jobs.
 It’s used to classify learners in terms of average, below average, gifted or talented among
others.
 It’s used in Assessment for promotion
 It’s used in the guidance and counseling on educational, vocational and personal issues.
 Used to enhance learning process in terms of identifying appropriate teaching methods,
learning activities and teaching aids.
 Applied in the area of research i.e. establish the relationship between mental capacities
and age
 Used for diagnostic purposes in terms of identifying the gifted and mentally retarded
individuals.
Demerits of intelligence testing
 The knowledge of individual IQ can impact negatively on the students who easily give up
in life.
 Intelligence tests can also be misused by teachers and parents through labeling of
students.
 Misused by the society leading to racial discrimination or ethnicity and segregation.

EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
This refers to individuals who deviates from normal or average individuals in terms of mental,
physical, emotional and social characteristics. The person differs from others in terms of learning
abilities, social behavior, sensory abilities and mental characteristics.

Categories of exceptional children

1. Intellectual differences-superior or inferior
2. Communication difference –good communication skills
3. Sensory differences –i.e. visual perception, audio perception
4. Behavioral differences i.e. socially maladjusted or emotionally disturbed.
5. Physical differences i.e. mobility problems.
6. Multiple problem i.e deaf, blind, deaf mentally retarded.

MENTALLY EXCEPTIONAL
1. Gifted and talented
2. Mentally retarded

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Gifted and talented
One who shows consistently remarkable performance in any worthwhile line of endeavor i.e. is
superior in some ability or group of abilities.
 Exhibit superior performance in areas of their giftedness.
 They make enormous contributions to the welfare of the individual and the society at large.
 Display skills and talents in music and drama, social leadership, creative scientific
experimentations.
 Display superiority sense of love and belongings.
 Knowledge and understanding.
 Require opportunities to satisfy the need for self-esteem and self-consideration.
 Some have very low IQ.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED/ACADEMICALLY
TALENTED CHILDREN
Talented person
 Large vocabulary in thinking
 Original thinking
 Quite inquisitive ask questions
 Learn at a faster rate
 Perform difficult mental task, use great deal of common sense and practical skills such
individuals are always alert, keen and observant.
 They are able to tell what they hear and read.
 There is no need for rote drill.
In a school set up, the academically gifted persons are only 2-3 % however they are normally
neglected because: - Inability to identify them, some people think that they don’t require special
attention
Factors that contribute to poor performance in class by the gifted and talented people
1) Poor and boring curriculum so many subjects which are irrelevant.
2) Have many disabilities e.g. deaf, physical, mental
3) Parents lack knowledge and skills to enhance their development.
4) Subjected to unrealistic goal set by their parents
5) Lack support from their peers
6) Inadequate facilities in school to foster their talents.

Programs that are relevant for the gifted persons

In some places separate schools are established. However due to inclusive education policy,
ability grouping maybe done in class. Generally, the program ought to be enhanced to include
the following in order to enhance performance;
1)Special assignments to match their abilities.
2) Encourage the setting up of independent projects so that you enhance thinking.
3) Encourage them to prepare reports and participate in panel discussion.
4) Encourage independent library reading.
5) Organize field trips to help them acquire firsthand information.
6) Encouraged learners to participate in the construction of models in teaching and learning
resources.
7) Encourage experimentations and independent research.

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 8) Allow them to organize and engage in co-curricular activities in terms of game, sports
etc.
9) Acceleration-this is whereby the gifted child is allowed to learn material at a more rapid
pace or is promoted more rapidly through grades;
10) Enrichment-this is whereby the gifted child works through the usual grades at the usual
pace but with a curriculum supplemented by a variety of cultural activities.
11) Differentiation- this is whereby gifted children are accelerated or enriched within the
regular classroom.

MENTAL RETARDEDNESS
Mentally retarded individuals experience condition of incomplete development of the mind that
exists before the age of 18 years. This can be established through
1) Conducting test of the fluids surrounding the foetal scalp.
2) Detection at the time of birth e.g. cases of microcephaly and hydrocephaly can
be detected soon after birth
3) Trussing the story of the causation or development of the labour condition of
the mother e.g. long labour, caecevia, blood group incompatibility etc.
4) Accidents
5) Exposure to some infections e.g. STIS
6) Assessing the intellectuals functioning of the individual i.e. IQ tests help classify
Individuals.

Behavioral characteristics
1)Display low power of ability to understand abstract concepts (imagination of concepts)
2)Poor at following simple verbal instructions e.g. to or move things would not
3)Low intellectual label development 1 Q
4)There areas of interest aptitude and choices are limited e.g. (menu same)
5.Creativity aspect is almost absent
6Low ability in the areas of imagination even reasoning or thinking

Categories of mentally retarded person

1) Mildly retarded
Has 1 Q – 58 – 70 educable up to upper primary level they can adjust socially and became
independent in society. Have potential for partial or total participation in the economy.
2) Moderately retarded
 1Q 40-54 points 10% of the total population of the mentally retarded however attain an
intellectual level similar to that of 6 years old child.
 Appear clumsy, poor motor co-ordination i.e limbs.
 Dull, can be trained instead of being educated.
 Rate of learning is low
 Require some consisted attention

3. Severe mental retardation

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 Forms 3.5 of mentally retarded individuals, intellectual level is similar to that of four years
old child.
 Experience severe motor and speech inefficient
 Unable to master basic skills e.g. dressing themselves, feed themselves.
 They are neither trainable nor educated.
4. Profound mental retardation
 1.5% of the mentally retarded people.
 1Q below 25 points
 Intellectual level is not better than that of two years old child
 Have other complication like physical deformities e.g. deaf.
 Defects of central nervous system, severe speech disorders.
 Some are deaf with poor motor coordination
 Need care/supervision
 Need to be institutionalized (special places)
 Mental retarded individuals in Kenya form 1.5 million.
Critical types of mental retardation
1. Mongolism - Short in structure,
2. Microcephaly –Small round heads
3. Hydrocephaly – big heads full of water
Causes of mental retardation
 Excessive smoking and drinking (intoxication) During pregnancy.
 Infections during pregnancy e.g. STIs
 German measles and meningitis
 Drugs can damage the brain
 Morning sickness drugs
 Brain Tumor
 Accidents
 Complications during delivery i.e. prolonged labor (Trauma /physical injury)
 Poor nutrition during pregnancy and in early stages of development
 Gross brain damage
 Chromosomal abnormalities i.e. turner’s syndromes, Downs syndrome
 Gestational disorders i.e. case of premature birth low birth weights
 Psychosis / psychiatric disorders manifested in cares of schizophrenia – person belief that he
is failing
 Environmental influences e.g. high poverty levels
 Failure to satisfy social and psychological needs of an individual
 Over crowding
 Rigid rules cause pressure which results to stress
 High parental expectations which causes mental strain.
Prevention measures
1)Proper care for expectant mothers and children
2) Emphasis on genetic counseling and voluntary birth control e.g. in over – age.
3) Public education related to causes and ways of preventing mental retardation.
4) Medical assistance to those affected/patients.
5) Special education and training that emphasizes on the following.
6) Co- curricular experiences to enhance the students social and emotional development.

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 7)Vocational adaptation for trainable individuals.
8)Qualified teachers required who are equipped with knowledge and skills in special
education.
9)Proper grouping or classification of the mentally retarded children.

CREATIVITY
Various scholars have defined creativity;
Creativity is the ability of the person to create, discovers, or produce a new idea or object. May
also involve re-shaping or re-arrangement of the existing objects based on individuals on unique
skills.
Therefore, it’s the power of the human mind to create new contents / ideas/ information, hence
it’s universal (not confined to a given individual inborn/ innate- God given or nurtured.
 It involves producing new things/ ideas
 Its adventurous, emphasis on divergent thinking.
 It includes ego- involvement (individual takes pride in a given creation).
 Cannot be separated from intelligence
 Creativity and sociability are very related (majority of creative individuals are sociable)
 Creativity and anxiety are related (anxiety to push to do something).
THEORIES OF CREATIVITY
TAYLOR
Developed the level theory of creativity, hence it exists at various levels, in an ascending
hierarchy,
1) Expressive level of creativity
An individual doesn’t not refer/ make reference to originality
2) Productive creativity
Individual is innovative at producing things
1) inventive creativity
Emphasis on novel use of old things (recycling old)
4) Innovative
Based on highly developed abstract or conceptualized skills individual can come up with a new
idea or model
5) Emergentive creativity
Rarely achieved/ is the most abstract level of thinking involving developing assumptions that
forms the basis of the knowledge of Art and science.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF CREATIVITY

 Propounded by Sigmund Freud
 Perceived as a means or opportunity of releasing the emotional energy of killing people
who may divert that energy to a meaningful activity eg Rapists compose love songs.
 Creativity is a product of expression of the repressed desires.
Com up- theoretical notions understanding the theory of creativity.
1) Creativity and mental illness are parallel to one another, has the eager to
know something.
It involves transformation of reality.
2) To say that a creative person is mentally ill is quite incorrect

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CREATIVE PROCESS
Has the following stages
1) Preparation
The problem is defined or analyzed.
2) Incubation
Characterized by absence of activity (thinking of a problem somebody deliberately turn away
from the problem.
3) Illumination/ inspiration
There is a sudden appearance of a solution to a problem occurs anytime/ when the individual
is sleeping
4)Revision/ verification
Involves determining the solution or idea that appeared through insight is the correct one or
not. Therefore, modification may be undertaken to make the solutions workable.
Therefore, creative individual displays the following behavioral characteristics
1. Original in ideas and expressions
2. High sense of adventure
3. Good memory i.e. general knowledge
4. High sense degree of concentration and enthusiasm.
5. Investigative and curious
6. Make independent decisions
7. Fluent in expressions based on divergent thought
8. Take pride in creation
9. Quite tolerant and respect opinions of other.
10. High sense of self-respect and justice.

TEST FOR MEASURING CREATIVTY

They include:
1. Minnesota test
2. Remote association test
3. Guilford divergent thinking instrument
4. Kogan Wallach
Torrance- American psychologist based on verbal and non- verbal activities
Non-verbal forms; used to test individual creativity
Figural forms A and B Picture/ figure completion test
 Individual is asked to complete figures by adding a new dimension or lines and giving a
suitable title; line test.
 Use of several pair of straight lines, where the individual is required to draw pictures by use
of each pair and eventually provide a title.
Verbal forms; used to test Individual competence in terms of words, the subject is supposed to
provide written responses to the questions put to him. Examples
a) Filling in the gaps e.g. The capital city of Kenya is----------------------
b) Pose questions to establish the divergent thinking of the subjects e.g. What are the uses of a
microphone apart from.........?
c) Unusual question type: Individual is supposed to answers unusual questions based on a
particular picture or photograph e.g. Who among these seems to be criminal?

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d) Suppose question type; The subject is required to predict out comes of unusual situations:
How would you behave if you had other eyes on the back of your head?

STRATEGIES FOR NURTURING/ ENHANCING CREATIVITY

1. Adequate freedom to individual/ student to respond to situations
2. Provide opportunities for individual to derive satisfaction by identifying with the
products.
3. Need to encourage them to express themselves freely as a way of removing fear.
4. Institutions must set multi-media centre to enhance creativity i.e. theatre
5. Encourage divergent thinking instead of convergent thinking.
6. Avoid frustration of learners by subjecting them to authoritarian kind of leadership
7. Teachers to be good role models.
8. Curriculum ought to be reformed by understanding areas of flexibility originality and
divergent things.

TECHNIQUES FOR PROMOTION CREATIVITY

e.g. brain storming, use of teaching models, role play

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Define intelligence.
2. Explain Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory.
3. Explain factors that influence intelligence/ intellectual development.
4. Describe the common intelligence tests.
5. Explain the merits and demerits of intelligence tests.
6. Highlight the categories of exceptional children.
7. Describe the characteristics of gifted/talented children.
8. Citing examples outline factors that may undermine the performance of gifted students in
Kenyan Schools.
9. Citing examples describe methods of enhancing the performance of gifted and talented
students.
10. Define mental retardation.
11. Outline the characteristics of a mentally retarded individual.
12. Describe the characteristics of the following conditions
a) Mild mental retardation
b) Moderate mental retardation
c) Severe mental retardation
d) Profound mental retardation.
13. explain the causes of mental retardation.
14. Citing examples explain measures to prevent mental retardation.
15. Define the term creativity.
16. Identify and describe the theories of creativity.
17. Citing example describe the four stages of the creative process.
18. Describe the characteristics of creative individuals.
19. Explain the strategies that can be used to enhance creativity in learners.
20. Identify and describe the tests used to measures creativity.

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