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Cloud Computing Nayan Ruparelia Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Nayan Ruparelia
ISBN(s): 9780262376211, 0262376210
Edition: Illustrated
File Details: PDF, 8.02 MB
Year: 2023
Language: english
CLOUD COMPUTING
CLOUD COMPUTING
REVISED AND UPDATED EDITION

NAYAN RUPARELIA

The MIT Press | Cambridge, Massachusetts | London, England

© 2023 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording,
or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from
the publisher.

The MIT Press would like to thank the anonymous peer reviewers who
provided comments on drafts of this book. The generous work of academic
experts is essential for establishing the authority and quality of our
publications. We acknowledge with gratitude the contributions of these
otherwise uncredited readers.

This book was set in Chaparral Pro by New Best-set Typesetters Ltd.

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Names: Ruparelia, Nayan, author.

Title: Cloud computing / Nayan B. Ruparelia.
Description: Revised and updated edition. | Cambridge, Massachusetts :
The MIT Press, [2023]. | Series: The mit press essential knowledge series |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Why cloud
computing represents a paradigm shift for business, and how business
users can best take advantage of cloud services”—­Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022045880 (print) | LCCN 2022045881 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780262546478 (paperback) | ISBN 9780262376228 (epub) |
ISBN 9780262376211 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Cloud computing.
Classification: LCC QA76.585 .R87 2023 (print) | LCC QA76.585 (ebook) |
DDC 004.67/82—­dc23/eng/20220927
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022045880
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022045881

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

Series Foreword vii

Preface ix

1 Introduction 1
2 A Historical Perspective 25
3 Types of Cloud Computing 33
4 Cloud Native Foundations 61
5 Microservices and Their Design Patterns 77
6 Cloud Computing: A Paradigm Shift? 101
7 Price Models 117
8 Data 141
9 Security 161
10 Transitioning to the Cloud 183
11 Public Cloud Examples 203
12 Reference Architectures 223
13 Future Outlook 243

Acknowledgments 255
Appendix A: Common Security Terms 257
Glossary 263
Notes 273
Further Reading 277
Index 279
 SERIES FOREWORD

The MIT Press Essential Knowledge series offers accessible,

concise, beautifully produced pocket-­size books on topics
of current interest. Written by leading thinkers, the books
in this series deliver expert overviews of subjects that
range from the cultural and the historical to the scientific
and the technical.
In today’s era of instant information gratification, we
have ready access to opinions, rationalizations, and super-
ficial descriptions. Much harder to come by is the founda-
tional knowledge that informs a principled understanding
of the world. Essential Knowledge books fill that need.
Synthesizing specialized subject matter for nonspecialists
and engaging critical topics through fundamentals, each
of these compact volumes offers readers a point of access
to complex ideas.
 PREFACE

This is a concepts book. It does not tell you which buttons

to click on a cloud provider’s portal in order to configure
your cloud resources or how to use certain features that a
particular cloud provider offers. Instead, it will equip you
with the necessary understanding so that you will be able
to judge what cloud resources you ought to be configuring
and the rationale for doing so. Such an understanding is
vital because, without that core foundation, you will not
be able to understand the capabilities and usefulness of
cloud computing.
Cloud computing has become a mainstay since the
first edition of this book was written some seven years ago.
With its greater adoption and mind share, cloud comput-
ing has made significant strides since then. As it is now
a mainstream technology, it behooves you to know what
cloud computing is, what its benefits are, what pitfalls you
will need to overcome when transitioning to the cloud, the
appropriate security measures you will need to adopt, and
how you will use the cloud, whether it is a public cloud,
such as Amazon’s AWS (Amazon Web Services), or a pri-
vate one that you specify, implement, and use. The pur-
pose of this book, therefore, is to cut through the hype and
show how to take advantage of cloud computing.
 Until the last two chapters, I refrain from consider-
ing commercial cloud services or offerings in this book for
three main reasons: (1) if one is not careful, the book could
easily become an advertisement for various cloud service
providers; (2) some vendors are here today and gone to-
morrow, in keeping with the nature of the fast-­paced tech-
nology industry; and (3) the principal aim of this book is
to provide the concepts that will equip you to better make
your own decisions about such offerings in the first place.
You could be an investor who wants to learn more
about the cloud-­based technologies employed by the busi-
nesses you invest in, an entrepreneur who wants to use
cloud computing to ramp up your startup in an agile man-
ner, a lawyer or judge working on a case that relates to
cloud computing, a technologist who wants to use cloud
computing in a new product or service that you are defin-
ing, a business student who wants to understand the para-
digm shift that cloud computing represents to businesses
globally, or a layperson who is curious about the subject—­
regardless, this book is for you. This book will help you un-
derstand cloud computing from a user’s standpoint: when
to use it and when not to, how to select a cloud service and
integrate it with other cloud services or traditional IT, and
best practices when using cloud computing.
This book is written primarily for a nonspecialist, al-
though a technical specialist should benefit from reading
it to understand the concepts and broader impact of cloud

x  Preface
computing. Thus no prior knowledge of cloud computing
or any of its related technologies is required in reading
this book. I advise strongly, however, that you read the
first chapter of the book as a prerequisite so that we may
have a shared, common vocabulary and understanding of
cloud computing. This will prove useful when you read the
succeeding chapters. You may read any of the chapters of
the book in any order after the first chapter. A glossary
is provided at the end of the book for some of the main
terms and acronyms used in cloud computing and related
technologies. I wish you all the best on your cloud comput-
ing journey. May it be an exciting one!

Preface xi
 1

INTRODUCTION

Consider a typical workday that you spend using your

computer. How much of your computer’s resources do
you actually use during peak usage times? The average
for most users is about 10 percent of the processor, less
than 60 percent of memory, and 20 percent of network
bandwidth. (That is at peak usage; the normal usage levels
during working hours are considerably less, on average.)
Nevertheless, you paid for 100 percent of the resources up
front when you bought your computer. Your networking
costs are not any different in nature because most internet
service providers (ISPs) have a lock-­in period that commits
you to their customer base for at least a year. Now suppose
that your workplace has hundreds or even thousands of
computers that are being used at a nominal rate: would it
not be good to pool the unused computing resources of all
 Here, one of these situations applies:
1. Computing does not get done; this can affect the
business adversely;
2. Computing gets done late or with degraded
performance; or
3. Business needs to invest in idle capacity to
accommodate surges in resource demand.
Resource utilization

Average resource
capacity the business
Wasted investment can afford
as resources are
underutilized

Time

Figure 1 Investment problem solved by cloud computing.

the company’s computers and put them to good use? That

way your company would get the biggest bang for its buck.
Let us now transpose the same thinking to the data
center, where numerous servers—­web servers, applica-
tion servers, database servers—­are being used in a similar
manner at minimal usage rates. These servers too could
have their hardware resources pooled and shared across

2  chapter 1
servers so that you could utilize them more efficiently;
otherwise, as in figure 1, you will need to invest up-­front
in computing resources that may be used only occasionally.
The extra pooled resources that are unused by you could
then be used by others in your company through your
company’s network. Alternatively, if your company ap-
points a third party to provide resource pooling, then you
would access your computing resources over the internet.
But what if your company or department paid only for
the computing resources that it uses? Then your company
would not have to invest up-­front, as a capital expendi-
ture, in purchasing the computing but simply sign up with
a service provider on a pay-­as-­you-­use billing model. This
effectively means that your company changes from a capi-
tal expenditure (CapEx) model to an operating expendi-
ture (OpEx) model for meeting its computing needs. This
is where cloud computing comes in.

A Definition of Cloud Computing

Although information technology (IT) has become ubiqui-

tous at home and at work today, the industry is still in
its infancy in comparison to, say, the automotive or tele-
communications industries, which have existed for over a
century. And cloud computing, one of the latest IT inno-
vations, is still in its formative stage. It seems inevitable

Introduction 3
that during the formative stage of a technology, much of
the attention given to it borders on hype. Consequently,
everyone from the technologist to the salesperson is keen
to jump on the bandwagon by labeling anything with the
remotest resemblance (often exaggerated or extrapolated)
to cloud computing as being part of the cloud computing
domain. This creates obfuscation and results in several
definitions of cloud computing. The best definition is that
provided by the National Institute of Science and Tech-
nology (NIST), a technology agency that is part of the US
Department of Commerce and works with industry to
develop and apply technology, measurements, and stan-
dards. The NIST definition of cloud computing is:

Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous,

convenient, on-­demand network access to a
shared pool of configurable computing resources
(e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released
with minimal management effort or service provider
interaction. This cloud model promotes availability
and is composed of five essential characteristics,
three service models, and four deployment models.1

Although the NIST definition needs updating—­the

service models, for example, are now five, not three—­it
is the most passable definition at present. In essence, this

4  chapter 1
book follows the NIST’s definition to describe, one by one,
the essential characteristics, deployment models, and ser-
vice models of cloud computing.
Before delving into the characteristics of cloud com-
puting, let us first delve into virtualization and cloud ser-
vices because these form the basis of cloud computing in
two distinct manners: virtualization from a technical per-
spective and cloud services from a conceptual perspective.

Virtualization

Cloud computing relies on virtualization technology. There

are two basic types of virtualization: server virtualization
and application virtualization. Application virtualization
delivers an application that is hosted on a single machine
(denoted as the server) and made available to many users.
The application can be situated in the cloud on high-­grade
virtual machines (VMs); because several users access it, its
costs are shared by those users. This makes the application
cheaper to deliver to the end user. The end user does not
need to have high-­grade hardware to run the application;
an inexpensive machine, such as a low-­end workstation or
a thin client machine, will suffice.2 And if the data used by
the virtual application are stored in the cloud, the user is
not tethered to any one device or location to use the ap-
plication or access related data. Typically in such cases, the

Introduction 5
 Machine 1 Machine 2

App 1 App 2 .... App 3 App 1 App 2 .... App 3

Operating system Operating system

Virtual machine Virtual machine

Single physical machine

Figure 2 Virtual machines hosted on a physical machine.

virtual application is consumed through a mobile app or

an internet browser by the end user.
Server virtualization uses common physical hardware
(networks, storage, or computing machines) to host VMs,
as figure 2 illustrates. A physical host machine could have
any number of VMs running on it so that one set of hard-
ware is used to run different machines.
VMs can be installed with their own operating system
and their own different set of applications; the operating
systems or applications do not need to be the same across
the VMs. However, at the infrastructure level, it is pos-
sible to have virtual storage (multiple storage volumes on
a single physical storage device) and virtual networks in
addition to VMs.
Server virtualization has a major cost benefit: it allows
you to consolidate a large number of physical machines

6  chapter 1
into fewer physical machines that host the VMs. This in-
crease in computing efficiency results in lower space, main-
tenance, cooling, and electricity costs, besides the obvious
reduction in the procurement costs of the machines. An
additional benefit is that fewer physical machines and
lower electricity consumption translate to environmental
friendliness.
When the VMs are pooled together such that they
may be instantiated—­that is, activated and switched on—
instantaneously in such a manner that they can join or
leave the pool, you will be able to scale your resources to
meet any change in demand, whether that change is an
increase or a decrease. This instantaneous change in the
number of VMs within a pool is known as elasticity and
can be achieved in a cost-­efficient manner owing to server
virtualization.
Now, what is the difference between virtualization and
cloud computing? Let us recall from the NIST definition
of cloud computing these characteristics: on-­demand self-­
service, rapid elasticity, and measured service provision.
None of these features is provided as a matter of course by
virtualization. Virtualization acts as an enabling technology
to facilitate these features, but many additional enablers
are required, such as reporting, billing, demand manage-
ment, and various other business processes and tools.
To truly deploy a cloud, you need to consider how
to employ virtualization and standardize your service

Introduction 7
To truly deploy a
cloud, you need to
consider how to employ
virtualization
and standardize your
service offerings.
offerings, make them available through simple portals,
track usage and cost information, measure their avail-
ability, orchestrate them to meet demand, provide a se-
curity framework, provide instantaneous reporting, and
have a billing or charging mechanism based on usage.
Another way of looking at deployment is to understand
that virtualization per se is not a service. It can be used, in
conjunction with other tools and processes, to create an
Infrastructure-as-a-Service offering.

Containerization
A container represents a partitioning of a server’s re-
sources such that it can run an application and thereby
provide a service. The container is a run-­time application
that is built and run from a container image. This provides
a cookie-­cutter approach since you can build the same
containers during run time from a single image. The im-
ages are stored in a registry that acts as a repository of
all types of container images. You can have public image
repositories, such as Docker Hub, or private ones that you
create and make available only to developers in your own
organization.
You could use a VM instead of a container to provide
the same service. However, the container is lightweight
compared to a VM and so you can deploy it from a cold
start much faster than a virtual machine. This is because
the container runs on the server within the server’s

Introduction 9
environment—­albeit within a jail—­whereas the VM has
its own environment that is created from a partition of
the physical server’s memory, disk space, and central proc-
essing unit (CPU) resources, as figure 3 shows.
This means that a container can run on a VM as well
as on a physical one. Indeed, since cloud computing itself
is predicated on VMs, almost all containers that run in
public clouds have historically run on a VM that itself is
hosted on a physical machine. (For performance reasons,
public cloud providers favor physical machines to host
containers these days.) As figure 4 shows, VMs running on
a physical server are used to host containers that in turn
run applications; the single-­purpose applications and con-
tainers, when bundled, are the microservices that cloud
service providers enable you to create.
Chapter 4 delves deeper into containers and contain-
erization.

Cloud Services

Let us examine what constitutes a service—­specifically a

cloud service—­by employing the analogy of an accoun-
tancy firm. Suppose you want your accounts managed,
and you appoint an accountancy firm. Let us postulate
your main criteria for selecting the firm:

10  chapter 1
 Containerized applications Virtualized applications

Virtual Virtual Virtual

machine machine machine

App n

App 1
App 2
App 1
App 2
App n

Container Container Container

1 2 n Guest Guest Guest
operating operating operating
system system system
Container engine

Host operating system Hypervisor

Physical server Physical server

Network Storage Network Storage

Infrastructure

Introduction
Figure 3 Difference between containers and virtual machines.

11
12  chapter 1
Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro- Micro-
service service service service service service service service service

App App App App App App App App App

Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container

Virtual machine Virtual machine Virtual machine

Physical server

Figure 4 Containers hosted on virtual machines.

1. integrity and reputation of the firm (you want your
accounts to be accurate, and you do not want your
accounts released to the world!),

2. promptness in preparing the accounts and lowering

your tax bill (the benefits that you will receive), and

3. fees the firm will charge (the cost of realizing the

benefits).

You are not likely to care about the number of employ-

ees the firm employs in preparing your accounts, the soft-
ware used, or the computers the software is installed on.
Rather, your interest is in the firm’s service and its benefits.
These service benefits form a contract, a bond between you
and the accountancy firm in a written or unwritten format.
Such a contract is called a service-­level agreement (SLA).
In IT, a service is a collection of IT systems, compo-
nents, and resources that work together to provide value
to users. An important element of this is that, for parties
to the contract to measure and agree on the value received,
two parameters are usually used to assess a service: cost
and the SLA. The SLA is essentially a contract between
the service consumer and the service supplier in terms of
how quickly the service will be delivered (when), its qual-
ity (what), and scope (where and how much). Notice that
these parameters represent the benefit that accrues to the
service consumer. If the service consumer happens to be

Introduction 13
internal to the company, such as a marketing department,
then the internal agreement between the supplier and the
consumer departments of that company is called an op-
erational level agreement (OLA). A cloud service therefore
is the implementation of a business process—­provided
through a set of related functional components and
resources—­that provides business value to its consumers.
Continuing this analogy, let’s suppose that the accoun-
tancy firm wishes to ensure that it meets the SLA condi-
tions agreed on with you. It could put in place various
metrics internally that it could use to monitor its perfor-
mance while creating the accounts. For example, the met-
rics could be that the audit needs to take three days, or the
cash book needs to be reconciled within a week. The firm
may agree to share these metrics with you, although usu-
ally they are used internally as objectives to ensure that the
firm meets the overall SLA. These objectives, or metrics,
are referred to as service-­level objectives (SLOs). From an
IT standpoint, SLOs are specific, measurable characteris-
tics of the SLA such as uptime, throughput, available re-
source capacity, response time, and delivery time.

Service Models: Levels of Abstraction

Now let us look at IT from the accountancy firm’s per-

spective. The IT department at the firm has that firm’s

14  chapter 1
A cloud service therefore
is the implementation
of a business process—­
provided through a set
of related functional
components and
resources—­that
provides business value
to its consumers.
accountants as its customers. These accountants have a
choice in the way they interact with their IT department:

1. They could get down to the nitty gritty and specify the
hardware and software in terms of the type and version
of software to use, the operating system that hosts the
software, the hardware’s memory, storage space, and so
on and so forth.

2. They could specify the software they wish to use and

let the IT department figure out what hardware to use.

3. They could simply agree on the type of input data

they would like to have computed and the format of the
resulting data set and leave it to the IT department to
use whatever software and hardware it wanted to employ
to compute the data.

The first choice represents a level of abstraction at the

infrastructure layer. In cloud computing, it is known as
Infrastructure-­as-­a-­Service (IaaS). Common examples of
IaaS are when you store data, files, or pictures in the cloud
(this uses the storage infrastructure) or use the cloud to
transfer files. A higher level of abstraction is when the
IT department provides a platform, complete with hard-
ware and operating system, and the accountants specify
the software to use, as in the second choice above. This is
Platform-­as-­a-­Service (PaaS).

16  chapter 1
 If the IT department were required to decide the right
software and computing platform to use on behalf of the
accountants, as in the third choice, such that the accoun-
tants only need to care about the accuracy and timeliness
of the data returned to them, that level of abstraction
would be Software-­as-­a-­Service (SaaS). These three lev-
els of abstraction—­IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS—­are the service
models referred to in the NIST definition.
What if our accountancy firm decided to outsource
the entire auditing function to another firm so that it
could concentrate on advising you on tax matters? Our ac-
countancy firm would agree to an SLA and the cost with
the other firm, which would then audit the accounts ac-
cordingly. This amounts to outsourcing an entire business
function, or process, to another firm.
That other firm could just as well be replaced by a cloud
service. Thus the cloud service, when providing a business
function, is providing a Business Process-­ as-­
a-­
Service
(BPaaS).
Suppose that our accountancy firm wished to obtain
the latest tax regulations. It could then commission an in-
formation service. This would be akin to Information-­as-­
a-­Service (INaaS). Since the tax codes and regulations are
updated regularly as the law changes, this is a service that
relies not only on the storage of data, which would then be
IaaS, but also on the manipulation of that data to provide
meaningful information. Hence INaaS is distinct from IaaS.

Introduction 17
 BPaaS
Business architecture
(Business Process-as-a-Service)

INaaS
Information architecture
(Information-as-a-Service)

SaaS
Applications architecture
(Software-as-a-Service)

PaaS
(Platform-as-a-Service)
Technology architecture
IaaS
(Infrastructure-as-a-Service)

Figure 5 Enterprise architecture stack and cloud service models.

The NIST model therefore needs to be updated with

these two service abstractions, INaaS and BPaaS, as fig-
ure 5 illustrates. IT enterprise architecture recognizes
four architecture domains, as shown in the left column of
figure 5. These are technology architecture, applications
architecture, information or data architecture, and busi-
ness architecture. Technology architecture encompasses
IT infrastructure, middleware, and operating systems;
applications architecture concerns software applications,
their interactions, and their relationships with business
processes; data architecture defines the data assets and

18  chapter 1
their management; business architecture translates the
business strategy to an IT strategy, relevant governance
framework, and definition of business processes. Each of
these domains in the enterprise architecture stack maps
to and aligns with the cloud service models shown in the
right column of figure 5.

Cloud Deployment Models

The NIST definition contains four distinct deployment

models: public, private, community, and hybrid clouds.
A public cloud provides services to anyone with inter-
net access. Such a service may be provided by computing
resources located anywhere in the world. This type of cloud
has the disadvantage of data integrity for some companies
for regulatory reasons. For example, companies based in
the United States are not allowed to store consumer data
in other countries. Financial institutions especially need
to comply with strict regulations of this nature. As a result,
some companies tend to favor private clouds. Another rea-
son for favoring a private cloud over a public one is cost; the
cost of having your own private cloud becomes lower once
your annual cloud computing spend approaches $1 million.
A private cloud is one that provides services to a single
entity, either a government organization or a business en-
terprise, such that cloud services are provided to that entity

Introduction 19
from its own private network. Usually only large enterprises
can afford to have private clouds. Small or medium-­size en-
terprises have the option of using a community cloud.
A community cloud provides a middle ground between
a private cloud and a public one. Various entities, rang-
ing from individuals to enterprises, that have a common
interest can pool their resources to create a hybrid cloud.
Such clouds take various shapes: a banking cloud in Swit-
zerland serving the cantonal banks (Switzerland is divided
into administrative units called cantons), a paper indus-
try cloud in the Nordic countries, or a health cloud for the
health industry in the United States. However, there could
also be community clouds for various interest groups, for
instance for chess players or numismatists.
A hybrid cloud is essentially a conglomeration of the
other types of clouds. Its use is necessary mostly when a
cloud service needs to use computing resources from other
clouds because its own resources are being utilized at full
capacity. Such a concept is known as cloud bursting be-
cause the service bursts out of its cloud to utilize resources
from other clouds to meet its SLA.

Five Characteristics of Cloud Computing

The NIST definition lists five characteristics of cloud com-

puting, given in the first column of table 1: ubiquitous

20  chapter 1
Table 1 Characteristics of cloud computing

Characteristic Description Parameter

Broad network access Consume services from Where

anywhere.
On-­demand self-­service Consume services when you When
want.
Resource pooling and Pool the infrastructure, How
virtualization virtual platforms, and
applications.
Rapid elasticity Share pooled resources to How
enable horizontal scalability.
Measured service Pay for the service you How much
consume as you consume it.

access, on-­demand availability based on the consumer’s

self-­service, pooling of resources, rapid elasticity, and
measured service usage.
Ubiquitous access through a network is important be-
cause you are not constrained by your location in using
the cloud service; a concomitant concern is that, as the
potential user base increases, so does the risk of security
being compromised. For this reason, network access may
be limited to a private network or a community of users.
The former translates to a private cloud and the latter to a
community cloud model.
On-­demand self-­service, or on-­demand availability,
makes it possible for you to use the service whenever you
want. Availability has two characteristics here:

Introduction 21
1. The service will be available to you even when you are
not using it so that it will be ready for you to use when
you request it (thus the uptime of the cloud computing
services must approach 100 percent).

2. The service remains available while you are using it

(thus your user experience should not be impaired even if
there is an upsurge in the number of users).

The latter aspect means that, regardless of the varying

demands you place on the service, it should remain avail-
able to you. For example, you could have an IaaS cloud ser-
vice on which you host your website, and its usage levels will
vary according to the hits the site receives. The usage will
in turn depend on several factors, such as the time of day,
whether it is a weekend, or if you have a marketing cam-
paign running. As a result, the load placed on the cloud com-
puting infrastructure will also vary, and the infrastructure
will need to scale out when greater demand is placed on it.
Similarly, it would scale in when there was less demand so
that the infrastructure resources could be used elsewhere.
This capacity for scaling in and out is known as elasticity.
Horizontal scalability occurs when greater numbers of
the same type of resources—­say, computing platforms—­
are used to meet demand. Vertical scalability occurs when
the performance of those resources is improved by upgrad-
ing them, for example by increasing the amount of mem-
ory. Elasticity occurs when horizontal scalability is used to

22  chapter 1
scale out when demand is high and then scale in when it is
low. To implement this, computing resources are pooled.
The resources normally tend to be virtualized because you
can use software to pool and scale them automatically.
Just as virtualizing the hardware allows you to pool and
share the resources in an elastic manner, you can have vir-
tual applications that can be shared even though a single
instance of the software runs on the pooled VMs. This tech-
nology, however, is still in its formative stage as the biggest
constraints are commercial issues such as the licensing ar-
rangements and billing model. When multiple users use the
same virtual resources in the cloud, such as the software,
storage, or VMs, those resources have multiple tenants. The
pooling of resources to provide a shared, common service
to each user of the cloud service is known as multitenancy.
A major disadvantage of current public cloud services
is a lack of transparency in terms of the resources con-
sumed and the costs incurred.3 Yet these are distinct char-
acteristics of cloud computing insofar as the consumer
ought to know what computing resources are being con-
sumed as and when they are consumed, and the instanta-
neous concomitant costs of the consumption. (Of course,
this factor becomes less relevant if the charging model is
based on a “consume as much as you want” pay monthly
basis.) That is why it is important for a cloud service to
measure the consumption of the service and make that
metric transparent to the user in real time.

Introduction 23
 2

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Now that we have a foundational idea of what cloud com-

puting is, let us consider its history. In accordance with the
adage “standing on the shoulders of giants,” cloud com-
puting uses numerous technologies and paradigms that
were developed earlier. It uses the client-­server paradigm,
whereby a local client uses the computation performed by
a server remotely, but it is directly predicated on internet-
working (to enable ubiquitous access) and virtualization
(to enable scalability via elasticity). So let us assess cloud
computing’s history by first delving into the history of its
two key components.

Internetworking

Before the internet existed, engineers were busy contriving

various ways to connect computers in local area networks.
As a result, several protocols surfaced in the 1970s and
1980s leading to what was known as the protocol wars.
The differences between the various networking solutions
ranged from physical (what connectors to use, wired or
wireless, etc.) and logical connectivity (the topology to use:
bus, star, tree, ring, mesh networks) to protocols (packet-­,
message-­, or data-­based protocols, connected or connec-
tionless protocols, bandwidth to use, etc.). As the number
of solutions and implementations proliferated, it became
apparent that these disparate networks needed another
network, an internetwork, to connect them. Thus the in-
ternetwork (commonly known today as the internet) was
created around 1989 by a partnership of computer and
telecommunications companies that incorporated the
TCP/IP protocol into various operating systems. Earlier,
in May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) had published a paper titled “A Protocol
for Packet Network Intercommunication” that described
an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using
packet switching among network nodes. This protocol had
been developed by the Defense Advanced Research Proj-
ects Agency (DARPA) of the US Department of Defense
(DOD) in collaboration with various universities as part
of its ARPAnet. Version 4 of the internetworking protocol,
denoted IPv4, was released in 1981 by the DOD, which
made it a standard for all its military computer network-
ing in March 1982.

26  chapter 2
 To ensure that the whole gamut of networking opera-
tions was addressed—­including how data should be pack-
etized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received—­so
that no other variance could be used to whittle the specifi-
cation, the internet protocol was designed to specify end-­
to-­end data communication. The internet protocol suite
(often referred to as TCP/IP) is organized into four ab-
straction layers: the link layer (which provides the com-
munication methods for data within a single network
segment, or link), the internet layer (which specifies inter-
networking between independent networks), the trans-
port layer (which handles host-­to-­host—­i.e., computer-
to-computer—­communication), and the application layer
(which handles how the data are processed by applica-
tions). The last two layers are referred to as TCP and the
first two layers as IP. The IP layers have the task of deliver-
ing packets from the source host to the destination host
using only the IP addresses in the packet headers. To ac-
complish this, the IP layers contain packet structures that
encapsulate the data to be delivered, as well as the labels
for the datagram containing the data’s source and destina-
tion information. The IP protocol is complemented by the
TCP protocol, which is a connection-­oriented service.
Among the first corporations to adopt TCP/IP were
IBM, DEC (formerly Digital Equipment Corporation), and
AT&T. Beginning in 1984, IBM started releasing TCP/IP in
various systems such as MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same

A Historical Perspective 27
time, TCP/IP stacks began to be offered for MS-­DOS and
PC-­DOS by several smaller companies. Thus the internet
as we know it today became commercially available in the
mid-­1980s.

Virtualization

In the 1960s, during the heyday of mainframe computers,

IBM embarked on solving a problem: how to make comput-
ing cheaper on a per user basis. As mainframes were very ex-
pensive, having efficient per user costs based on time sharing
of computing resources seemed like a viable option. (Time
sharing allows multiple users to use a single computer at
the same time.) This led IBM to pioneer virtual machines in
1964 at the IBM Cambridge Scientific Center in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, that created the control program (CP), which
was a hypervisor that ran multiple virtual machines (VMs),
with each VM having its own separate hardware stack and
a lightweight version of the operating system. This culmi-
nated in IBM releasing the first commercially available VM
on August 2, 1972. It ran on the S/370 operating system
on a mainframe computer and was called VM/370.
As with the internet, DARPA played a pivotal role
in virtualization. It funded the FLASH research project
at Stanford University on virtualization as described
in “Disco: Running Commodity Operating Systems on

28  chapter 2
Scalable Multiprocessors,” a paper published in the ACM
Transactions on Computer Systems in 1997; the authors of
the paper were Edouard Bugnion, Scott Devine, Kinshuk
Govil, and Mendel Rosenblum. They described a prototype
hypervisor—­software that sits between the hardware and
the operating system—­which they named Disco. Disco
used the TCP/IP protocol to couple operating systems run-
ning on different machines, and so allowed them to scale
horizontally. In 1998, three of the paper’s authors co-
founded VMWare, a company that provided the very first
commercially available VMs that ran on Intel microproces-
sors, referred to as x86 machines. These were stand-­alone
VMs running on workstations. In 2002, VMWare released
the first commercially available hypervisor, the ESX Server
1.5, which allowed users to consolidate physical devices by
creating a greater number of VMs on them.
The next major milestone was to have a free, open-­
source hypervisor that made virtualization cost-­effective.
In 1998, the same year that VMWare came on the scene, a
demonstration of Simics was presented at the USENIX 98
conference. This was followed by Xen, an open-­source pro-
ject allowing multiple operating systems to be run on the
same hardware concurrently. It was created as a research
project at Cambridge University and released on October
2, 2003. Xen is currently part of the Linux Foundation and
has Amazon AWS (Amazon Web Service) and Citrix as its
project members, among others.

A Historical Perspective 29
 To end our discussion of the historical aspects of vir-
tualization, let us not forget containers. They came a little
later when, with the release of FreeBSD 4.0 in 2000, jails
were introduced. A jail is a partition of various system re-
sources that share the same operating system kernel and
so imposes limited overhead on the hardware. This paved
the way for containers, which were introduced in Linux on
August 6, 2008.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing’s history is checkered. It has evolved

gradually, based on the formative technologies that we
have considered in this chapter. Multiple users, for in-
stance, could use a single mainframe in the 1950s by using
dumb terminals. The need to perform computing, which
was an expensive resource then, on a time-­shared basis
meant that virtualization technologies were pioneered
in the 1960s. By 1999, the internet was well established
when Salesforce developed its cloud-­based SaaS customer
relationship management software. Around this time,
Amazon was becoming well known as a business disrup-
tor using technology. It was approached by various re-
tail companies, such as Target and Marks & Spencer, to
build online shopping sites for them that would sit on
top of Amazon’s e-­commerce engine. This was followed

30  chapter 2
Today, three major cloud
providers have the lion’s
share of the public cloud
computing market:
Amazon, Microsoft, and
Google.
by Amazon creating application programming interfaces
(APIs) and tools to interface with its Amazon.com web-
site catalog in 2004, and Amazon internally became a ser-
vice company that used decoupled APIs to access services.
However, in 2003, the concept of what AWS could be was
formulated at an executive retreat. Indeed, it was one of
the first businesses that considered the use of 10 percent
of its computational capacity as a financial problem that
needed to be solved.
On March 14, 2006, AWS was launched as a public
cloud by making storage available as S3 (Simple Storage
Service), which was followed by the launch of Amazon SQS
(Simple Queue Service) and Amazon EC2 (Elastic Com-
pute Cloud) in August 2006. Others, such as Oracle, IBM,
Microsoft, and Google, followed with their own offerings
in later years.
Today, three major cloud providers have the lion’s
share of the public cloud computing market: Amazon, Mi-
crosoft, and Google. Although Amazon’s AWS has around
90 percent of the market share, Microsoft has the poten-
tial to press ahead (provided it revises its pricing model and
creates lightweight Windows servers) as it has a few sticky
technologies, such as Microsoft Office, Microsoft Active
Directory (for security), and Exchange (email server), that
create a compulsive ecosystem for businesses.

32  chapter 2
 3

TYPES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

The first chapter touched on two key characteristics of

cloud services: service abstraction levels (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS,
INaaS, and BPaaS) and deployment models (public, pri-
vate, hybrid, and community clouds). This chapter delves
deeper into both by comparing their component charac-
teristics, culminating in some key paradigms of cloud com-
puting based on cloud relationships.
Let’s recall the definition of cloud computing from the
first chapter. Cloud computing has five key properties:

1. broad network access,

2. on-­demand self-­service,

3. resource pooling or shared services,

4. rapid elasticity, and

5. measured service.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
of absolute importance to the internes, and of the greatest value to
the nurses.
Not less interesting or successful is the maternity work of these
hospitals. A great deal of the chronic trouble from which working
women suffer so severely comes from want of proper care while they
are exercising the functions of childbearing. The poor applicant to
the maternity department is seen by the woman physician, who gives
her advice as to previous care of herself, and she has in the hospital
that thorough rest and care which are indispensable to full
restoration to health.
A great moral question forces itself on the consideration of the
managers of these hospitals. The applicants to the maternity are very
often unmarried girls. Does true humanity require us to refuse help
to such women? It is evident that care must be exercised to give no
encouragement to immorality, while we must not refuse the aid
which is so often absolutely necessary to save life. The problem is a
difficult one, but the managers have tried to meet it. They usually
make a distinction between the first offense—which is often rather
due to weakness and folly than to depravity—and confirmed habits of
immorality, and do not receive unmarried women a second time. In
one hospital, at least, the directors find the greatest assistance from a
committee of ladies who look after the maternity patients, both
before they enter and after they leave the hospital. They endeavor to
procure work for the mother, and watch over her welfare and that of
the child. But they make it their invariable rule to give aid only on
condition that the mother makes every effort to fulfill her maternal
duties; for they believe there is a regenerating power in motherhood,
and that care for her child is the surest safeguard against a mother’s
committing a second fault.
To many women of good position the maternity is a great blessing,
if they have not comfortable homes and friends to care for them. The
expense in the hospital is much less than the price for which good
medical attendance and nursing can be secured at home.
I need only say of the medical care of women by their own sex in
hospitals that its value has been fully proved. Women of all classes
seek this aid eagerly, and show full confidence in their physicians
and obey them quite as implicitly as they do those of the other sex.
Women often say that they have suffered for years without medical
or surgical assistance, that might have relieved them, from
unwillingness to reveal their troubles to men. The greater freedom of
the relation between patients and physicians of the same sex, enables
the doctors to exercise much influence over their patients, who learn
many good sanitary lessons in housekeeping. A physician was
surprised to find the sick room of a poor patient carefully aired:
“Why, you know they always do so at the hospital,” was the
explanation given.
These hospitals have also done much to dispel among the poor the
fear of going to hospitals.[199] Finding their friends kindly ministered
to by their own sex, they come to regard the hospital as a kindly
refuge in sickness, not as the last resort of a homeless and deserted
sufferer who will die unfriended and alone.
Besides these hospitals, especially adapted to assist in the medical
education of women, are others established by women mainly in the
interests of charity. I have, for instance, the twelfth annual report of
“The Home of Mercy,” in Pittsfield, Mass. It contains about thirteen
beds, and the number of patients in a year was one hundred. It was
established by a small body of women who felt the need of a place for
the victims of accident or disease. Sixty-eight per cent. of the patients
are women, and all the officers but the physicians. This institution
seems to present a good model for smaller cities and towns where,
especially among a manufacturing population, hospital
accommodations are often much needed. A training school for
nurses is added to its work.
Another step has been taken in the medical education of women in
the employment of women physicians, (made obligatory by the
Legislature in some States) in State institutions, thus giving them
management of the women’s infirmary. At the Reformatory prison at
Sherburne, Mass., the resident physician has charge of the health of
two hundred prisoners. The good care and treatment given them is
apparent in the improvement of the health of prisoners during their
stay, and in the small number of deaths.
The employment of women physicians in insane asylums is a very
valuable measure from which we may hope great good in the future.
At present, the most interesting instance of such work that has come
to my notice is in the State Hospital for the Insane at Norristown,
Pa., where Dr. Alice Bennett, with two women assistants, has charge
of over eight hundred patients. Her carefully tabulated statistics
throw much light on important questions regarding the causes of
insanity and the probability of restoration. Dr. Bennett has
introduced beneficial improvements in the treatment of patients in
the direction of more freedom and more social life and opportunity
of employment. She says in her last report, “No mechanical restraint
(by which is meant enforced limitation of free movements of the
body by means of jackets, muffs, straps, etc.) is at any time made use
of in this department.... There are times in the history of many cases,
when temporary separation from external cause of irritation is
beneficial and necessary.... Brush making, basket making, sewing
and mending, kindergarten occupations for the feebler-minded and
melancholy, and the ever-present “housework,” in all its forms,
engage about half the whole number of patients at one time or
another. The officers and patients have also organized a ‘Lend a
Hand Club.’ Dr. Bennett has arranged for a large number of patients
to take their meals together, and finds the arrangement very
beneficial.”
Some of those who are working for the sick have preferred the
name of “Hospital Association.” Such is the St. Luke’s hospital in
Jacksonville, Fla., said to be the first one in the State. The officers are
women, but the physicians and a board of trustees are men. The
main purpose of this association seems to be to relieve the wants of
strangers, who so often go to Florida seeking health, but sometimes
in vain.
The Women’s Homœopathic Association of Pennsylvania was
formed for a distinctively reformatory purpose. Its government is
composed of women, with the exception of an advisory board of men.
The medical faculty is composed of both men and women. This
account is given of its origin:
“The motive of starting a women’s association was, largely, to
correct the abuses that grow out of institutions managed by men. It
is here now and has been for many years the custom for hospital or
other charitable institutions to have an auxiliary board of women
managers, whose duties are to look after the housekeeping
department and raise money either by giving entertainments or
begging—the expenditure of the money so raised, and general
management of hospital work, is considered beyond a woman’s
ability. This prevents a voice in the higher administration. Some of
the women, whose names appear as incorporators of the hospital of
this association, desired to open an institution where women could,
when in sickness and sorrow, be in the care of women. Out of 213
patients cared for during 1888, 153 were charity cases, 45 partial pay,
and 15 cases full pay.”
The “Philadelphia Home for Incurables” was established by
women, but its bounty is not confined to them; it admits men as
patients. With the exception of a superintendent of the men’s
department, the management is entirely in the hands of women. This
is an effort to meet the crying need of a home for chronic sufferers.
Each patient pays one hundred dollars and is kept during her life.
Much other work of the same nature as that I have described is,
doubtless, doing in our vast country, of which no account has
reached us. One of the many “Women’s Clubs” has taken the subject
of hospitals into serious consideration. While rejoicing in every such
effort, I would like to add a word of caution that every enterprise
should be most carefully considered, and the work never allowed to
fall below the recognized standard of merit.
When the pioneer hospitals were opened, no other clinical
advantages were free to women; now the hospitals are beginning to
open their doors to them. The report of the city hospital of Boston
says, “The propriety of women practicing as physicians or surgeons,
and their comparative ability and fitness to pursue this profession,
are not questions for the trustees to consider in the official
management of the hospital; they must recognize the fact that
women are becoming practitioners in all the schools of medicine;
that they are admitted to the Massachusetts Medical and other State
societies, and are recognized as practitioners by the community at
large; and that they are admitted in common with male students to
other leading hospitals of the country. The trustees therefore feel
that there is no sufficient reason why women should not be admitted
to the public instruction in the amphitheater on the same terms as
men, except as to certain operations from which a reasonable sense
or regard for propriety may exclude them.” This advance in public
opinion is most gratifying; but, even when all hospitals are open to
women students, the value of those of which I have spoken will not
be lost; they will still have special work to do, both in education and
charity.
This movement for the clinical education of women in hospitals
begun in America, has extended to Great Britain, Switzerland, and
Germany, and is now being rapidly introduced into India, where the
Women’s Hospital is found to be a most important agent in
educating and elevating the women of India.
The lamented Dr. Amandibai Joshee, who was the pioneer of
medical education for Hindoo women, was a student at the
Philadelphia college and an interne at the New England Hospital.
An excellent hospital in Burlington, Vt., was planned and endowed
by a woman (Miss Mary Fletcher), who gave it her personal
supervision. It had no direct bearing on women’s education, but was
open to all classes of patients. Since Miss Fletcher’s death it is called
by her name. It is mainly intended for residents of the State,
although other patients are received if it is not full. It has no women
physicians, but a board of women visitors. It has an amphitheater for
clinical instruction, and its buildings are large and convenient.
All these hospitals maintain the principle that those who are
treated in them should pay for the care they receive according to
their ability. The price of board and treatment varies from five to
forty dollars per week, according to the service required and other
circumstances; but in all the institutions are free beds, endowed or
supported by charity.
Out of this hospital work has grown another very important
branch of service in the training schools for nurses. While estimating
this new departure at its full value, I wish to pause a moment to pay a
deserved tribute to the “old-fashioned nurse.” In New England,
especially in our country towns, and I presume no less in other parts
of the country, the nurse was an important and honored member of
society. Although not regularly trained according to the modern
demands, she was generally a woman deeply read in the great school
of life; often a widowed mother, who earned her bread by giving to
others the fruits of her own blighted family life; sometimes a maiden,
who, losing the hope of a home of her own, found a wide and useful
sphere for her energies and affections in care of the sick; sometimes
the girl who had wrecked her life by youthful indiscretion (like Mrs.
Gaskell’s “Ruth”), in the ministry of help to others found a life which
soothed her own sorrows and restored her to the respect of society.
The nurse then gathered her knowledge as she could, watching
through long winter nights with sick friends, and visiting among the
poor when disease came upon them. Dickens has drawn cruel
portraits of the nurse of olden time, true, perhaps, to flagrant
instances, but forming a pitiful caricature of the whole class. The old
nurse was more often the true friend of the family, summoned in
every time of trouble, and loving the children whose birth she had
watched, almost as if they were her own.
But with the advance of scientific medical practice it became
necessary that the physician should have an assistant fitted to carry
out his views skillfully as well as faithfully; and the trained nurse was
called into being. She, as well as the physician, must have clinical
education. How strongly this need was felt is shown by the almost
simultaneous establishment of training schools in various countries.
To Miss Nightingale is due the impulse which started the general
movement.
The New England Hospital claims priority in this country, in
announcing the training of nurses as an important part of its work in
1863; but its school was not fully established until the return of Dr.
Dimock from Europe in 1869, who placed it on its present
foundation. The methods pursued in the various training schools
now in operation are very similar, showing that the work has been
carefully considered and is being satisfactorily done. Similar
difficulties presented themselves to those found in all industrial
education, of which one of the greatest was the impossibility of
finding teachers trained for the work. Such women as I have
described might be very valuable nurses, but they had not acquired
their knowledge systematically, and were not skilled in the art of
teaching. The doctor knows what qualities are wanted in a nurse, but
cannot always give the instruction and discipline which will secure
their development. The women physicians had some advantage in
this respect. The very general employment of women as teachers has
helped to supply this need. A young woman who had a natural
aptitude for nursing, and the high moral qualities necessary for a
superintendent of nurses, and who also had the experience of a few
years of teaching, became well adapted to the new profession, and
after a few years the training schools began to furnish graduates who
could carry on the work as teachers.
Another difficulty was in the amount of time required for thorough
training. The pupils seldom had resources to support them during
one or two years of training. It is quite necessary, therefore, to pay
the pupils a small salary, after their first month of probation, in
addition to their board and lodging. This is sufficient to provide for
their inexpensive clothing and all other necessary expenses, so that
the graduate leaves the school without arrears of debt and able to
look cheerfully forward to the exercise of her profession. A great step
has been gained for women in thus raising this humble labor to the
dignity of a profession. The woman who has given one or two years
to preparation for her life-work, looks upon it very differently from
one who has taken it up only on the pressure of necessity and has to
learn her business in the doing of it. She feels a conscious strength in
her position, which ought to stimulate her intellectual powers and
elevate her moral character. It is true that the school gives her only
the preparation for her work, and she must get the best part of her
education from life, but she goes to her task with tools well
sharpened for use, and a trained power of observation which should
make every experience doubly valuable. Let her not lose in the pride
of her acquisition the lovelier spirit and conscientious fidelity which
made the old nurse the useful and trusted friend of the family.
The well-trained nurse is like another eye and hand to the
physician. She notes with reliable accuracy the changes of pulse and
temperature, keeps the record of nourishment and sleep, watches
every vital function with a practiced eye, and thus can give to the
medical attendant a photographic picture of all that has occurred
since his last visit. She carries out his directions intelligently, and
thus enables him to calculate on strict application of the means he
wishes to use.
In 1886, by the report of the Bureau of Education, there were 29
training schools for nurses, 139 instructors, 837 pupils, 349
graduates, in twelve different States and the District of Columbia.
Some of these schools are connected with public hospitals, others
with private charities. In a few cases the schools are independent of
any institution, but the pupils are employed both in hospitals and
private families.
 The rules of admission are very similar in all schools. The
minimum age ranges from twenty to twenty-five, the maximum from
thirty-five to forty. As a general rule, twenty-five is a good age at
which to enter a training school; the constitution should be well
established, the character formed, and some experience of life gained
before entering upon this difficult work. Good education and
character are required, and in most cases certificates of good health
and ability for the work.
The wages paid to pupils vary from seven dollars per month the
first year, and twelve dollars the second year, to sixteen dollars per
month for the highest grade of nurse, in a New York hospital. The
time required for study ranges from one to two years, the last being
the rule in a majority of cases. The Philadelphia school, which
demands only one year, has an additional course of one year to train
superintendents.
The expense of supplying the nursing of the hospital by a training
school, in the only case known to me, is found to be about the same
as by the old method of hired nurses. Trained nurses receive good
pay in comparison with that of the ordinary employments of women,
ranging from ten dollars per week upward to twenty, thirty, or even
forty dollars, according to the difficulty of the case. While these
prices are by no means higher than should reward a nurse who has
given years to preparation for her profession and who works
faithfully in it, they are yet burdensome to many families. A surgeon
will sometimes refuse to take a case unless he can have the skilled
nursing that he believes essential to success, and yet the pay of the
nurse will take all the earnings of the father, on which the family rely
for support.
But, on the other hand, the saving of expense in the number of
physician’s visits is to be considered, since he can trust the report of
the nurse, and so the patient is better cared for, without additional
expense. During the last months of study, the nurse’s work is among
the poor, under the direction of the dispensary physicians. Not only
are the patients much helped by this arrangement, but the
experience is of great value to the nurses, as they see a greater variety
of work than they can in a hospital and under differing conditions of
life, and are thus fitted to meet what comes to them in their future
practice.
 Societies are also formed by women for supplying nurses to the
sick poor. Such associations employ a number of trained nurses in
attendance on patients who are unable to pay full price. They work
both in connection with dispensaries and independently of them.
Usually a nurse makes two visits a day to her patient, doing for her
whatever members of the household cannot do, but she is always
required to instruct some of the family, if possible, in the simple
methods of care of the sick. She also uses her opportunity to enforce
common rules of hygiene and sanitary care on all the household. In
this way it is hoped that much may be done for the prevention of
disease as well at its cure.
The “Visiting Nurse Society, of Philadelphia,” may serve for a good
model of such associations.[200]
While it has been impossible in limited space to do full justice to
all the good work now doing in the training of nurses, there are yet
two directions, of which I wish to speak, in which it should be
extended. It is desirable that women should be especially trained for
the care of insane patients, who need peculiar care both in
institutions and in private life. The extreme watchfulness and the
power of control required for this service seem to demand a special
training, which would be unnecessary or even prejudicial in ordinary
nursing. This subject is already engaging the attention of those
having the care of the insane, and I doubt not they will find means to
carry out their ideas.
Again, I believe that nursing would afford a wide field of
usefulness for the colored women of our Southern States. Their
qualities of patience, sweetness, and affection are well adapted to
this profession, and when to these is added the intellectual education
which is now within the reach of many of them, there is no reason
why, with good training, they should not do excellent service. Many
of the best nurses in our Southern cities are of this class. The
University of Atlanta, Ga., has made some attempt to introduce
nursing into its practical education, and I hope other experiments
will soon be made. So far as I know the New England Hospital is the
only one that admits colored pupils to its training school. Here this
measure has been entirely successful, and no disagreeable feeling has
arisen on the part of patients or any one else. The colored students
have maintained a fair average in their standing, and some have been
superior. A good education is the most important prerequisite to the
entrance of colored women into this field.
While my fruitful theme is by no means exhausted, I wish in
conclusion to add one thought, viz., that however decidedly these
hospitals of which I have spoken owe their existence to women,
either as originating or endowing them, in every case within my
knowledge there is a union of both sexes in the management of the
institution. The arrangements are very various; in some cases the
managers are all women and the physicians are men; in others all the
physicians but the consulting staff are women, while the board of
management is divided between the sexes; in others we find the
women have full charge, with an advisory board of men. This proves
that women have been more anxious to secure good management
than to establish their own claims. It is an earnest of future
improvement when both sexes shall work together in all departments
of life, each bringing her or his peculiar talents to the work, either as
individuals or as representing a part of the community.
 XIV.
CARE OF THE CRIMINAL.

BY

SUSAN HAMMOND BARNEY.

When Elizabeth Fry, in 1815, rapped at the prison doors in

England, she not only summoned the turnkey, but sounded a call to
women in other lands to enter upon a most Christlike mission. The
reports of her work in Great Britain and on the Continent, published
at intervals during several succeeding years, extracts of which found
their way into American papers, not only awakened admiration for
the fearless courage manifested in the self-denying efforts, but
marvel at what she was able to accomplish, and, from the reading, a
few women in our land arose to ask the question, “Lord, what will
Thou have me to do?” and in the answer found new light upon the
words, “I was in prison and ye visited me.”
There was no talk about “going to work,” but, from their knees,
two or three women in New York, as early as 1830, began in the
quietest manner possible to visit the district lock-ups and prisons,
making careful inquiries concerning these places and their inmates,
thus gathering up food for thought, which sent them back to their
prayers with something definite to ask for.
In 1834 these women, with a few others, organized “The New York
Moral Reform Society,” with Margaret Prior for their first
missionary, and they made systematic prison visitation a part of their
regular work. From their own records, “Our Golden Jubilee, 1834–
1884,” we quote: “Our prisons were at that time in a sadly
demoralized condition,—as our missionaries went through these
public institutions, gathering facts relative to the spiritual condition
of the inmates, they saw an urgent necessity of reform and gave
themselves no rest till it was accomplished.” To their memorials,
petitions, and personal appeals, the State Legislature at length
responded, and several reforms were inaugurated, among them
better arrangements for separation of the sexes and the placing of
matrons over the female departments. At this time Mrs. Dora Foster
was given charge of women at the Tombs, then used as a police
district lock-up, and she proved of such exceptionable character and
qualifications as to continue in favor and in office more than forty
years. A great change in the moral atmosphere of the place was
effected by her discreet management, and many and sore evils were
prevented.
 SPREAD OF WORK.
Reports of the work were taken to other cities, and in 1839 the
society became national in name, with vice-presidents in seventeen
different States, and in the next few years, particularly in New York,
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, we
find the women prominent in anti-slavery and other reforms, giving
special thought and personal efforts, toward the amelioration of the
condition of persons confined in our various institutions. Thus
quietly was the leaven working in many places, hindered, hampered,
and limited by prejudice against woman’s work, and the fear of their
seeing too much, if once admitted and allowed the privilege of
inspection.
It is recorded, that on one of the ladies being denied the
opportunity which she sought of seeing and ministering to a sick
female prisoner, while a minister was allowed to go in and on his
asking the reason of it, “Why,” said the official, “it wouldn’t have
done, she’s too sharp; she wouldn’t have come in here and just
prayed and gone away about her business as you have; she’d wanted
to know the cause”; and another time when those in authority had
been solicited by a public-spirited gentleman to grant permission for
women to go in and out these places on their errands of mercy, they
explained their refusal by saying, “That until the State was ready to
expend money enough for several changes, it would only be inviting
trouble to have such women spying round and seeing everything, as
they were sure to do.”
 NEW YORK PRISON ASSOCIATION.
On November 23, 1844, a company of gentlemen gathered in a
private parlor in New York City “to take into consideration the
destitute condition of discharged convicts”; then a circular was
issued, calling for a public meeting on December 6, at which time the
following resolution, among others, was offered by Isaac T. Hopper:
“Resolved, That in the foundation of such a society (the New York
Prison Association), it would be proper to have a female department
to be especially regardful of the interests and welfare of prisoners of
that sex.”
Public meetings were held, and in June, 1845, a house was taken,
two matrons placed in charge, and a committee of ladies organized to
superintend and control its operations. A sewing department and
school were established, and at a later day a laundry.
In 1854 the women dissolved all connection with the New York
Prison Association, and were incorporated as “The Women’s Prison
Association and Home.” Up to this time the Home had averaged
about 150 inmates per year. We quote from one of their reports: “We
will not dwell upon the many years of up-hill work through every
possible discouragement, but proceed at once to the results of a pre-
determined endeavor to take by the hand the unfortunate of our sex
and lead them to a better life, where by patient industry they might
earn an honest livelihood.”
In 1859 the association adopted as a distinctive name for its house
department that of “The Isaac T. Hopper Home.” The work has gone
steadily on, the women of the association having been to the front in
every effort for prevention of crime, and reform of the criminal girls
and women, and in their forty-fourth annual report, we find, “During
the year 119 women have been sent to service in families in the State,
and 31 out of the State; 4 were returned to friends.” Only those who
can read between the lines can understand all that these items mean.
To those who talk glibly about “abandoned women” and the “utter
hopelessness of trying to save them,” the subjoined lines from the
same report might seem “mere sentiment,” but to those with clearer
vision it is the secret of their success. “We believe that woman, in her
deepest degradation, holds something sacred, something undefiled;
and, like the diamond in the dark, retains some quenchless gleams of
the celestial light.”
The prison committee, through its chairman, gave in 1887 an
exhaustive report upon the condition of prisons and station houses,
and in 1888, through their prison visitor, a female M.D., a careful
report, both of which contain items which are strange reading for
nineteenth century civilization and progress.
 PERSONAL WORK.
In the autumn of 1844, Margaret Fuller Ossoli accepted a position
on the New York Tribune, and became an inmate of the Greeley
mansion. The prison on Blackwell’s Island was on the opposite side
of the river, at a distance easily reached by boat, and Sing Sing was
not far off. Margaret was to “write up” these places, and gladly took
the first opportunity to visit them. Her biographer says: “She had
consorted hitherto with the élite of her sex, she now made
acquaintance with the outcasts to whom the elements of womanhood
are scarcely recognizable. For both she had one gospel, that of high
hope and divine love. She seemed to have found herself as much at
home in the office of encouraging the fallen as she had been, when it
was her duty to arouse the best spirit in women sheltered from the
knowledge and experience of evil by every favoring circumstance.”
She herself said of a meeting where she addressed the female
prisoners, “All passed, indeed, as in one of my Boston classes.” This
was after Mrs. Farnum had been appointed matron, a woman of
uncommon character and ability, and the women already showed the
results of her intelligent and kindly treatment. Through the letters
published in the Tribune, on “Prison Discipline,” “Appeal for an
Asylum for Discharged Female Prisoners,” “Capital Punishment,”
and others, public attention and interest were awakened, and Mr.
Greeley says, “I doubt that our various reformatory institutions had
ever before received such wise and discriminating commendation to
the favor of the rich as they did from Margaret’s pen during her
connection with us.”
Dorothea Dix, of blessed memory, whose specialty seemed the
caring for the insane, gave much thought and gracious ministry to
those in bonds; and many were indebted to her personal efforts in
their behalf, both while in prison and in the trying time of their
release. She was also fearless in lifting up her voice against abuses,
and in favor of needed reforms. She was so persistent in reiterating
her protests, that attention had to be given, and her demands
secured changes which are thankfully remembered.
 In Rhode Island, as early as 1830, a young and gifted woman,
whose heart had been stirred by accounts given by her father, a
prominent lawyer, began to visit the institutions of the State; and
through a long and eventful life has continued her ministrations.
Even now, in her ninety-first year, she has not entirely laid down her
work. By voice and pen she has appealed stoutly against wrongs and
abuses, and while she has been the spiritual mother of numberless
men and women, she has not neglected the financial aid so
important to those who emerge from prison life. She was the
originator of the “Rhode Island Prisoners’ Aid Association,” and the
founder of the “Temporary Industrial Home” for released female
prisoners, which was opened in 1880, and bears her name, “The
Sophia Little Home.”
Among the special workers should be named Miss Linda Gilbert of
New York, who has devoted much time to prison work, and in fifteen
years has procured employment for over six thousand ex-convicts;
six hundred of the better class of these she has by her own individual
aid established in business in a small way, and in speaking of the
results of her ventures in thus assisting them, she says, “I am happy
to state that not ten per cent. of the number thus aided have turned
out unsatisfactorily.” She has also presented twenty-two libraries to
prisons in six different States, and among other projects which she
hopes to accomplish is the establishing of a national industrial home
for ex-convicts, where various branches of labor can be taught and
the inmates put in the way of becoming self-supporting. When a little
girl of only eight or nine years, she used to visit the prison nearest
her home and take some little gift, if only a few flowers, to cheer the
prisoners, who learned to look upon her visits to their dark abode as
they would a stray sunbeam from heaven.
Elizabeth Comstock, of Michigan, upon whose head in childhood
Elizabeth Fry placed her hand as she said the kindly words,
“Remember what I tell thee, dear Elizabeth; to be Christ’s messenger
to those who know him not, that is the happiest life,” has so well
carried out her avowed purpose, “To bear our Father’s message of
love and mercy to the largest household on earth, the household of
affliction,” that in thirty years, mid duties urgent and varied, she has
visited over 120,000 prisoners, awakening hope and giving direction
to many lives.
 A long list of other names might be added, but our space is
otherwise needed.
 REFORMATORY PRISONS FOR WOMEN.
In the year of 1873 startling revelations concerning immoralities
connected with the Indiana Southern Prison led to the immediate
occupancy of the buildings in Indianapolis, which had been under
way for two years and which were to be known as “The Reformatory
Prison for Women and Girls.” The institution was officered entirely
by women, with Mrs. Sarah J. Smith, one of its chief founders, for
Superintendent. The project was looked upon as a doubtful
experiment, and the speedy relinquishment of the idea prophesied.
The board of managers consisted at first of three gentlemen and two
lady visitors. In 1887 Governor Williams approved an act of the
Legislature by which the general supervision and government were
vested in a board of women managers. This was, at that time, and we
believe still is, the only governmental prison known, either in the
United States or in Europe, under the entire management of women.
The safe transfer of the women prisoners, seventeen in number,
under the charge of warden, chaplain, and matron of the
Jeffersonville prison, was considered a great event, “as two were
dangerous and others below hope.” The present Superintendent
says: “We have no weapons of defense, not a gun or pistol about the
premises. Kind words and gentleness of manner are almost sure to
win. We have eleven lady officers, women of refinement and
Christian character, lending every thought to the uplifting of their
sex.” The financial showing in the seventeenth annual report reflects
great credit upon the management, while the large percentage
claimed as “permanently reformed,” attests to the thoroughness of
work and wisdom of methods.
In 1870 a number of influential ladies of Eastern Massachusetts—
among whom was Mrs. E. C. Johnson, the present Superintendent of
the reformatory—petitioned the Legislature for a separate institution
for the reformation of female prisoners, but it was not until the fall of
1874 that ground was broken at Sherborn for the erection of the
buildings. In September, 1877, these were occupied, and the work
has been eminently successful from the start. The system of grading
adopted in 1881 has proved very satisfactory, and over two hundred
and thirty inmates, ranging from fifteen to seventy-five years of age,
find in it an incentive to order and decorum. The aim is to prepare
them, if found trustworthy, to do good work as servants, and this is
so far a success that the demand is greater than the supply.
No one familiar with the old régime in connection with women
prisoners but would hail with thankfulness the improvements shown
under the present administration. Said an English critic after a visit:
“I remarked, ‘These people are almost of a hopeless type’; the reply
came quickly, ‘Hopeless is not a permitted word here, we hope for
all.’ I came away glad to have seen such an experiment, hopeful for
its success, and confident that women had undertaken for women a
beneficent work.”
Women in other States are agitating the question of separate
prisons for women, and in several feel assured of success in the near
future.
In 1887 at Hudson, N. Y., The House of Refuge for Women was
opened, and an efficient lady superintendent placed in charge. The
results reached, even at this short period, have been encouraging in
the highest degree, and emphasize the wisdom of the arrangements,
which are largely due to the persistent efforts of women in
philanthropic circles. We quote from report of “Standing Committee
on Reformatories,” of which Josephine Shaw Lowell is a member:
“To any who have visited even once one of the county jails in this
State, and know the condition of young women in them, kept in
idleness, in the midst of degraded companions, under the charge of
male keepers, frequently not out of sound, sometimes not out of
sight of the male prisoners, nothing can be more affecting than to see
the young women in the House of Refuge, neatly dressed, always
occupied, and constantly under the care of refined and conscientious
women.”
 WOMEN ON STATE BOARDS.
In New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Wisconsin there
are women on the State Board of Charities.[201] In Pennsylvania, the
board appoints women visitors to public institutions, and in Rhode
Island the Governor appoints a board of women visitors to all
institutions caring for women and girls. Massachusetts stands alone
in the honor of having women on “Boards of Commissioners of
Prisons.” This was inaugurated in 1880, and their gracious womanly
influence is felt in all the institutions of the State.
In some other States women are coming to be recognized factors in
these lines of work, and are cordially invited to fill places of trust.
The Journal of Prison Discipline and Philanthropy, published by the
Pennsylvania Prison Association, in its issue of 1886 says: “This
society has profited largely by the recent admission of competent
women into the acting committee. Their suggestions have proved of
marked advantage, and with the time, intelligence, and high moral
force they have given to the work, both in and out of the prison, there
has been a gain which promises incalculable good.”
 DEPARTMENT OF PRISON, JAIL, AND
POLICE WORK OF THE NATIONAL
WOMAN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE
UNION.
This department is in the eleventh year of organized work, which,
under the same Superintendent, Mrs. S. H. Barney, of Providence,
has steadily increased until now her parish is the entire country. The
plan of national, State, and local superintendents insures system and
supervision all along the lines, and brings out annually the general
summary of work attempted and work accomplished.
In the spirit of the department’s motto, “Not willing that any
should perish,” the investigations have extended to State prisons,
penitentiaries, convict camps, city prisons and jails, houses of
correction or refuge, police stations and lock-ups, and reformatories
for adults and juveniles.
In many of these places were found a brutality and neglect of the
common decencies of life which were disgraceful beyond description.
Criminals of all grades herded together irrespective of age, sex, or
degrees in vice. Youths of both sexes confined with those hardened in
crime, while awaiting trial, became schooled in vice. Thousands, who
for some first and trivial offense were lodged in the calaboose or the
county jail, exposed to the contaminating influences of
indiscriminate companionship, became hardened, and lost all self-
respect as they yielded, day by day, to this mind-poisoning, moral
miasma.
The first visits of the women to many of these places, where they
went unheralded, were unwelcome, and they were sometimes
repulsed by officials with, “We don’t ’low any women round here;
leastwise, only them that’s sentenced.” Entrance at last secured, it
would have been a picture worthy of some master hand when these
women stepped, pale-faced but brave-hearted, into those miserable,
crowded corridors. The lewd and profane conversation was hushed,
but it could be felt, as plainly as could be seen the vilest of obscene
prints and the most dangerous kinds of literature.
Nothing was more disheartening than the condition of women in
these places. Having become criminals, they were generally deemed
hopeless, and, on being released, it was expected they would drift
back again after a longer or shorter period.
The call to the work gained emphasis as it was realized how little
this age of boasted civilization and philanthropy had done for
unfortunate and degraded women. Arrested by men, given into the
hands of men to be searched and cared for, tried by men, sentenced
by men, and committed to our various institutions for months and
even years, where only men officials had access to them, and where,
in sickness or direst need, no womanly help or visitation was
expected or allowed.
In one of the New York cities, in a jail, eleven women were found
to be in the care of men, and the keys of “the women’s quarters” in
the hands of one of the male convicts. The women, with the intent of
being ready for their release, which was near, had removed most of
their clothing “for the wash,” and were in a semi-nude condition.
A visitor to a county jail in Pennsylvania, writes: “The scene that
met our gaze when we entered the jail was indescribable. The
prisoners—twenty-six men and two women—were allowed to
associate in the open space between the vestibule and the cells. In
appearance, they might have been a gang of bandits in a cave. The
men were in groups, playing cards on low boxes on the floor. The jail
was deficient in ventilation, also in light and cleanliness.”
In a New England jail two boys were found under fourteen years of
age. The months which would elapse before their trial would be
ample time to complete their crime education under the tutelage
thus provided for them. Similar sights may be seen in many of the
prisons and jails of our land, proving conclusively the need of
womanly forethought in these matters, which from a merely
economical standpoint need prompt attention. The better care of our
juvenile offenders cannot be deferred without irreparable loss, for in
a few years we shall have missed our chance to save them, so they
will then be found in the ranks of confirmed criminals. Perhaps no
work of the department will prove more fruitful in results than the
effort to secure Matrons for the Police Stations. The movement
began in 1877 and has been adopted in one or more cities in twenty
States, while in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania all cities
over a given number of inhabitants are required by law to provide
matrons to care for arrested women. We quote from an article
furnished the International Review in 1888 by the present writer:
 POLICE MATRONS.
Shall we have police matrons? seems no longer an open question.
With the reform inaugurated in twenty cities, and under advisement
in as many more, the idea may be said to be established. How wide is
to be the influence of such an officer, and how effective her work,
depend upon the place and the woman. “The place” should be
central, with requisite accommodations for the comfort and
convenience of the matron, in order that she may economize her
time and strength. Official recognition of her work and its
importance, with ready co-operation in various ways, will necessarily
have much to do with its success; and these have sometimes been
won under very trying circumstances. Other points, more or less
essential, will occur to those interested, for every conceivable
objection and obstacle will be presented, emphasized, and duly
magnified while the effort is being made to secure a place.
That secured, then comes the question, “Where is the woman to fill
it?” There will be applicants enough, and for them “friends at court”
to push their claims, but “the right woman” will have to be sought;
and it is better to wait for her, than to inaugurate the movement
under too great disadvantages. A middle-aged woman, scrupulously
clean in person and dress, with a face to commend her and manner
to compel respect; quiet, calm, observant, with faith in God, and
hope for humanity; a woman fertile in resources, patient and
sympathetic. She could hardly be all this without possessing a
generous endowment of “good common sense,” and she cannot
possibly do the work required unless that is sanctified. It will be seen
at once that “the place” is indeed, in a very real sense, “missionary
ground,” and that “the woman” must necessarily have these
qualifications and spirit in order to fill it and meet the demands of
the time. Competent and conscientious, the influence of such a
woman, in such a position, can hardly be overestimated. Her duties,
serious and responsible, but legitimate to the office, will naturally
develop as she is given opportunity to work out the problem, “What
can be done for women in police stations?” under methods
demanded by Christian civilization.
 Of course, she will be “on call,” and every woman brought to the
station will be committed at once into her care, and every duty
connected with search, locking-up, and necessary attendance, will be
performed by her. The cells for women (entirely separate from the
men) will be in her charge, and she will be accountable for them and
their occupants. Just what she will need to do in every case, no one
could possibly outline. Said the chief of police in ——: “I wish you to
state definitely all the duties of a police woman.” For answer, I said:
“Will you first describe to me the duties of a policeman?”
“Impossible,” was the reply; “he must be ready for everything.” Just
so, within the limitations of her office, must the matron be ready for
everything.
Women brought to stations are not all drunk, or even bad. Girls or
women suddenly set adrift; one who has lost her train and is
penniless; or who finds herself deserted; or who, by reason of sudden
illness, fainting, or temporary aberration, cannot give her name and
residence; the partially insane; attempted suicides; persons arrested
on suspicion (and frequently found innocent); young girls taken up
for disorderly conduct or because found in questionable company,—
all these are liable to be brought to the station-house, a place which
officials represent as “wholly unfit for a decent woman.” These
arrested women are often irresponsible for the time being, careless of
their person, and regardless of the commonest laws of decency. Their
clothing is often disarranged and unfastened, and they are liable to
be in a condition totally unfit for appearance in court. The matron
should be provided with such articles as womanly thought will
suggest, and she should accompany her charge to the court room and
remain by her until release or sentence removes her from her care.
Among these will be found some for whom the matron may
intercede, and who, upon her representation, may be taken to some
“home,” and life for them thus receive an upward lift, instead of the
almost fatal plunge downward of the police court. There will be
children of varying ages, from the babe born in the station-house to
the poor child in short dresses, the victim of home neglect or of some
one’s vile lust; and drunken women with infants in their arms, who
need some woman to rescue them, for the time being, from their own
unmotherly grasp, and to prevent them from nursing the alcoholized
milk which would be offered them. Night will sometimes be made
hideous by women raving with drunken delirium, or maddened by
the fiery draught to foulest deeds of rage and shame; but “the right
woman” will not fail in such emergencies or be dismayed by such
depths of degradation, but rather see in it the why of her calling. Any
one of the classes named will be better off for the matron’s presence,
and the worst will be found more amenable to her touch and voice
than to the average policeman, be he ever so well disposed. How far
police duty and supervision may be combined with the missionary
work needed, both in the station and in following up special cases,
will depend, of course, largely upon the locality, the number of
arrests, and the general demands of the service.
Whatever else may seem uncertain at the beginning of the work,
there is one thing sure—“the right woman” will find her time
occupied, and exercise for all her tact, patience, and consecration;
and any one who takes the position merely for the salary or from
sentimental notions, will pretty surely resign at the end of the first
quarter, or those interested in the success of the movement will seek
for some one else to fill the place. Difficult as it may seem to secure
one who combines these qualifications, yet it will doubtless prove, as
in many another important position where much is demanded, that
the best available person is selected who, under the emergency,
develops unexpected fitness, and who in time comes to compel
approval and indorsement even from those who hesitated in
committing to her this trust.
In every city where the appointment of a police matron is secured,
there should be a committee from the Woman’s Christian
Temperance Union, upon whom the matron can rely for such help as
she will assuredly need, and an “Open Door” or “Temporary Refuge”
will prove an absolute necessity if much rescue work, which was the
primary thought in the reform, is to be undertaken.
In time, there will be womanly supervision in the transportation of
women to the various institutions to which they are consigned; and
the police matron will hasten the day, by her womanly forethought,
for the women passing from her care, besides strengthening her
influence over them. Indeed, the presence of the police matron will
often prevent carelessness on many points, and deliberate wrong in
others. Ten years ago the movement was sneered at; ten years hence
no city will be without one or more such officers.
 All along the lines of the National Department advanced plans are
yearly sent forth, and every State and Territory made some attempt
to carry them out. During the last year hundreds of services have
been held in hitherto neglected places. These were of a varied nature,
preaching, prayer and conference meetings, Bible classes, Sunday
schools, literary and musical entertainments; in some of which
young people and children assisted. Said the keeper of one of the
most desolate places: “It’s funny to see how the men try to clean up
for the women’s meetings.”
One of the convicts told an officer, “I can stand the chaplains
preaching, but those women, with their tearful pleading, break me all
up; home and mother seem realities again.”
The Prison Flower Mission, cared for and directed by Jennie
Carsuday, from her sick room in Louisville, Ky., has proved a blessed
ministry to hundreds, and an opening wedge for the gospel message
of hope and help.
Great numbers of bibles, testaments, helps for Bible study, prayer,
hymn, school, and library books have been supplied, and millions of
pages of gospel and temperance leaflets and papers distributed, thus
displacing dime novels and cards. Book-cases, wall-rolls, illuminated
mottoes, and pledge cards have been furnished, with Christmas
boxes and Easter offerings by the thousands. Organs have been
given, and others loaned for chapel services.
Petitions for needed reforms have been widely circulated, co-
operation with other organizations gladly given, and scores of
articles furnished the press, all of which have helped to arouse to
action those not identified with the W. C. T. Union, and who perhaps
had larger influence in certain directions.
Letter writing, to and for the inmates, has proved helpful. Visiting
the friends of prisoners, giving sympathy, advice, and aid, have
proved a practical illustration of the words, “Bear ye one another’s
burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ.”
Several States have inaugurated the “Prison Gate Mission,” which
is an important branch, and aims to have its missionaries meet the
prisoners on their release, with help and hope, in the most practical
ways. “Temporary Homes” and “Open-Doors” are offering shelter
and work, and thousands of lives redeemed attest the genuineness of
these varied efforts put forth in quietness but with great faith.
Many of the State superintendents of this department have given
years of untiring labor, often furnishing their own supplies at great
personal sacrifice. Brave, true-hearted, and practical, they have
disarmed criticism, walked unharmed in dangerous places; never
dropping into sentiment or refusing attention to established rules,
they have won recognition from all right-minded officials and
citizens.
 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE.
Thus, glancing backward, and passing in hasty review what has
been attempted and accomplished since 1830, we catch a glimpse of
what is now waiting to be done, and the call is so imperative, that we
must express our thanksgiving for the past by bringing all the force
of combined action to bear upon needed reforms in the present. We
believe that woman has special endowments for these lines of work,
and that her absence from them has been a source of weakness and
failure.
We must familiarize ourselves with the questions of penology, the
relation of the State to its vicious and dependent classes; contract
labor and the lessee system with their attendant evils; congregate
and separate imprisonment; prison discipline, with reformatory
measures and institutions.
We should demand the absolute separation of the sexes, and
juvenile from older offenders; also matrons to care for women
arrested or committed.
Visit unannounced police stations and courts, with county jails,
where women are under care of men, or “left to themselves,” and
compare their looks and manners with those in similar places where
the right kind of matron bears sway with a firm hand and dignified
presence. Women should be associated with men as prison
inspectors, and women physicians on boards to care for women and
children. Greater efforts should be put forth in the lines of
reclamation, opening the way to a return to honesty and self-
support; but double diligence should be given to removing the
varied causes of crime, thus proving ourselves wise citizens in the
truest sense of the word.