October 9, 1676, he stated that motility is a

quality of life that he called “animalcules”.

Protozoa and other unicellular organisms,
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL like bacteria are examples of these.
S.Y. 2022-2023 • Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries
and the mid 19th century, very little cell
MODULE IN GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
advancements were made. This is probably
QUARTER I
due to the widely accepted, traditional belief
in Spontaneous Generation. But Louis
---
Pasteur disproved it.
• In 1838, German Botanist, Matthias
LESSON 1: THE CELL THEORY
Schleiden, concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain why cells are the foundation of life. • In 1839, German physiologist, Theodor
2. Name the scientists who distributed in The Schwann, who was a close friend of
Cell Theory. Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are
3. Discuss the theories in The Cell Theory. composed of cells.
• In 1858, Rudolf Virchow, German physician,
THE IMPORTANCE OF CELLS after extensive study of cellular pathology,
• The most basic life processes, such as concluded that cells must arise from
reproduction, growth, disease immunity, and
preexisting cells.
nutrient utilization, take place at the cellular
level.
• All agricultural production begins with cells The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory
because producers depend on the healthy were now complete:
growth and reproduction of plants and animals 1. All organisms are composed of one or
for their livelihood. more cells.
• Plants and animals are composed of many
2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
different types of tissue, and all tissue
composed of group of cells. things.
3. All cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells.

Modern Cell Theory

1. All living things are made up of one or more
cells.
2. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by
division.
3. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure
and function in all living organisms.
4. The activity of an organism depends on the
DISCOVERY OF THE CELL total activity of independent cells.
• In a 1665 publication called Micrographia,
5. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry)
experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined
occurs within the cells.
the term “cell” for the box-like structures he
6. Cells contain DNA which is found specifically
observed when viewing cork tissue through a
in the chromosome and the RNA found in the
lens.
cell nucleus and cytoplasm.
o The cell from Latin cella, meaning "small
7. All cells are basically the same in chemical
room” like where monks live.
composition in organisms of similar species.
o cellulae, which means the six-sided cell of a
8. Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from
honeycomb
cell to cell.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek made use of a
9. All cells have the same basic chemical
microscope containing improved lenses that
composition.
could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or
270x. In a letter to The Royal Society on
10. All living organisms are composed of and
depend on cells to function normally. COMPONENTS OF A EUKARYOTIC CELL
Organelles perform different functions within the
cell. This is called division of labor.
LESSON 2: THE CELL AND ITS 1. Cell Wall – helps in protecting the cell
ORGANELLES membrane and plays a vital role in supporting
and protecting the cells.
Learning Outcomes: - It is a thick outer layer made of cellulose
1. List the different type of cells. that gives the cell its shape.
2. Distinguish between prokaryotic and 2. Cell Membrane – is a double layer of
eukaryotic cells. phospholipid, thin barrier, surrounding the
cell to control the entry and exit of certain
3. Describe the different type of cells.
substances.
- It also recognizes signal from other cells,
Cells are like factories. They are made up which allows communication between
structures each having specific function. A typical cells.
cell is made up of three major parts: the cell 3. Cytoplasm – is a membrane, which protects
membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. The cell the cell by keeping the cell organelles
membrane controls the entry and exit of materials separate from each other.
across the cell. In a factory, it is like the security - It contains semi-fluid translucent
guard who ensures that right transactions are substance called cytosol.
done in the company. The nucleus, on the other - It is the site where many vital
hand, is the control center of the cell. It controls biochemical reactions take place.
all activities of the cell. Lastly, the cytoplasm 4. Nucleus – contains nearly all of the cell’s
includes all cellular structures other than the genetic material.
nucleus and the cell membrane. The cytoplasm is - It is also known as the control center of
made up of a liquid portion known as protoplasm. the cell.
It is a jellylike substance made up of water, 5. Nucleolus – an important membrane found
proteins, sugars. It nourishes the other parts of inside the nucleus that plays a vital role in the
the cell. Together with the protoplasm are tiny production of cell’s ribosome.
structures of the cytoplasm known as organelles. 6. Ribosomes – are small spherical organelles
They are little like organs. Each organelle has a that functions as protein factories.
specific function. The cytoplasm, therefore, 7. Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER) – is found
represents the workplace of a factory. It includes near the nucleus and is made up of a number
the production, packaging and warehouse of flattened sacs called cisternae, which are
departments. continuous with the nuclear envelope.
a. Rough ER – has a lot of
TYPES OF CELLS ribosomes; transports proteins that
1. Eukaryotic Cells are synthesized in the ribosomes.
2. Prokaryotic Cells b. Smooth ER – synthesizes lipids.
8. Golgi Apparatus – is a stack of membrane-
bound flattened sacs that are responsible for
finishing, sorting, labeling and shipping
proteins.
9. Vesicles – are membrane-bound sacs that
are used to store or transport substances
around the cell.
10. Lysosomes – are membrane-bound
Animal Cell spherical sacs, which contain digestive
enzymes used to break down materials,
recycle food particles and capture bacteria.
11. Vacuoles – are essentially larger vesicles,
that are formed by the joining together of
many vesicles.
- for animal cells, they are responsible for
Plant Cell storing food.
- for plant cells, they are responsible for
storing water and for maintaining turgor
pressure.
12. Mitochondria – are round double LESSON 3: CELL TYPES
membrane-bound organelles responsible for
Aerobic Respiration to produce ATP. Their Cells in the human body number in trillions
inner membrane is folded inside to form and come in all shapes and sizes. These tiny
cristae, which are folded in the matrix – the structures are the basic unit of living organisms.
central part of a mitochondrion. There are different types of cells in the
13. Chloroplasts – responsible for human body based on tissue formation:
photosynthesis.
14. Chromosomes – is made up of DNA and 1. Bone Cells (Osteocytes)
stored in the nucleus, which contains the • They are the toughest body cells as they
instructions for traits and characteristics. are bound together by calcium and
15. Centrioles – are microtubules found next to phosphate.
the nucleus of animal cells. They move • They give strength, support and
chromosomes around by forming fibers framework to the body by enclosing
called spindle during cell division. organs in the skeletal system.
2. Cartilage Cells (chondrocytes)
BACTERIAL CELL • They are similar to the bone cells but the
Bacteria are known for their role in surrounding material is loose and flexible.
causing illnesses but there are also good Hence they are freely bendable.
bacteria. They are single cellular microscopic • Present in the ear bone and in between
organisms. Bacterial cells have fewer structures large bones.
compared to animal and plant cells. A bacterium 3. Nerve Cells
has a cell wall, a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. • These cells are very long and have
The nucleoid floats freely in the cytoplasm many branching at their ends.
directs the activities of the cell. • They never multiply in one’s lifetime.
• They are present all over the body and are
sometimes as long as few meters long.
• They are human brain cells and are
present in the brain and spinal cord and
form the nervous tissues.
4. Epithelial Cells
• These are very simple cells which form
covering of other cells.
• Having closely-joined cells, they serve as
barriers for pathogens, fluid loss and
mechanical injuries.
5. Muscle Cells
A Comparison of a Prokaryotic Cell • These cells are mostly long, large and
and Typical Animal Cell have ability to contract and relax
providing movements.
Cell Prokaryotic Eukaryotic A. Skeletal muscle cells are attached to
Structure Cell Cell long bones and assist in their movement
Cell Membrane Yes Yes (by muscle contraction).
Cell Wall Yes No B. Cardiac muscle cells are present only
in heart muscle and are responsible for
Centrioles No Yes
heart beats.
One long DNA
Chromosomes strand
Many C. Smooth muscle cells are flexible yet,
Cilia or Flagella Yes, simple Yes, complex
can contract and relax and are present in
stomach, intestine, blood vessel walls.
Endoplasmic
No Yes They help in the movement of food
Reticulum
through the gut.
Golgi Complex No Yes
6. Secretory Cells
Lysosomes No Common • They form glands and secrete something
Mitochondria No Yes important.
Nucleus No Yes example:
✓ pancreatic cells which
Ribosomes Yes Yes
secrete insulin and
glucagon
✓ salivary gland which
secrete salivary amylase
 ✓ sebaceous gland which Learning Outcomes:
secrete oil on the skin 1. Describe the stages of mitosis/ meiosis
given 2n=6
7. Adipose Cells 2. Discuss crossing over and recombination
• These are fat cells and are storage by in meiosis
nature. 3. Explain the significance and/or application
• They reduce friction to the body. of mitosis/meiosis
• They are especially seen in the soles,
palms and bums. Have you ever watched a caterpillar
8. Blood Cells turn into a butterfly? If so, you're probably
• These cells includes the RBCs, WBCs, familiar with the idea of life cycle? Insects like
platelets and etc. butterflies go through life cycle transitions.
• They are always motile and never stay in
Other organisms, from humans to plants to
one place.
• They have limited lifespan and they never
bacteria, also have a life cycle - a series of
multiply to form new cells. developmental steps that an individual
• Instead, new cells are form from other undergoes through from birth until the time it
cells. reproduces.
A cell cycle is a series of events that
Types of cells in human body based on their takes place in a cell as it grows and divide .It
function: plays an important part in the development of
1. Conductive cells embryos, and it is important for the growth
2. Connective cells and development in an organism. The most
3. Glandular cells basic function of the cell cycle is to duplicate
4. Storage cells
accurately the vast amount of DNA in the
5. Supportive cells
chromosomes and then segregate the copies
There are special types of cells with important precisely into two genetically identical cells.
functions in our body: This process allows multicellular organisms to
1. Rods and Cones grow, and divide and single-celled organisms
• These cells are in the eyes and have the to reproduce. It also allows the maintenance
capacity to capture image color and light. and repair of cells and tissues.
2. STEM CELLS
They have the ability to develop into specialized In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a
cells for specific organs or to develop into tissues. nucleus, the phases of the cell cycle are
They are able to divide and replicate many times separated into two important phases:
in order to replenish or repair tissue.
interphase and the mitotic (M) stage. During
scientists are attempting to take advantage of the
renewal properties of stem cells by utilizing them
interphase, cell perform its everyday work. It
to generate cells for tissue repair. is the longest phase in the cell cycle. It is
divided in three stages:
CELL MODIFICATIONS 1. The first growth phase (G1).
Cilia Metabolic changes prepare the cell for
• A cilium (plural cilia) is an organelle found division. Cellular contents, except the
in eukaryotic cells. chromosomes, are duplicated.
• slender protuberances that project from 2. The S phase. DNA synthesis
the much larger cell body. replicates the genetic materials. Each
1. motile cilia chromosome now consists of two sister
2. non-motile cilia
chromatids.
Flagella
• tail-like projection that protrudes from the
3. G2 phase. Metabolic changes
cell body of certain prokaryotic and assemble the cytoplasmic materials
eukaryotic cells for locomotion. necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
Microvilli Mitosis, although a continuous
• absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion process is divided into four stages: prophase,
and mechanotransduction. metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

LESSON 4: THE CELL CYCLE

 indistinct under a microscope. A new nuclear
MITOSIS membrane forms around them while the
Let’s now proceed to types of cell spindle fibers disappear. There is also
division, I'm sure you are interested in finding cytokinesis or the division of the cytoplasm to
out what these types of cell division are and form two separate daughter cells.
how these processes differ from one another.
Most of the time when people refer to cell
division, they mean mitosis. This type of cell
division produces two identical cells with the
MEIOSIS
same number of chromosomes. Mitosis is Not all cells divide through the process
divided into four stages. of mitosis. Organisms that reproduce sexually
also undergo a type of cell division called
1. Prophase: The first and the longest phase meiosis. Meiosis occurs in sex cells and is
of mitosis .During this stage, chromatin similar in process to mitosis. After a complete
condenses into chromosomes, and the cell cycle in meiosis however, four daughter
nuclear envelope (membrane surrounding the cells are produced. Each cell contains one
nucleus) breaks down. In animal cells, the half the number of chromosomes as the
centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate original parent.
and move to the opposite poles of the cell. Meiosis have two consecutive stages:
Centrioles are small organelles found only in
eukaryotic cells that form after cell division, 1. Meiosis 1
each cell contain a complete set of
chromosomes. As the centrioles move
apart, a spindle fiber starts to form
between them. The spindle shown in
the diagram, consists of fibers made
of microtubules.

2. Metaphase: During metaphase,

spindle fibers attach to the
centromere of each pair of sister
chromatids. The chromatids line up at
the equator, or center of the cell. The
spindle fibers ensure that sister
chromatids will separate and go to the 2. Meiosis 2
different daughter cells when the cell divides.
Some spindles do not attach with the
centromeres of chromosomes, they attach
with each other and grow longer. The
elongation of spindles are not attached to the
centromeres. They elongate the whole cell.

3. Anaphase: During this phase, the sister

chromatids separate and the centromeres di-
vide. The sister chromatids are pulled apart
by the shortening of spindle fibers. One sister
chromatid moves to one pole of the cell and
the other sister chromatid moves to the
opposite pole. At the end of the anaphase,
each pole of the cell has a complete set of
chromosomes.

4. Telophase: During this phase, the

chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the
spindle fiber.They start to uncoil and become