fournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology

1964, Vol. 69, No. 2, 195-205

SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT BY EXPERIMENTALLY

ALTERING COGNITIVE APPRAISALx
RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFERT 2
University oj California, Berkeley

Previous research had shown that film-induced threat could be reduced by

appropriately designed narratives or sound tracks based on ego-defense theory.
This study demonstrated that such a narrative, based on the concepts of denial
and reaction formation, is even more effective if presented as an introductory
statement before the film begins. It significantly reduced both physiological and
self-report evidence of stress reaction. Moreover, the amount of stress reaction
and the capacity of the narrative to reduce stress reactions depended upon
personality. Ss high in disposition to deny threat as measured by various
MMPI scales did indeed deny affective disturbance more than low deniers,
while showing greater autonomic evidence of stress reaction.

In an earlier article on the experimental the absence of stress reactions under condi-
reduction of stress based on ego-defense the- tions that usually produce it) are of the ut-
ory (Speisman, Lazarus, Mordkoff, & Davi- most importance in helping us understand
son, 1964), the concept of cognitive appraisal the processes involved in psychological stress
of threat was introduced and an experiment and the mechanisms of defense against it.
dealing with the effects on psychological Systematic research and theoretical analyses
stress reactions of altering cognitive appraisal along these latter lines have been carried out
was described. It was postulated that "the most prominently by Janis (1958, 1962).
same stimulus may be either a stressor or not, Some of this work dealing with fear-arousing
depending upon the nature of the cognitive communications has been experimental (for
appraisal the person makes regarding the sig- example, Janis & Terwilliger, 1962), but the
nificance for him [p. 367]." Thus, interpreta- bulk has been field oriented. For example,
tion of a stimulus is crucial to the production people who are threatened by surgery or
of the intervening hypothetical condition of other potential disasters are studied to de-
threat. This interpretation or appraisal de- termine the kinds of mechanisms employed
pends, among other things, on beliefs or ex- to cope with the threat, and the relationship
pectations a person has about the stimulus between such coping mechanisms and post-
and its consequences. surgical adaptation (Janis, 1958). In a more
The key issue dealt with in the study cited recent theoretical discussion, Janis (1962)
above and by the present experiment is that has analyzed the defensive and adaptive proc-
of the reduction of stress and the conditions esses involved in reactions to warnings of
that determine the reduction. While most of impending disaster. Such studies and theo-
the empirical research on psychological stress retical analyses have contributed important
emphasizes stress production, studies identi- concepts about the ways in which people re-
fying the conditions of stress reduction (and duce stress and some of the research has been
performed to study the conditions under
iThis investigation was supported by Research
Grant MH-02136 from the National Institute of which stress reactions are to be expected in
Mental Health, United States Public Health Service. the face of threatening stimuli, but do not
Appreciation must be expressed for the great as- occur as a result of defensive or threat-re-
sistance of Leslie A. Davison in the performance of ducing processes.
this study, especially in the construction of the in-
strument to assess subject beliefs about the events In the earlier study by Speisman et al.
in the subincision film.
2
(1964), a silent motion picture film was
This study was performed while the junior au- used dealing with a primitive ritual entitled
thor was a predoctoral research fellow, under Grant
MPM-12,280 from the United States Public Health "subincision." This film had been employed
Service. previously to produce stress reactions (La-
195
196 RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFERT

zarus, Speisman, Mordkoff, & Davison, 1962). comparison of the threat-producing effects of
These stress reactions usually occurring under three conditions, the silent version of the
typical conditions of administration of the subincision film, the presentation of the film
film were increased by experimentally build- with both an introduction and commentary
ing in a sound track (called the trauma track) based on ego-defense theory as employed in
which accentuated the threat-producing fea- the previous study, and a silent presentation
tures of the film. Even more important was of the film prior to which the defensive orient-
the fact that the threatening quality of the ing statements are presented merely as an in-
film was significantly reduced by two sound troduction to the film. If altered beliefs about
tracks based on ego-defense theory. One of the film events are the basis of the threat
the latter sound tracks was called intellectual- reduction, then this latter condition should
ization. It presented the events in the film be effective in minimizing stress responses.
from the point of view of a scientific, anthro- The central empirical question of the experi-
pological attitude of detachment and scientific ment is whether merely employing appro-
analysis. The other, called denial and reaction priate orienting statements will significantly
formation, proceeded to deny the harmful reduce the threat value of the film, even
aspects of the ritual, for example, the pain though the subject watches the film in its
and potential physical harm of the surgical silent form, without any commentary. The
operations portrayed, and also suggested posi- particular defensive orientation employed
tive emotional aspects of the event, for ex- here to test the potency of such procedures
ample, noting the joy experienced by the
designed to alter cognitive appraisal was
native boys derived from their participation in
a significant tribal ceremony. This experimen- denial and reaction formation, henceforth
tally manipulated protection against threat referred to as denial orientation.
may be referred to as the short-circuiting of In addition, since we have learned previ-
threat. ously that personality variables are important
One of the difficulties complicating inter- determinants of stress reactions and the
pretation of the process by which the defen- threat-reducing effects of the defensive sound
sive, stress reducing effects were produced tracks (Lazarus et al., 1962; Speisman et al.,
was the use of the sound-track procedure 1964), personality variables that should
itself. The subject first heard an introductory theoretically be relevant to denial and re-
statement which offered the relevant inter- action formation were assessed as sources of
pretation, then watched the film and simulta- individual differences in reaction. These in-
neously listened to a commentary reinforcing cluded various types of assessment procedures
this interpretation about the events taking derived from the MMPI.
place. Alternative interpretations about the
mechanism of threat production are therefore PROCEDURE
possible, for example, that the commentary The exact procedures of the experiment can be
serves as an interference of a nondefense most readily grasped by describing the subject pop-
sort which reduces the threat. While the ulation, the experimental conditions or treatments,
threat-enhancing effects of the trauma sound the measures of stress reaction, and the personality
variables.
track argue against this interpretation, there
is still the confounding of belief or expecta- Subject Population
tion produced by the introductory statements,
The subjects were 69 male students at the Uni-
and whatever other psychological processes versity of California at Berkeley. Most were taking
are produced by the continuous commentary an introductory psychology course. Some were
during the film proper. solicited as volunteers from a sociology course.
The present experiment is an attempt to All subjects were paid for their participation. Each
separate out the effects of the introductory subject was randomly placed in one of the three
experimental conditions. There were two sessions,
statement altering beliefs or expectations one for group personality testing and the other
from the commentary which runs along with an experimental session in which the subject was
the film. The study consists essentially of a individually exposed to one of the three conditions.
 SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT 197

Experimental Conditions Adjective Check List of Mood (Nowlis & Nowlis,

1956), was administered to all subjects immediately
In the experimental session proper, following by after the film, and scored for eight variables in-
varying time intervals the group personality testing cluding concentration, aggression, pleasantness,
session, all subjects were informed that they were egotism, social affection, activation-deactivation,
to be shown a film and that physiological measure- depression, and anxiety.
ments of skin conductance and heart rate would Following the Nowlis check list, subjects were
be made simultaneously as they watched. For each also asked to rate their tension on two 5-point
subject, there was initially a waiting period of about scales, one concerned with their usual or normal
IS minutes after the subject was seated and elec- condition, and one dealing with the period during
trodes attached. This was to aid in relaxation and which they watched the film. Tension rating score
to allow hydration to take place. Subjects were as- was the difference between these.
sured that they would not be surprised or shocked, An effort was also made to assess the beliefs of
and would be informed of every step in the pro- the subjects in each condition about the events
cedure. After the hydration period, a 3-minute portrayed in the subincision film to determine to
period was provided for establishing base-line what extent the denial-and-reaction-formation state-
measurements for the autonomic variables. ment was influential. They were asked to rank 10
In one of the experimental conditions the silent statements in the order that best described their
subincision film (silent film condition) was pre- impressions of the film, as they felt they would re-
sented. Without special introduction or commen- call it a month later. The statements were designed
tary, the subjects watched the 17-minute subincision to include the concepts of denial and reaction
film in a reclining chair, with continuous recordings formation, intellectualization, repression, distress,
made of skin conductance and heart rate. and realistic description. For example, denial as
A second condition consisted of a presentation manifested in the orienting statement is expressed
of the subincision film, preceded by a short denial- in the item, "The film showed that an operation
and-reaction-formation introduction, and accom- which ordinarily would be painful can be per-
panied by the commentary (denial commentary con- formed among the natives with a minimum of dis-
dition) exactly as in the previous study. The intro- comfort." Reaction formation is expressed in the
duction began 2 minutes before the film, and the statement, "The film described the joyful and
commentary continued throughout it. exhilarating experience of young boys of a primi-
In the third experimental condition, the silent tive tribe who are being initiated into manhood."
film was presented, preceded by the denial-and- As examples of distress are the following. "These
reaction-formation statement. The entire statement poor natives. I am glad I live in a civilized
was, in effect, moved up so that it preceded the country"; or, "It was a horrible film. Rituals of
showing of the film (denial orientation condition). this sort should not be permitted." For realistic
The passage in the denial orientation condition was description the statement was, "The film showed
identical to the passage employed in the denial initiation rituals during which a number of natives
commentary condition, except that some of the undergo subincision, a painful procedure performed
phrases had to be set into future tense. For example, under unsanitary conditions."
instead of "you see," it said, "you will see." The If the orienting statements, whether presented as
silent film was preceded by 10 minutes of this orien- an introduction or as commentary, were effective
tation, and no recording was played during the actual in influencing the beliefs of subjects about the film
presentation of the film. The actual passage on events, and consequently their cognitive appraisal
which the two denial conditions were based is too of its threat value, then differences should be
lengthy to be presented here and may be obtained found in the ranking of the items between the
on request from the senior author. silent film condition and the two denial conditions.
In the former, there should be greater distress, while
Measures of Stress Reaction in the latter, denial-and-reaction-formation state-
ments should have a higher position in the rank
Skin resistance was measured by a Fels dermohm- order. The acceptance of the subject of the imposed
meter, recorded on an Esterline-Angus recorder, orientation is theoretically crucial to the short-
and then transformed into conductance units. Heart circuiting of threat.
rate was measured by a Fels cardiotachometer feed-
ing into a Brush recorder. Both of these instruments Personality Variables
and the exact procedures involved have been de-
scribed elsewhere (Lazarus et al., 1962). After the The entire MMPI was administered in a group
15-minute hydration period and 3 minutes of base- session prior to the experimental session. It was
line recording, continuous measurements were taken scored for the following four scales: Suppressor
throughout the introduction, where appropriate, and (K; McKinley, Hathaway, & Meehl, 1948), Denial
the film. In the reduction of data, readings were (Dn; Little & Fisher, 1958), Repression (R; Welsh,
made at 15-second intervals so that continuous 1956), and the Repression-Sensitization (U-5) scale
curves of autonomic reaction could be obtained. of Byrne (1961). Each of these on the basis of
In addition to the physiological variables, three content and evidence is thought to be related to
types of behavioral data were obtained. The Nowlis repressive personality character structure, and there-
198 RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFEET

fore, most suited to the investigation of denial-and- the entire film underestimates the differences
reaction-formation defensive dispositions.
between conditions, because such an average
RESULTS taken over 17 minutes of film effects includes
not only the peak points of reaction occurring
The experimental findings are presented in during the surgical-operation scenes, but also
two categories, the effects of the experimental the troughs of reaction during benign por-
conditions on stress responses associated with tions of the film. In the later cases, differences
the subincision film, and the contribution of ought not to be as apparent since these por-
the personality variables to the reactions ob- tions are not very threatening. In the previ-
tained under each condition. ously cited study, doing an analysis of the
Effects of the Experimental Conditions effects of the defensive-sound-track con-
ditions at such peak points yields significant
These effects must be considered separately effects even when the total means do not. In
for the various kinds of stress response the present case, the differences even for
measures, and the assessed beliefs about the total means reach significance in heart rate,
film events. and nearly so in skin conductance, and there
Autonomic Variables is no need for the more costly procedure of
point-to-point comparisons. The means for
An analysis of covariance was performed heart rate and skin conductance can be seen
on the skin-conductance and heart-rate means in Table 1.
for each group, by adjusting each score for
The pattern of skin conductances can be
the effect of the correlation between basal
graphically portrayed in order to illustrate
and film levels, and thus correcting for any
the continuous level of autonomic reactivity
differences in mean base line between the
of the three groups over the course of the
conditions. This is in accordance with the
film, and for the introductory statements in
arguments advanced by Lacey (1956) con-
the two denial conditions. This is presented
cerning the law of initial values. The high
correlation between the base-line and film in Figure 1. Examination of the curves during
levels within each group is used to reduce the film presentation shows that a similar
the error variance (Lindquist, 19S6). When pattern of skin conductance is found in each
this is done, a significant F for experimental condition, with peaks occurring at points we
conditions (at the .05 level) is found for have previously found to be most disturb-
heart rate and one which reaches the .10 ing (Lazarus et al., 1962), mainly those
level for skin conductance. As has been concerned with the three first subincision
shown previously (Speisman et al., 1964), operations. But the groups differ markedly
taking the mean of autonomic variables over in overall level, with the silent film condition

TABLE 1
MEANS 01 RESPONSE VARIABLES DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN THE THREE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS

Autonomic variables Nowlis mood variables Assessment of beliefs about film events^
Experimental
condition Skin Pleasant-
Heart Concen- Intellec- Realistic
conduct- rate' tration ness Depression Denial tuallzatlon Distress description
ance"

Silent film 13.89 77.0 21.781 10.22 14.911 6.4 4.5 6.21 1.7
Denial
commentary 12.93 .0 74.1 ,d 23.30|° 14.39 .d 10.57 [° 4.3 ,e 4.2 8.0 .f 3.5=
Denial
orientation 10.78 73.4 2S.96J 16.78 12.13J 4.2 4.2 8.0, 3.3
•b Means adjusted for base.
Mean ranks: lower numbers indicate greater acceptance.
d
• F approaches significance at the .10 level.
F significant at the .05 level.
' F significant at the .001 level.
' F significant at the .01 level.
 SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT 199

14

£12 \ DENIAL
\COMMENTARY

W
DENIAL
olO ORIENTATION DENIAL
\ /-" X ORIENTATION
V ^

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
„...,.. TIME IN 1 5 - S E C O N D INTERVALS
Ur rlLM

FIG. 1. Skin conductance curves during orientation and film periods under the experimental conditions.

producing the highest values, followed by the values, one would expect greater increases
denial commentary condition, the lowest re- from subjects starting lower, than those with
actions being observed in the denial orienting initially higher starting levels of conductance.
condition. The increases also of the denial orienting
Looking at the base-line and introduction group from the level at the start of the film
periods, the starting level of skin conductance is also considerably smaller than for other
is somewhat lower in the denial orienting groups, indicating the effectiveness oi the
condition than the other two conditions. orienting statements in short-circuiting threat.
Initially, during the period when these sub- This group also appears to drop more sharply
jects are first told about distressing events in in skin conductance from the early peak
the film they show a marked anticipatory periods. The ups and downs before the start
rise, which drops to a low point just before of the film and to some extent during the
the start of the film. The denial commentary film are a function of the content of what
group also shows the same kind of sharp is seen and heard, as well as the orienting
rise when the same material is presented, statements and commentary.
dropping also before the film, then as with
the other groups, rising again during the Behavioral Variables
threatening scenes. The effects of the three experimental con-
The final order of the groups cannot be ditions on the Nowlis mood variables are pre-
explained, however, by their starting level, sented also in Table 1 which shows the means
since the group getting the silent version for the three variables which reach or ap-
without commentary or introduction actually proach statistical significance. Pleasantness is
starts lower than the denial commentary greatest under the denial orientation condi-
group, but ends up considerably higher. tion, and least, as would be predicted, in the
Moreover, according to the law of initial silent film condition. Concentration is lowest
200 RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFERT

in the silent film and greatest in the denial 69 subjects, 1 subject was randomly dropped
orienting condition. Depression is greatest in from each condition, resulting in even
the silent version of the film, and least in the numbers.
denial commentary condition. Other mood The skin-conductance means for each con-
variables did not yield differences between dition as a function of the four personality
the conditions, nor did the tension ratings measures are shown in Table 2, and the
at the end of the experimental sessions. heart-rate means using the same form of
The ranking procedure, designed to eval- analysis may be found in Table 3.
uate how the subjects' beliefs about the For skin conductance, the patterns are
events portrayed in the film were influenced essentially the same with all four personality
by the experimental conditions, resulted in measures of denial disposition. Those high
highly significant differences between condi- in denial tendency show higher levels of skin
tions for the placement of denial statements, conductance under the silent film condition,
distress, and realism, all in the predicted di- while those low in denial tendency show low
rection. These mean ranks for each condition levels of skin conductance. These differences
are also shown in Table 1. tend to diminish under the denial commen-
Denial statements and reaction formation tary condition, because the overall conduct-
are ranked higher under the two denial con- ance level of the high-denial group is lower.
ditions, suggesting that the frame of reference Under the denial orienting condition which
given in the sound tracks is influential in the is the least threatening for subjects as a
way the subject views the film events. State- whole, any difference between the personality
ments reflecting distress ranked higher under groupings disappears altogether.
the silent film condition, as well as realistic Analysis of covariance with skin-conduct-
descriptive statements. The general picture ance data can be made in terms of main
of cognitive appraisal is consistent with the effects of the personality variables, as well as
character of the stimulus conditions and interactions between personality and condi-
readily linked to the level of stress reaction tions. For the main effects, only the MMPI
as a mediating factor. K scale is significant (^ = .01), with the
Welsh R scale approaching it (p = .10). In
Contribution of Personality Variables both cases, subjects high in denial are higher
Each of the distributions of scores on the on skin conductance. With respect to the
four personality measures was divided at interactions, the R scale is significant (p =
the median and F tests made on the mean .OS), and the Little and Fisher Dn scale ap-
difference between the resulting groups on proaches it (p = .10). Here, the interaction
both skin conductance and heart rate for comes because of the large difference under
the three experimental conditions. In making the silent film condition which diminishes or
the median splits, since there were a total of reverses somewhat under the denial com-

TABLE 2
SKIN-CONDUCTANCE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PERSONALITY
DISPOSITION or DENIAL AS ASSESSED BY FOUR MMPI SCALES

Dn K R R-S

High Low High* Low* Highb Lowb High Low

Silent film 4.54 .26 5.20 -.40 5.09 -.29 3.98 .81
Denial commentary 2.22 1.17 3.41 -.02 .99 2.40 1.38 2.01
Denial orientation -.22° .82" .65 -.05 .82" -.23d .66 -.07

Note.—Scores represent mean increase or decrease of skin conductance from base line to film condition. Tests of significance
were performed on data corrected for base values.
*b Personality main effect F significant at .01 level.
0
Personality main effect F significant at .10 level.
d
Interaction F approaches significance at .10 level.
Interaction F significant at ,05 level.
 SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT 201
TABLE 3
HEART-RATE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PERSONALITY DISPOSITION
OF DENIAL AS ASSESSED BY FOUR MMPI SCALES

Dn K R R-S

High" Lowa High>> Lowb High Low High Low

Silent film 2.66 -3.04 .90 -1.28 -.37 -.01 -.46 -.84
Denial commentary -2.91 -3.75 -3.56 -3.10 -4.04 -2.62 -3.18 -3.47
Denial orientation -1.51° -4.10° -.89 -4.72 -1.32 -4.29 -.86 -4.76

Note.—Scores represent mean increase or decrease of heart rate from base line to film condition. Tests of significance were
performed on data corrected for base values.
* Personality main effect F significant at .05 level.
b
0
Personality main effect F significant at .10 level.
Interaction F approaches significance at .10 level.

mentary condition, and disappears altogether attenuated disturbance. The stress reaction
in the denial orienting condition. The F and produced by the subincision film depends on
p values may be found in footnotes of this personality disposition.
Table 2. The same analysis as above was performed
Another informative way of showing the with heart rate, and the means for this are
difference in the subincision film effects on presented in Table 3. Here the Little and
subjects high in denial tendency is to plot the Fisher Dn scale and the K scale show signifi-
skin conductance for the Dn and K scale cant or near significant main effects. In the
groupings based on median splits over its case of the interactions, the Dn scale produces
entire course, in a fashion comparable to a significant F value. This pattern of signifi-
Figure 1. In Figures 2 and 3, these data are cance, as in the case of skin conductance, can
portrayed with skin-conductance levels dur- be studied in the footnotes of Table 3.
ing the film having been corrected for base- There appears to be some more or less
line levels, Figure 2 showing the data for consistent patterning of heart-rate changes
subjects high and low in Dn, Figure 3 for as a function of the four personality measures
those high and low in K. It will be observed of denial disposition. If we look at the
that "low" subjects on both personality scales clearest and most significant pattern, that
show a rather flat curve of skin conductance, displayed by denial, we see first that high
with little rise and fall associated with any deniers are higher in heart rate in the silent
points in the film. In contrast, "highs" dis- film condition. This group drops sharply
play the characteristic curve observed in
study after study employing the film, recog- 20.0
nizable with peaks occurring during the
various operation scenes, and troughs during 16.0
benign scenes such as the hair tying ceremony
just past the middle of the film. The overall
16.0
levels for the personality groups are also in
marked contrast. The curves for subjects high
' 140
in Dn and K are quite comparable to those
found for each of the treatment groupings
shown in Figure 1. In general, it is clear that , 120
whatever personality disposition is measured
by the high end of the Dn and K scales 10.0

results in a marked elevation in skin con- I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

ductance, and thus, in inferred film-produced Time in 15 second intervals over the film
disturbance. This disturbance is sustained FIG. 2. Effects of the subincision film on skin con-
throughout the viewing period. Lows show ductance as a function of Dn.
202 RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFERT

the same thing happens in the case of all four

18.0
of the personality indices of denial dis-
position.
Employing these same personality measures
and median splits, analysis was also made of
the various Nowlis variables of mood and
the tension rating scale under the three con-
12.0 ditions. Here high scorers on the Dn scale
were lower on anxiety than low scorers (p =
100 .001), lower on depression (^ = .10), and
lower on the tension rating scale (p = .10);
high scorers on the K scale and also the R-S
I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Points over the film m 15 second intervals scale were lower on Nowlis anxiety (p =
.10); high scorers on R-S also scored lower
FIG. 3. Effects of the subincision film on skin con-
ductance as a function of K. on depression (p = .10) and social affection
(p = .05); and high scorers on R scored
lower on concentration (p = .10).
under the denial commentary condition so
Judging from these Nowlis patterns, ver-
that there is no longer a difference compared
bally derived measures of stress response in
with low deniers. However, under the denial
orienting condition, low deniers drop still the form of disphoric affect interact with
further in heart rate, again producing a personality variables in a direction opposite
divergent trend from high deniers. As to the from what is found with autonomic in-
significant main effect, one can see that under dicators. High deniers refuse to admit dis-
all conditions, low deniers tend to have lower turbance verbally but reveal it autonomically,
heart rates than high deniers. While there are while low deniers are apt to say they are
some variations from this pattern as a func- more disturbed while showing less autonomic
tion of the particular measure, substantially reactivity. This is, of course, exactly what

I | HIGH DENIERS
l7 —
to17 YTTn LOW DENIERS
" " ••'
4/5
1,6 - 1C —
-i
§15 K 1 Dn
5? O

x' 4 — = 14 -
•z. —
ujl3
O
— ~I3 —
0
£E12 — f 12- — 7\
o
— __
f~~l
Lm
O
^ll — /, Y7\
1" 71 4
7/1 ]

iKd
pvl

°m
Q ' ' 71
'h
7,
v, HA
uA
§10
SILENT DENIAL DENIAL " SILENT DENIAL DENIAL
FILM COMMENTARY ORIENTATION FILM COMMENTARY ORIENTATION

^I8r
-
K g§1618 Dn

1
r- tj|4 -

I
X -

! I ri
r-
112- §12

SILENT DENIAL
1
DENIAL
FILM COMMENTARY ORIENTATION
r SILENT DENIAL DENIAL
FILM COMMENTARY ORIENTATION
FIG. 4. Autonomic and verbal reactions of high and low deniers.
 SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT 203

the concept of denial means, and the above really emerge until much later, and the sub-
finding tends to support the validity of these ject is really not fully prepared or innocu-
personality measures. lated, so to speak, against the potential
The sort of relationship noted here can be threat. However, in the denial orientation
illustrated particularly well by graphically condition, the full force of the denial-and-
examining the Nowlis anxiety scores of high reaction-formation statement is brought com-
and low scorers on both the Dn and K pletely forward as an introduction, and it
scales under each experimental condition, may provide the necessary time to digest and
and making a comparable comparison for assimilate the information and ideas pro-
skin conductance. These data are shown in vided. Other possibilities of interpretation
Figure 4. Note that low deniers under all exist, perhaps, such as that there may be
conditions claimed more anxiety than high some unfortunate interaction between the
deniers, and that the largest difference occurs denial commentary and specific events of the
under the denial orientation condition when film which undermines the full assimilation
high deniers admit very little evidence of of the denial orientation. Still, the simplest
anxiety. In contrast, with respect to skin explanation seems to us to be the greater
conductance, those high in denial disposition preparedness of the subjects receiving the
show markedly higher skin conductance denial orientation statements.
under the silent film condition. With respect to the assessment of beliefs
of subjects in each condition about the film
DISCUSSION events, the fact that the denial-and-reaction-
The findings in this study give strong evi- formation statements were ranked higher in
dence of the capacity of an orienting denial- the two denial conditions is strong evidence
and-reaction-formation statement to short-cir- that beliefs were indeed influenced appropri-
cuit threat by altering the cognitive appraisal ately by the denial passages. Consistent effects
of subjects of the film events. Even without were also found for distress statements, being
the commentary running along simultaneously higher under the silent film condition. Real-
with the film, significant reduction of stress istic description was lower as would be antic-
responses is produced by the denial orien- ipated, and interestingly enough, intellec-
tation statement. If we compare the nature tualization was not affected by the experi-
of the denial orientation stimulus condition mental conditions, showing that the influence
with the silent film stimulus condition, the of the denial orientation and commentary
key difference lies in the presence in the was selective in altering how the subject
former of an introduction which offers the viewed the film events. These findings lend
denial-and-reaction-formation based interpre- support to our conception about how the
tation of the film events. Otherwise, subjects denial passages worked. They altered how the
in these two conditions view the same silent subject interpreted the film events, the mean-
film. While some information preparatory to ing of what was taking place, in the direction
the traumatic events depicted in the film of benignity and this mediated the short-
are also, of necessity, provided in the former, circuiting of stress reactions. For example,
the findings of the earlier study by Speisman if there was no pain, and the boys experi-
et al. (1964) argue against the interpreta- encing the ritual were happy about the whole
tion that this warning fully accounts for the thing, then there is no reason to be disturbed
stress reduction. by watching the procedure. The film no
We have to ask why the denial orientation longer carries as much threat because of this
condition was more effective than the denial way of interpreting what was happening.
commentary. In the latter, the full informa- The second class of findings of importance
tion provided by the denial-and-reaction- concerns the personality measures of the dis-
formation statements does not come until position to use denial forms of coping with
well into the film presentation. While there threat. While the significance levels are not
are some statements of denial even before high, and some of the measures seem to do
the film begins, the total picture does not a better job of accounting for both main
204 RICHARD S. LAZARUS AND ELIZABETH ALFERT

effect and interaction variance, these meas- scale, why is their level of autonomic dis-
ures of denial appear to work in a way con- turbance simultaneously so low? The usual
sistent with their theoretical significance as working assumption is that autonomic reac-
seen by psychologists concerned with per- tivity will always be aroused when the sub-
sonality assessment. On skin conductance, ject is threatened. An alternative is possible,
high deniers show greater stress reaction of course, that there are specific forms of
than those low in denial tendency, and fur- stress reaction, sometimes expressed in ex-
ther, the difference is especially marked under ternalized fashion, sometimes internalized
the silent film condition, but tends to dis- (Block, 1957; Jones, 1950). With our present
appear under the denial conditions. With data and knowledge, no completely satis-
heart rate, the picture is less clear and con- factory answer can be given.
sistent, although, in general, here, too, high More easily assimilated is the fact that,
deniers show somewhat higher heart rates. while the low deniers admit disturbance of
There does seem to be strong evidence that anxiety on the Nowlis variable during the
scores on these personality tests of denial silent film version, this disturbed effect is
disposition are related to autonomic reactivity not markedly reduced by the denial orienta-
under threatening conditions. tion and commentary. Examination of Figure
Of great interest also is the oppositive 4 reveals that high deniers show both a re-
pattern found for autonomic as opposed to duction of autonomic disturbance and a re-
self-report measures of stress response as a duction of reported anxiety as a result of
function of the personality disposition of the denial communications. Low deniers, in
denial. High deniers appear to admit less contrast, do not benefit from the denial com-
evidence of disturbed affect on the Nowlis munications, even though their reported
Adjective Check List of Mood than do low anxiety is high. Our interpretation is that low
deniers. However, they show greater evidence deniers do not readily accept the denial frame
of stress reaction on autonomic measures, of reference, and therefore, cannot readily
especially skin conductance. Thus, such sub- gain from it in the reduction of stress. High
jects, disposed as they are to denial as a deniers in contrast, have cognitive disposi-
general trait, actually admit less anxiety in tions to deal with threat and stress reactions
reaction to the film while showing more in ways that are compatible with the denial
stress reaction in skin conductance. statements. However, no difference is found
This finding with the personality measures between high and low deniers in the rank-
purporting to measure denial tendency is im- ing of denial statements as to degree of ap-
portant because it provides the most appro- propriateness under any of the conditions,
priate kind of evidence of validity of the even though these rankings are strongly in-
measures, the validity being based on pre- fluenced by the denial communications.
dicted discrepancies between physiological Still, the finding that high deniers will
evidence and self-report evidence of stress re- profit in stress reduction from denial inter-
action. Most of the time, personality measures pretations in the environment, while low
are shown to correlate with other measures of deniers do not, is supportive of the findings
the same type, as between one self-report of the earlier cited study of Speisman et al.
procedure and another, but are rarely success- (1964). In that study, executives who were
fully related across response modalities. Here, high in denial disposition as measured by
the relationships with criteria cut across re- an MMPI scale (Hy-Dn) showed the most
sponse modalities, from self-report to physio- reduction of stress response under the denial
logical indicators. sound track condition. In contrast, a student
If we interpret these above findings in group, low in denial disposition and high in
terms of the process of denial there are some the Psychasthenia scale of the MMPI, ob-
further data which pose interpretative prob- tained very little stress reduction under
lems. For one thing, if the low deniers are the denial sound track condition, but were
acknowledging the threat by reporting greater markedly relieved by a sound track based on
evidence of distress on the Nowlis anxiety the concept of intellectualization. The present
 SHORT-CIRCUITING OF THREAT 205

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