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NOTES OF SOCIOLOGY

TH
FOR CLASS 11
GOVT HIGHER SECONDARY
SCHOOL SOURA

Prepared by :
MISS ISMAT AARA
LECTURER SOCIOLOGY
(GHSS SOURA)

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UNIT1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

 CONCEPT OF SOCIOLOGY:-NATURE AND SUBJECT


MATTER.

CONCEPT OF SOCIOLOGY:- Auguste Comte (1798-1857) is


considered as the 'Father of Sociology'. He coined the word
'Sociology' in 1838 and was first to distinguish the subject matter of
sociology from all other social sciences. He introduced the word
'Sociology' for the first time in his famous work 'Positive Philosophy'
at about 1838. By 'sociology', he meant the branch of science which
studies human behaviour.

The word 'Sociology' is derived from the Latin word 'socious'


meaning 'companion’ or ‘associate' and the Greek word 'logos'
meaning 'study'. The etymological meaning of 'Sociology' is thus
'the science of society'. There is a general agreement that
sociology is the science of human society, social groups, social
relations and of social change.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by different


Sociologists. No single definition has yet been accepted as
completely satisfactory. In fact, there are as many definitions of
sociology as there are sociologists. Some definitions of sociology
may be cited as:-

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• Auguste Comte, the founding father of Sociology, defines sociology as the
science of social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the
discovery of which is the object of investigation".
• H.M.JOHNSON:- He defined Sociology as the "science that
deals with the study of social groups".
• EMILE DURKHEIM:- He defines Sociology as the "science of
social institutions".
• MAX WEBER:-He defines Sociology as the "science which
attempts at the interpretative understanding of social action, in
order to thereby arrive at the casual explanation of its cause and
effects'.

The analysis of the various definitions cited above makes it evident


that sociologists differ in their opinion about definition of sociology.
However, the common idea underlying all the definitions
mentioned above is that sociology is concerned with man, his
social relations and his society.

NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology as a branch of knowledge has its own unique


characteristics which are enlisted as:-
i. Sociology is an Independent science. It is not treated and studied as a
branch of any other science.
ii. Sociology is a social science and not a physical science.
iii. Sociology is a scientific discipline. It is the science in the sense that it
involves objective and systematic methods of investigation.
iv. Sociology is a general science and not a special social science. The area
of inquiry of sociology is general and not specialised.
v. Sociology is a generalising and not a particularising or individualising
science.
vi. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.
vii. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science.

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SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

There are two main schools of thought regarding the scope of sociology:-

1. Specialistic or Formalistic School


2. The Synthetic School

1.Specialistic or Formalistic School :-This school of thought is led by the


German sociologist George Simmel. The other main advocates of this
school are Max Weber, Ferdinand Tonnies , Alfred Vierkandt, E.A.Ross
etc. As per this school, Sociology is a Pure and an Independent science.
As a Pure science it has a limited scope. It cannot study society as a
whole. Sociology should confine itself to the study of certain aspects of
human relationships only. It should study only the 'forms' of social
relationships but not their ‘contents’.

2.The Synthetic School:-This school of thought is led by Emile


Durkheim, Pitirim A.Sorokin ,Ginsberg, L.T. Hobhouse etc. The
main argument of this school is that all parts of social life are
intimately interrelated. Hence, Sociology should study social life
as a whole. This school wants to make sociology a general social
science having a broad scope.

SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology seeks to find explanations for three basic questions:-


How and why societies emerge?
How and why societies persist?
How and why societies change?

The general outline of the fields of sociology on which there is considerable


agreement among sociologists could be given as:-
1. Its major concern is sociological analysis. lt means the sociologist seeks to
provide an analysis of human society and culture with a sociological
perspective.

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2. It gives sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life like social
relationships, individual personality, groups like communities, associations,
organisations etc.
3. Sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and functions
of basic social institutions like family, marriage, kinship, religion, political,
educational and legal institutions etc.
4. It also pays attentions towards the study of the fundamental social processes
such as cooperation, competition ,social stratification, conflict, social control,
socialisation and social change etc.
5. Sociologists are also concerned with the task of “formulating concepts,
propositions and theories".
6. Sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also.
Sociologists have sought the application of scientific method in social
researches.
7. At last, in the present era of explosion of knowledge sociologists have
ventured to make specialisations also. Today number of specialised fields of
enquiry are emerging out like sociology of knowledge, sociology of
religion, sociology of culture, rural sociology, sociology of education etc.

 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY:- ENLIGHTENMENT, INDUSTRIAL


REVOLUTION AND FRENCH REVOLUTION

Science of sociology was born in the 19 C Europe.


Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution and French Revolution
initiated a process of thinking about society, particularly the
consequences of revolutionary happenings .The social
conditions of 18thC and early 19thC that were of the ultimate
significance in the development of sociology are discussed as:-

• ENLIGHTENMENT :-The 17thC and 18th C is described as the age of


Enlightenment or Reason in Europe. It was a period of intellectual
development and change in philosophical thought .The most prominent
thinkers associated with the Enlightenment were the French philosophers

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Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).During
this period, people emancipated themselves from superstitions and
prejudices as enlightened human beings they criticised everything which they
considered as unreasonable. It was characterised by the belief that people
could comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical
research. Their view was that the physical world was dominated by natural
laws, it was likely that the social world was too. With an emphasis on reason,
the enlightenment thinkers were inclined to reject the beliefs in Traditional
authority and traditional world view dominated by Christainity. Their mission
was to overcome the Traditional values and Institutions dominated by
churches which they found to be irrational. They aimed to teach people to
challenge what they hear, develop critical judgement and solve their problems
on their own. It was significant in the development of sociology.

• INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-
Industrial Revolution took place in England during the 18thC
and lasted approximately from 1750-1850.lt brought
sweeping changes throughout Europe which had never
before taken place in history. New Industries and
Technologies changed the face of the social and physical
environment. The Simple Rural life and small-scale
industries were replaced by the Complex Urban Society and
mass production of goods. It accelerated the process of
Urbanisation which in turn created problems of housing,
sanitation and slum-dwellings. Population increased,
religion began to loose its hold and Capitalist classes
emerged. Conflits between Owners and Factory Workers
became rampant. Sociology was born out of an attempt to
understand these problems of society and find solutions for
the same.

 FRENCH REVOLUTION:- The French Revolution erupted


in 1798 and marked a turning point in history of human
struggle for freedom and equality. It put an end to the
feudal system and ushered in a new order of society. The
French society was divided into three estates –The First

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Estate comprised of Clergy, the Second Estate comprised
of French Nobility ( big landlords, judges, magistrates
etc.) and the Third Estate comprised of the rest of society-
Commoners (peasants, merchants).
The Third Estate, which comprised about 98% of the
French population were excluded from the positions of
honour and political power and was looked down upon by
the other estates. It was angered and resented its position
in French society. This led them to come together and
launch a revolution against the autocratic ruler. The
French revolution lasted for 10 years and was the first
modern ideological revolution of its kind. It had a great
impact on society. It changed its structure and managed to
eliminate the social distinction between the people. The
power shifted from the church and came into the hands of
the people. This was the first time people were seen as
citizens. The revolution replaced feudalism by democracy.
The thinkers were disturbed by the chaos and disorder
especially in France. What attracted the attention of many
early theorists was not the positive consequences, but the
negative effects of such changes .They were united in a
desire to restore order to the society. They sought to find
new basis of social order in societies that had been
overturned by the political revolutions of the 18th and 19thC.
All these things emphasized the importance of creating a
new subject for the study of society.
It is clear from the above discussion that Sociology was
born out of the attempt to understand the changes that
seemed to threaten the order and stability of the
European society. Social thinkers like Auguste Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim etc argued that there
was an urgent need to establish a separate science of
society. They believed that such a science would be of
great help in understanding the nature and problems of
society and to find solutions for the same. This led to the
emergence of sociology.

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 SOCIETY: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND TYPES

CONCEPT OF SOCIETY:-The term 'society' has been derived from the Latin
word 'socious' which means 'companionship or friendship'. ln simple terms
'society' refers to a network of social relationships. A concrete society consists
of persons (members) having different statuses.
‘Man’ is a social animal', said Aristotle centuries ago. An individual
cannot fulfill his requirements without society. Some have to produce food,
others have to weave clothes, others have to erect houses and so on. Thus,
in society there is consensus on the tasks to be performed for survival. Society
has become an essential condition for human life to arise and to continue.
Human life and society always go together.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIETY:-

1..“Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of


behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations
or who differ from them in behaviour"...Morris Ginsberg

2.Society is "a web of social relationships".................. Maclver

3."Society can be defined as a group of people who share a common culture,


occupy a particular territorial area and feel themselves a unified and a distinct
entity".

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY

Harry M. Johnson enlists the following characteristics of society:-


I. Definite Territory:- A society is regarded as a territorial group. Some nomadic
societies move about within a much larger territory than they occupy at one time,
but they regard the whole range as 'their country’. There are,of course, territorial
groups within societies, for example, clans, cities, neighbourhoods, countries,
political outfits etc.

II.Proqeny/People:- Society is composed of people. Without people, there can


be no society, no social relationships and no social life at all. Members of a
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society are recruited in large part by means of human reproduction. Many
societies can also obtain members by adoption, enslavement, conquest or
immigration but reproduction within the group itself remains a fundamental
source of new members.

III.Culture:- Each society is distinct from the other. Every society is unique
because it has its own way of life called Culture. Culture and society go together.
What distinguishes one society from other is culture.

IV.Independence :- Society is not a sub-group of any other. lt is as such


permanent, self-contained and an integrated group.

The general characteristics of society can be put as:-


i. Society consists of people. Without people there can be no society, no social
relationships and no social life at all.
ii. It has a territorial base or boundary.
iii. There is mutual awareness and mutual interaction among the members of
society.
iv. The Principle of Likeness among people is an essential characteristic of
society.
v. Society rests on difference too. Society also implies differences and it depends
on it as much as on likeness.
vi. There is Division of Labour, mutual cooperation and interdependence among
the members of society.
viii. Every society is Unique because it has its own way of life called Culture.
viii. Society has its own way of social control that is controlling the
behaviour of its members.
ix. Society is dynamic and change is ever present in society.

Define 'Community' :-The term 'Community' is derived from two Latin words,
'com' means 'together' and 'munis' means 'to serve'. According to Maclver and
Page," Community is a small or large group in which people share no particular
interest but the basic condition of life itself". The basic criterion of community is
that all of one's social relationships may be found within it. The three important
features of Community are Territorial Identity, Self-sufficiency and We-
feeling/Community Sentiment.
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DEFINE 'ASSOCIATION':- Associations are groups which are established in
order to protect and enhance some specified interests or purposes through fixed
rules, system of organisation and formal manner.

DEFINE 'INSTITUTION' :- These are the structural components of society


through which the main concerns and activities are organised and social needs
are met.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIETY
Individuals have certain basic needs which must be satisfied for the survival of
society. The main functions of society are as:-

1.It fulfils the basic needs of individuals i'e. food, clothing and shelter.
2.It provides security for protection of its members.
3. Socialisation and Education of individuals is the important function of society.
Individuals learn the social norms and values from society.
4. Society regulates anti-social activities of its members and enforces social
control.
5. It helps in Goal-attainment.(It helps individuals to attain their goals).
6. It helps in replacement of society by adding new members through
reproduction.
7. It helps in Division of Labour.
8. It helps in production and distribution of resources.
9. Society shapes our beliefs, our morals and our ideals. lt stimulates the growth
of our personality etc.

TYPES OF SOCIETIES
Human Beings have created and lived in several types of societies
of societies. Sociologists have classified societies into the following
types:-
Based on the stages of socio-cultural evolution and
use of technology, Gerhard and Jean Lenski (1982)
classified human societies into the following five types:-
I.HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES:- This is the oldest and simplest form
of society characterised by small and sparse population and very primitive
technology. The members survive primarily by hunting, fishing and gathering of
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edible plants. They were nomads as they had to move from place to place if food
sources become depleted in any given area. The social structure was somewhat
egalitarian as there was no competition for wealth and power.
II.PASTORAL SOCIETIES AND PASTORALISM:- These societies are dependent
on products obtained through the domestication and breeding of animals. They
emerged in arid regions of North Africa, Middle East and Central Asia etc where
crops were not supported. Unlike Hunting and Gathering societies, Pastoral
societies only have to move seasonally when the land in which the animals graze
is no longer usable.
III.HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES:- The societies emerged about 10-12 thousand
years ago in Latin America , Asia and parts of Middle East .These societies rely on
the cultivation of fruits, vegetables and other plants in order to survive but the
technology was limited to digging-sticks and hand hoes. People often adopted the
Slash-and-burn strategy. These societies are forced to relocate when resources of
the land are depleted or when the water supply decrease.
IV..AGRARIAN SOCIETIES:- These societies rely on the use of technology in order
to cultivate crops on large areas of land including rice, wheat and corn. The
invention of metal and development of better tools like plough made it possible to
till the soil and raise crops year after year. The technological advances led to an
increase in food supplies, an increase in population and the development of trade
centres .This period of technological changes is referred to as the Agricultural
Revolution and began around 8500years ago. In these societies, there was the
emergence of new roles and increasing specialisation of functions. The importance
of landed property grew and wealth became concentrated in the hands of few Elites
and Class System began to take root.
V. INDUSTRIAL AND POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES:- The Industrial
Revolution which took place almost 200 years ago, greatly transformed the old
Agrarian societies. These societies rely heavily on science and technology
(machines) for the production of goods. Industries manufactured goods in large
quantities and produced even greater surplus than before. The gap between the
rich and the poor began to widen and the Class system(Upper,Middle,Lower)
became fully established. The inequality became even greater than before.
Most of the Industrial societies have entered a new phase called
Post-industrial society. Post-industrial society is also known as
Information society or Digital society .This society is dominated by
information, knowledge, services and advanced technology more
than the production of goods.
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OTHER TYPOLOGIES OF SOCIETY
Sociologists have used different typologies to classify
societies. Few of the most common types are the following:-

EMILE DURKHEIM distinguished between two types of society on


the basis of Division of Labour Collective Conscience and set
of laws in a given society---- Society based on Mechanical
Solidarity and Society based on Organic Solidarity.

HERBERT SPENCER made an effort to provide two types of


societies. This classification system is based on the type of
internal regulation within societies--Militant Society and
Industrial Society

ROBERT REDFIELD talked about two types of societies--Folk Society


and Urban Society

FERDINAND TONNIES distinguished between two types of societies


• Gemeinschaft:- A type of society in which life is intimate, a community in
which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of
togetherness.
• Gesellschaft:- A type of society dominated by impersonal
relationships, self-interest and individual achievement.

 SOCIETY: FUNCTIONAL AND CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

Sociologists view society differently .They have their own way of


understanding society and its dynamics. There are three major
perspectives in modern sociology. They are:-

I.The Functionalist Perspective

II.The Conflict Perspective

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III.The Interactionist Perspective

I. The Functionalist Perspective:- The Functionalist Perspective is


largely based on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim,
Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton. Functionalists view society more like a
living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its
survival. This Perspective emphasises the way the parts of a society are
structured to maintain its stability. According to Functionalists, society has
a structure, it consists of inter-related parts such as family, religion, state,
education, economy and so on. Each of these component parts also has
a function that contributes to the overall stability of the society. They
emphasise the interconnectedness of society by focussing on how each
part influences and is influenced by other parts.
Functionalism presumes that a given element in the society may have its
own Functions or Dysfunctions. The proper 'Functions' add to the stability
of society, whereas the 'Dysfunctions' may disrupt the social equilibrium.
Some elements of society can be both functional and Dysfunctional.
FUNCTION:- Consequences that add to the stability of society.
DYSFUNCTION:- Consequences that disrupt the social equilibrium
/stability
Functionalism (R.K.MERTON) also makes a distinction between
'Manifest Functions' and 'Latent Functions'.
MANIFEST FUNCTIONS:- Consequences that are intended, openly-
stated and commonly recognised.
LATENT FUNCTIONS:-Consequences that are unintended, unconscious
and may reflect hidden purposes of an institution.

CRITICISM OF FUNCTIONALISM:-This theory tends to be inherently


conservative. lt fails to pay sufficient importance to the changes that take
place in the system. lt ignores the element of conflict and its role in the
social system.

II. The Conflict Perspective:- The Conflict Perspective derives its strength and
support from the work of Karl Marx. The Conflict Perspective sees the social
world in continuous struggle. They assume that societies are in a constant state
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of change, in which conflict is a permanent feature. They regard conflict (tension,
hostility, severe competition etc.) as a constant process and an inevitable part of
social life.
The Conflict Perspective views society as composed of different groups with
opposite interests competing for power and resources. Karl Marx sees the
struggle between the social classes as the major fact of history.He suggested
that all societies go through various stages of economic development. As
societies evolve from Agricultural to Industrial, concern over meeting survival
needs is replaced by concern over making profit—the hallmark of a Capitalist
Society. Industrialisation leads to the development of two classes of people—
The Bourgeoisie (Owners of the means of production) and The Proletariat
(Workers who earn wages).The division of society into two broad classes of
people—the ‘Haves' and the 'Havenots ' is beneficial to the owners of the means
of production .The workers are exploited and denied access to many resources
.Thus, class struggle is then inevitable because of the exploitation of workers
under capitalism.
CRITICISM OF CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
The Conflict Perspective has its own limitations. This perspective
is viewed as more 'radical' and 'activist'. By focussing so narrowly
on competition and change, conflict theorists fail to come to grips
with the more orderly, stable and less controversial aspects of
society.

DISTINGUISH /DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN FUNCTIONALIST


AND CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE CONFLICT PRESPECTIVE

1:- lt views society as composed of different


1.lt views society as composed of
groups with opposite interests
different parts working together.
competing for power and resources.

2:lt lays emphasis on social order, stability 2:lt focuses on the tension, hostility and
and consensus of society. various changes that conflict can bring.

3:The functionalist perspective because of 3:This perspective sees the social world in
its focus on the stability of society ,is continuous struggle. This perspective is seen
generally seen as more 'conservative'. as more 'radical' and 'activist’.

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4:lt stresses on cooperation among various 4:lt stresses on competition among various
aspects of society. aspects of society.

UNIT 2: BASIC CONCEPTS


 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUP
Social groups play a vital part in a society's
social structure. Much of our social interactions
takes place within groups and are influenced by
their norms and sanctions. A 'Social Group,
thus, refers to a collection of individuals who
interact with each other on regular basis ,share
common interests ,common culture, values and
norms within a given society.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL GROUP


 Social Group is defined as 'any collection of human beings who are
brought into human relationships with one another'.....R.M.MacIver
and Page.
 'Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one
another, they may be said to constitute a social group'.........Ogburn
and Nimkoff

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOCIAL GROUP
The various characteristic features of a social group are as:-
i. Social Group consists of People. Without individuals there can be no
social group .A single person cannot constitute a social group.
ii. There should be more or less stable pattern of relationship among
the members of a social group.
iii. There should be a stable and persistent pattern of interaction among
the members of a social group. Social interaction is the very basis
of group life and mere collection of individuals donot make a group.
iv. There should be shared sense of unity and belongingness among
the members of a social group.
v. The members of a social group have shared interests and there is
acceptance of common norms and values.
vi. A social group has a definable structure.

NATURE OF SOCIAL GROUP

The concept of Social Group is different from other related concepts like
'Aggregate' and 'Social Category'.
'Aggregates' are simply collection of people who are in the same place at the
same time, but share no definite connection with one another e.g. AII school girls
who wear glasses is an aggregate .No doubt within aggregates various kinds of
group relationships may be found ,however, in contrast to members of a social
group, the individuals who makeup an aggregate neither share interests with one
another nor take one another into a group.
Another is 'Social Category' which is a statistical grouping---people classified
together on the basis of a particular characteristic they share, such as having the
same level of income or being in the same occupation.
Therefore, it can be summed up that Social group consists of individuals who
interact with each other on regular basis and have stable and persistent
interaction. Members of group expect a certain type of behaviour from another.
Also Social groups differ in size, ranging from intimate associations like a family
to large collectivities such as a Sports Club.

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TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Social groups differ from one another in terms of their size, nature, objective and
life-span. Sociologists have divided social groups in several types. Few of them are
given as:-
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS
The concept of Primary and Secondary groups was given by Charles Horton Cooley
in his book 'Social Organisation'.
PRIMARY GROUP:- It refers to small group characterised by intimate ;face-to-face
association and cooperation. A Primary group consists of a small number of people
who interact in direct, intimate and personal ways. The relationship between the
members have emotional depth and the groups are relatively permanent in nature.
C. H. Cooley, calls the Primary groups as 'groups of friends' or 'The Nursery of
Human Nature'. A Family or a Peer group are the examples of a Primary group.

SECONDARY GROUP:- It refers to a formal, impersonal group in which there is


little social intimacy or mutual understanding.The Secondary groups are just the
opposite of Primary group. They are relatively large in size, mostly goal-oriented
and there exist indirect relationships among its members.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS


PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP

1:- Generally small in size. 1:-Usually large in size.


2:-There is intimate, direct and Face to face 2:-There is indirect interaction and little social
interaction and association among the intimacy or mutual understanding among the
members of a primary group. members of a Secondary group.

3:-These groups are relatively permanent and 3:-These groups are often temporary and there
there is long-period of interaction. is short-period of interaction.

4:-Relationships have emotional depth. 4:-Relationships are generally superficial.

5:-These groups are more personal, 5:-These groups are more formal and
cooperative and friendly. Impersonal.

REFERENCE GROUP
The term 'Reference group' was used by Muzaffer Sheriff in his book 'An
Outline of Social Psychology' and by Herbert Hyman in 'Archives of
Psychology'.

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Reference groups are the groups which are the referring points of an
individual towards which he is oriented and aspire to be like that. The groups
whose life-styles are emulated are known as Reference groups. We do not
belong to our reference groups but we do identify ourselves with that group.
e.g. ln the colonial period, many Indians aspired to behave like Englishmen. In
this sense, The Englishmen could be seen as a Reference group for the
aspiring section.

 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:-CONCEPT AND NATURE

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION


Social Stratification refers to the presence of social groups which are ranked one
above the other, usually in terms of the amount of power, prestige and wealth their
members possess. lt is a particular form of Social Inequality and involves a
hierarchy of social groups. This hierarchy then shapes people's identity and
experiences, their relations with others as well as their access to resources and
opportunities. Those who belong to a particular group will have some awareness of
the common interests, common identity and will share a similar life-style which will
distinguish it from the members of other social groups. Historically, four basic
systems of stratification have existed in human societies viz. Slavery, Estate, Caste
and Class.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION


1.. Gisbert........ “Social Stratification is the division of society into permanent groups
or categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and sub-
ordination.
2.. Ogburn and Nimkoff.... “The process by which individuals and
groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is
known as Social Stratification".

NATURE OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION


1:-It is Social:- Social Stratification is Social in the sense that it is a
characteristic of society, not simply a function of individual
differences. lt doesnot represent inequalities which are biologically
based.
2:-It is Ancient:- The system of social stratification is quite old. lt was
present even in the small wandering bands.
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3:-It is Universal:- Social stratification is a Universal phenomena.
Differences between 'rich' and 'poor' and the 'Haves' and 'Havenots'
is evident everywhere.
4:-It is of Diverse Forms:- Social stratification has never been uniform
in all societies .Slavery, Estate, Caste and Class seem to be the
general forms of social stratification found all over the world.
5:-It is Consequential:- The social stratification system has its own
consequences .The most important, most desired and often the
scarcest things in human life are distributed unequally because of
stratification.

‘CASTE’….As a system of Stratification


The word 'Caste' has been derived from the Portuguese (or Spanish)
word 'casta' meaning 'breed' or 'lineage'. The word 'caste’ also
signifies 'race' or 'kind'. Caste may be defined as an endogamous
group or collection of such groups bearing a common name, having
the same traditional occupation, claiming descent from the same
source and commonly regarded as forming a single homogeneous
community. The Caste System as a form of social stratification is
associated with Hinduism and is peculiar to Indian subcontinent,
though traces of Caste were also found in Ancient Egypt, Japan,
Rome, Burma etc. The Caste Stratification of the Indian society has
had its origin in the "CHATURVARNA" system. According to this
doctrine, the Hindu society was divided into four Varnas namely —
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. This doctrine excludes
a significant portion of the population composed of the
'Untouchables' sometimes referred to as 'Outcastes' or 'The
Panchamas'—i'e The Fifth Category. The underlying belief was that
those who are most pure, The Brahman priestly castes are Superior
to all others and 'The Panchamas' or 'Outcastes' are Inferior. The
present Caste System can be said to be the degenerated form of the
original Varna system. In Traditional India, different castes formed
a hierarchy of social precedence. Each position in the caste system
was defined in terms of its Purity or Pollution relative to others. In the
caste system, the intimate contact with members of the Lower castes
is strongly prohibited in order to maintain the purity. Such purity is of
a caste is often also maintained by the rules of Endogamy—marriage
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within one's own caste. Castes as hereditary ranks are associated
with hereditary Occupation that are usually religiously dictated and
tend to be fixed and immobile. In it individual's position totally
depends on the status ascribed to him by birth.

CLASS….As a system of Stratification

'Social Class' is the type of Social Stratification found especially in the modern
civilised countries. In contrary to the Caste System which is unique to India, the
Class System is Universal in nature.
A 'Social Class' may be defined as a large-scale grouping of people
who share similar economic resources, which strongly influence the
amount and quality of goods and services available for them.
Classes are hierarchically ranked i.e ranked as Higher and Lower
relative to one another, primarily in terms of wealth and income.
Although sociologists have classified classes into several types,the
age- old classification of Upper, Middle and Lower classes still holds
good.
The individuals and families that are situated in the same class are
relatively similar in economic condition, education, power, living
style etc. Status in the case of Class System is achieved and not
ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of an
individual mostly decide his status. Hence, Class-System provides
scope for changing or improving one's status. The Class System
never imposes restriction on marriage and the members are free
to select his or her life partner from any of the Classes.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘CASTE’ and ‘CLASS’

CASTE CLASS
1. Particular: The caste 1. Universal: The Class system
system with all its is Universal in nature and is
peculiarities is Unique to found in almost all the modern
India. complex societies.
2. Ascribed status: Status 2. Achieved status: Status is
is ascribed to the individual achieved by individual through
by birth. hard work.
3. Closed system: It 3. Open system: It provides for
restricts social mobility. social mobility.
4. Divine origin: It is 4. Secular: It has nothing to do
closely associated with with religion.
Hindu religion.
5.Endogamous group: 5. Not Endogamous: The class
Inter-caste marriages are system never imposes
not allowed. restrictions on marriage.
6. Conservative: The 6.Progressive: The class laden
caste ridden system tends society is regarded as more
to become conservative. progressive
7. Complexity : The Caste 7. Simplicity: The Class system
system is a complex is known for its simplicity.
system.

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 SOCIAL CONTOL:-CONCEPT AND NATURE

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CONTROL


Social Control refers to the control of society over the individuals. lt is the
process of enforcing Conformity. lt includes the mechanism by which a
society makes sure that its members conform to its norms and standards.
E.A. Ross was the first sociologist to use the term 'Social Control' in 1901
in his book 'Social Control'. He defined Social Control as the system of
devices whereby society brings its members into conformity with the
accepted standards of behaviour.
Society makes use of Sanctions for enforcing conformity. 'Sanctions'
refer to 'the rewards or punishments handed out to encourage conformity
or to establish Social Control' (i.e to enforce the norms in a
society).Sanctions may be Positive or Negative.
POSITIVE SANCTIONS:-These are rewards and include praise, flattery,
pat on the back, awards, prizes, titles and others. They vary from a smile
to the Noble Prize.
NEGATIVE SANCTIONS:- Those sanctions which inflict pain or threaten
to do so are negative. They are in the form of punishments which includes
gossip, ostracism(social boycott), raised eyebrow, fine, prison term or
even death sentence.

CONFORMITY:- Behaviour which is in accordance or in line with the


norms of a society.
DEVIANCE:- It may be defined as a behaviour that is in violation to the
norms of a society.

NATURE OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Social Control consists of the following aspects:-


1.Social Control denotes some kind of influence.
2. The influence is essentially exerted by the society or community.
3. The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of all the individuals or of the
group as a whole.
4.Social Control is as old as human society. The influence of the society has been
there since times immemorial.

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5.The social control is Universal in nature. Where there is society, there is social
control.

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TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL


Social Control can be classified into two major types on the basis of means
of social control that are employed—Formal Social Control and Informal
Social Control.
1. Formal Social Control:- It refers to formal officially established,
codified, systematic and deliberately created means of enforcing
conformity e.g. Social Control by State, law, police, courts, administrative
devices etc. lt is found in Modern Complex societies.
2. Informal Social Control:- Social Control that is carried out casually by
ordinary people and is not purposefully created. lt is personal, unofficial
and uncodified. e.g. Social Control by family, religion and kinship through
such means as smiles, frowns, gossip, criticisms, redicule etc. lt is
effective in small and intimate groups (primary groups).

AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL


The various agencies of Social Control can be understood under two
headings:-
INFORMAL AGENCIES( Family, Neighbourhood, Religion, Public
Opinion)
FORMAL AGENCIES( State, Educational Institutions, Economic
Organisation)

INFORMAL AGENCIES
1.Family:- Family is a very important agency of Social Control. lt
socialises an individual about social behaviour and prescribes rules
and regulations that the members have to follow.
2.Neighbourhood:- It like the family exercises direct control over
the behaviour of the individuals through suggestions, praises,
blame, criticism etc.
3.Religion:- It serves as an important agency of social control as it
supports the folkways and prepares individuals for smooth living in
its own way.
4.Public Opinion:- Public Opinion greatly influence our actions
because for the fear of public ridicule and criticism, people always

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hesitate for doing any anti-social activity and hence is an important


agency of social control.
FORMAL AGENCIES

1. State:- It is the society's formal regulative system and exercises


control over its members through Laws, The Police, The Courts and The
Prison.
2 .Educational Institutions:- These prepare children for social living and
are committed to the moulding of citizens through communication of ideas
and values.
3 .Economic Organisations:- With the rise of industrial society,
economic organisations has risen to the forefront as an agency of social
control. The fear of losing a job compels an individual to follow the rules
and regulations of the industry.

 STATUS:- CONCEPT, NATURE AND TYPES

CONCEPT OF STATUS
Status and Role have become the key concepts of sociology since the
influential writing of Ralph Linton, “The Study Of Man" in 1936. Status
is a recognised social position that an individual occupies in society or in
a group. lt refers to the social position with defined rights ,duties and
obligations assigned to these positions .e.g. Mother occupies a status
which has many norms of conduct as well as certain obligations and
responsibilities.

DEFINITIONS
1.Ralph Linton …. 'Status is the place in a particular system, which a
certain individual occupies at a particular time'.
2. Morris Ginsberg.... 'A Status is a position in a social group or grouping,
a relation to other positions held by other individuals in the group or
grouping'.

NATURE OF STATUS

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Nature of Status can be delineated as :-


1.Every status involves certain rights and duties .The status people
occupy guides their behaviour in a social setting.
2. Status is a key component of social identity and every status has a
certain value attached to it.
3. Social statuses are governed by norms.
4. Statuses exercise an influence upon the careers of individuals.
5. One individual may have several statuses. The smaller and simpler the
society, the fewer the kinds of status an individual can have. In Modern
societies an individual may occupy large number of statuses.
6. Statuses differ with their degree of importance. Some statuses are more
important than others in deciding the position of an individual in society.
7. Statuses add to social order and social stability.

TYPES OF STATUS:-
Status may be of two types:
1. Ascribed 2. Achieved
1. Ascribed Status:- It is assigned to an individual involuntarily on the
basis of his birth or biological characteristics such as sex, age, race or
on the status of his/her parents .It is assigned to an individual by the
social system and is unchangeable .e.g. A person born in a royal family
becomes prince or princess. Caste system plays a significant role in
determining the status of an individual, which is an example of Ascribed
status .In traditional societies ,the statuses were mostly defined and
ascribed at birth.
2.Achieved Status:- It refers to a social position that a person occupies
voluntarily by personal ability, efforts, achievements, virtues and choices.
The most common basis for achieved status are educational
qualifications, income and professional expertise. Modern societies are
characterised by Achieved status.

Define ‘STATUS SET’:- In Modern societies, an individual


occupies multiple statuses which is sociologically termed as Status
Set. Thus, the totality of all the statuses which a person occupies
at a given time is known as Status Set.

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Define ‘MASTER STATUS’:- All the statuses of an individual are


not equally important. A social position or a key status that is
exceptionally powerful and capable of determining the overall
position of the individual in society is known as Master Status.

Define ‘STATUS SEQUENCE’:- It refers to the statuses which are


attained in succession or sequence at various stages of life.
Define ‘PRESTIGE’:- This refers to the kind of value attached to
the status or to the office.
Define ‘ESTEEM’:- The evaluation of an individual’s role behaviour
in status which he occupies is known as Esteem. e.g. School
principals have the same prestige but their differential role-
performance earns them different degrees of esteem.

 ROLE CONCEPT AND NATURE

CONCEPT OF ROLE
A role is the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. A role is what
people do in the status they occupy as every status has a set of
expectations associated with it. In other words, statuses are occupied, but
the roles are played.

DEFINITIONS

1.According to Robert Bierstadt ,'Role is the dynamic or the behavioural


aspect of status. A Role is what an individual does in the status he
occupies'.
2.Young and Mack... 'A Role is the function of a status'.
3. Ducan Mitchell... 'A Social Role is the expected behaviour associated
with a social position'

NATURE OF SOCIAL ROLE


1.Every member of society is bound to play social roles. lt means role-
playing is obligatory for all the members of a society.
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2.The number of roles that one plays depends on the number of statuses
that he assumes.
3.Social Roles are in accordance with the social values, ideals, patterns
and norms of a particular society. People perform their roles according
to social expectations.
4.Some social roles may be assumed voluntarily while the assumption of
certain roles is largely involuntary and are unchangeable.
5. All the social roles are not equally important. Some of the roles are more
important while the others are less important.
6. Every role has a limited area of operation and the role has to be confined
within that.

TYPES OF ROLE

Ascribed Role:- A role that is given to an individual automatically and


involuntarily with no efforts on one's own part. e.g. The moment a child is
born, he is given the role of son/daughter towards his/her parents.
Achieved Role:- A Role that is acquired voluntarily through hardwork ,
ambition and merit. e.g. The role of a teacher, doctor etc.
Key Roles:- The roles that are more important are called Key Roles.
General Roles:- The roles that are of general importance are called
General Roles

Define ‘Role Set’:- This term was introduced by R.K.Merton .He defines
role-set as complement of role relationships which persons have by virtue
of occupying a particular social status. (OR) The
complex of roles that accrues to a single status is called as a role-set.
(OR) Cluster
of roles associated with a single status is known as role-set.

Define ‘Multiple Roles’:- It refers to the complex of roles associated not


with the single social status but with various statuses occupied by an
individual.

Define ‘Role Conflict’:- It can be defined as the incompatibility among


various roles corresponding to two or more statuses. lt occurs when
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contrary expectations arises from two or more roles. (OR) Performance


of one's role corresponding to one status may be in conflict with another
role corresponding to another status. This situation is called as Role-
Conflict.
Define ‘Role Strain’:- It refers to an incompatibility between two or more
roles associated with a single status. When conflicting demands are
made into a role corresponding to a single status,the person performing
the role undergoes Role-Strain.
Define ‘Role Stereotyping’:- It is a process of reinforcing some specific
roles for some members of a society .e.g. Men and women are often
socialised in stereotypical roles as breadearner and homemaker
respectively.

UNIT3:- SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS


 CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Social Institutions is the system of rules and regulations, norms,


positions and activities that developed around a basic social need.
It refers to the organised way of doing things and represents
common procedure that define behaviour in social relationships and
consists of laws, rules and regulations .Social Institutions exist to
satisfy social needs.

DEFINITIONS
1.According to Maclver and Page, “Institutions may be defined as
established norms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group
activities."
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2.According to Ginsberg, “Institution may be described as organised and


established usage governing the relations between individuals and
society."

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION


Some of the basic characteristics of Social Institution are as under:-
1. Social Institutions are Universal i'e. they exist in all societies at all
stages of development.
2. Institutions are means of controlling individuals. lt regulates the
conduct of people in society.
3. Institutions come into existence for satisfying the needs of man.
4. Institutions are abstract in nature. They are not external, visible
and tangible.
5. Institutions are relatively stable and permanent and they do not
undergo rapid and sudden changes.
6. Institutions are Social in nature i'e they come into existence due
to collective activities of the people.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

There are two types of Social Institutions:-

1.Primary Institutions:-These are the basic institutions which are found


even in Primitive societies i'e Family, Marriage etc.
2.Secondary Institutions:- These institutions evolve to cater the secondary
needs of people e.g. education, law etc.

 FAMILY:- STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS CONCEPT OF


FAMILY
Family is a small group consisting ordinarily of father, mother, one
or more children and sometimes near or distant relatives. lt is the
most important Primary group in a society .The word 'Family' has
been derived from Latin word 'Famulus' which means a 'servant'.
Thus, Family originally consists of a man and a woman with a child
or children and servants.
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DEFINITIONS OF FAMILY
1.According to Elloit and Meril, "Family is the biological social unit
composed of husband ,wife and children".

2.According to Thomson," Family is a group of two or more individuals


related by blood, marriage or adoption and residing together,all such
persons are regarded as members of one family".

CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAMILY

1.A Family come into existence when a man and a woman establish
mating relationship between them. The mating relationship is established
through the institution of marriage.
2. Every family is known or recognised by a distinctive name.
3.Family requires a home or a household to live in.
4.Family is Universal in nature. There is no human society in which some
form of the family donot exist.
5.The Family is grounded in emotions and sentiments .lt is built upon the
sentiments of love, affection sympathy cooperation and friendship.
6.The Family is the nucleus and a basic unit of society. lt is the first
institution which socialises a child.
7. The members of a family have certain duties, responsibilities and
obligations.
8.The Family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily
limited.
9.The Family as a social institution is permanent.

TYPES OR FORMS OF FAMILY


Though Family is a Universal institution, its structure and form vary from
one society to another. Classification of family on different grounds in
society is given as:-
♦ ON THE BASIS OF SIZE AND ORGANISATION
In terms of size and organisation, Family may be of two broad types —
The Nuclear Family and The Joint Family.

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Nuclear Family:- A Nuclear Family is one which consists of husband, wife


and their un-married children .It includes only the members of two
generations i'e parents and their unmarried children. lt is an autonomous
unit free from the control of elders.
Joint Family:- “It is a group of people who generally live under one roof,
who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and
who participate in common family worship and are related to each other
as some particular type of kindred"........... Iravati Karve
This family has more than one couple and often consists of more than two
generations living together.

 ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF RESIDENCE


On the basis of the nature of residence, Family can be classified into three
major types:-
Patrilocal Family:- It is the type of family in which a newly married couple
lives with or near the husband's /man's parents' family.
Matrilocal Family:- This is the type of family in which the newly married
couple lives/stays with or near the wife's/woman's family/parents.
Neolocal Family:- This is the type of family in which a newly married
couple resides/lives in an independent residence which is neither attached
to husband's family nor to wife's family.

 ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF AUTHORITY


On this basis family can be classified into two main types as:-
Patriarchal Family:- It is the form of family in which the father or
the eldest male member is the formal head and the source of
authority and dominance.
Matriarchal family:- It is the form of family in which the
woman/mother is the formal head and dominant power in the family.

 ON THE BASIS OF THE NATURE OF RELATIONS AMONG


THE FAMILY MEMBERS

On this basis family is of two types:-

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Conjugal Family:- It consists of adult members among whom there


exists sex relationship—husband and wife.
Consanguine Family:- It consists of members among whom there
exists what is known as 'blood relationship'— brother and sister,
father and son etc.

 ON THE BASIS OF DESCENT


On the basis of descent, Family may be divided into two types:-
Patrilineal Family:- In this type of family, inheritance of property
takes place along the male line of descent (property passes on
from father to son). The family in which descent is traced through
the father, is known as Patrilineal Family.
Matrilineal Family:- In this type of family, descent is traced
along the female line and inheritance of property also takes place
along the female line of descent(property passes on from mother
to daughter).

♦ ON THE BASIS OF MARRIAGE


On the basis of marriage, Family can be classified as:-
Monogamous Family:- A family which consists of one husband and
one wife. In this type of family, one man has one wife or one woman
has one husband at a given time.
Polygynous Family:- It is a type of family in which one man has more
than one wife at a given time and lives with them and their children
together.
Polyandrous Family:- It is the type of family in which one wife has
more than one husband at a given time and she lives with all of them
together or each of them in turn.

Define ‘Family of Orientation’:- The family in which a person takes


birth and is a child is called the Family of Orientation.

Define ‘Family of Procreation’:- The family in which a person is a


parent and he/she has children of his/her own.

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Define ‘Single-person Family’:- It is the type of family where only a


single person lives in a Family. lt can be a widowed person, a
separated person (with no child, married children living separately,
an unmarried person having parents dead or married siblings).
Define ‘Single-person Family’:- A man with his children or a woman
with her children can also constitute a family known as Single-parent
Family. It is created by divorce or death of a spouse.
Define ‘Blended Family or Step-family’:- Family made of two
parents and their children from previous marriages. It is created by
re-marriage and consists of step-parents or step-siblings or both.

STRUCTURE OF FAMILY

The Family is an organised group based on a network of


Relationships. These relationships provide basis for the definition
of the family and the assignment of rights and duties between the
family members. Following are the main elements of the structure
of family:-
1.Affinal Relationships :- The Family begins with the marriage of the
persons of Opposite sex. The Couple may never have Children yet
they constitute a family though a partial one. Sometimes children are
adopted by the couple. The adopted children also are the members
of family. The family may have only Affinal Relationship.

2.Consanguineous Relationship :- The members of the family are


related to one another through the process of Procreation. The
biological inter-connection is the Consanguineous relationship
(blood relationship) which is socially defined as Kinship. Thus, Family
is a Kinship Group.

FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
Family occupies central position in a society.The functions which family
performs for the survival and maintenance of society are as:-
I.Biological Functions:- The biological functions of the family includes

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the regulation and satisfaction of sexual desires, procreation of children


and their upbringing.
II.Economic Functions:- The family fulfils the economic needs of its
members. lt takes care of the primary needs of individuals such as food,
shelter, clothes and security.
III.Social Functions:- Social Functions of family are the socialisation of
the young, protection and transmission of culture, social control and
provides status and helps in social placement of individuals.
IV.Educational Functions:- The family provides basis for the child's
formal education .Family is the first school of children. A child learns
language, behaviour and manners from the parents.
V.Religious Functions:- Family is a centre for religious training of the
children. The children learn various religious teachings from their parents.
VI.Affectional Function:- Family is an institution which provides the
mental or the emotional satisfaction and security to its members. lt is the
family which provides the most intimate and the dearest relationship for all
its members .The individual first experiences affection in his parental
family as parents and siblings offer him love, sympathy and affection.
VII. Recreational Function:- The family provides recreation to its
members. The members of a family enjoy various occasions in the family
and derive pleasure.

 MARRIAGE :-CONCEPT AND TYPES

CONCEPT OF MARRIAGE
Marriage is one of the Universal social institution. It is established
by human society to control and regulate sexual instincts of man.
Marriage is socially acknowledged and approved sexual union
between a man and a woman and grants them socially approved
status as husband and wife. It is an approved way of establishing a
family of procreation.

DEFINITIONS

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1.Harry M.Johnson has defined marriage as 'a stable relationship in which


a man and a woman are socially permitted to have children without loss
of standing in the community'.
2.Malinowski.... 'Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance
of children'.
3.Robert H.Lowie... 'Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between
permissible mates'

CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE
1. Marriage is a Universal institution. lt is found in almost all
societies.
2. Marriage is a permanent, long-lasting and enduring bond
between two individuals of opposite sex and regulates sexual
relationship according to prescribed customs and laws.
3. Marriage requires social approval without which marriage is
not valid.
4. Marriage is always associated with some civil and religious
ceremony. This ceremony has its own rites, rituals, customs and
formalities etc.
5. Marriage creates mutual obligation between husband and wife
which they fulfil on the basis of customs and rules.
6. Marriage establishes family. Family helps in providing facilities for the
procreation and upbringing of children.

Define 'Incest'
Sexual involvement of two people who are closely related (blood -
relatives) to each other.
Define 'Incest Taboo’
It can be defined as a cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations
between closely -related persons .e.g. Marriage of father-daughter,
mother-son, brother-sister which is unknown all over the world.

TYPES OF MARRIAGE
The main types of marriage are discussed as :-
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1.Monogamy:- Monogamy refers to a marriage of one man with one


woman at a time. Under this system, a man can have only one wife and a
woman can have only one husband at a time. A man or a woman can re-
marry only after the death of a spouse or the dissolution of marriage.
2. Polygamy:- It is a type of marriage in which there is plurality of
partners. In this, either a woman has more than one husband or a man
has more than one wife at a time. It takes two different forms:-
A) POLYANDRY:- It is the marriage of one woman with several men at
a time. lt may be of two types:-

Fraternal Polyandry:- When several brothers share the same wife, the
practice is called as Adelphic or Fraternal Polyandry.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry:- The type of marriage in which a woman has
several husbands who donot have any close relationship prior to the
marriage and are not related as brothers.

B) POLYGYNY:- It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more


than one woman at a given time. lt is of two types:-
Sororal Polygyny:- It is the type of marriage in which the several wives of
a man are invariably the sisters.
Non-Sororal Polygyny:- It is the type of marriage in which the several
wives of a man are not related as sisters.

Define ‘Endogamy’:- It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners


are to be selected within the group. lt is marriage within the group and the
group may be caste, class, tribe, religion, village etc.

Define ‘Exogamy’:-It is a rule of marriage in which an individual


requires to marry outside his own group. It is the opposite of Endogamy.
Define ‘Hypergamy’(Anuloma):- It is a type of marriage in which a girl
from Lower Caste/Varna/Class marries with a boy from Upper
Caste/Varna /Class .It is also known as 'Marrying-Up' or 'Golddigging' or
'Higher-gamy'.

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Define ‘Hypogamy’(Patriloma):- It is a type of marriage in which a girl of


Upper Caste/Varna/Class marries with a boy of Lower Caste/Varna/Class.
It is known as 'Marrying-Down'.

 KINSHIP :-CONCEPT,TERMINOLOGIES,TYPES AND RULES

CONCEPT OF KINSHIP
Kinship refers to the relationship of an individual with other members
established through marriage,blood or adoption which binds them
together in a group.The persons involved in kinship are called 'Kins'.

DEFINITIONS
1.Robin Fox .. “Kinship is simply the relations between 'kins' that is
persons related by real , putative or fictive consanguinity".
2.A.R.Radcliffe Brown.... "All those relations which come as a result or
made because of family and marriage are the part of kinship".

TYPES OF KINSHIP
The kinship systems are of two types:-
Affinal Kinship:- Affinal Kinship is based on marital bond. The relatives
related through marriage ties are known as 'Affinal Kins' or 'Affines'.e.g.
husband and wife, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, parents-in-law are all
Affines.
Consanguineous Kinship:- The relationships based on blood or
common ancestry is known as Consanguineous Kinship and the relatives
as 'Consanguineous Kins'.e.g. The bond between parents and their
children, brother-sister, father's brother. etc.

Define 'KINS'
Persons related through blood or marriage are Kins.

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KINSHIP TERMS
Kinship Terms are used to designate and address a Kin. L. H. Morgan has
classified Kinship Terms into two broad categories:-
A) Classificatory System :- Under this system, the various Kins are
included in one category and all are referred to by the same term. e.g. The
term 'Uncle' is a Classificatory Term as it is used for both father's brother
and mother's brother, 'Grandfather' includes both father's father and
mother's father etc.

B) Descriptive System :- Under this system, one term refers to only one
relation. lt describes the exact relation of a person towards another .e.g.
'Father', 'mother' are descriptive terms.

KINSHIP RULES/KINSHIP USAGES

The rules which regulate the behaviour of different Kins are called
Kinship Rules or Kinship Usages. They assign guidelines for
interactions among persons in social groupings. Relationships of
Avoidance, Joking relationships and Teknonymy are some of the
usages which are almost universally practised.
1.Avoidance:- It implies that two kins should remain away, maintain
certain distance and avoid free interaction between themselves e.g.
There is avoidance relation between father-in-law and daughter-in-law.

2. Jokinq Relationship:- It is the reverse of Avoidance relationship.


Joking relationship permits intimate and frank interactions, allows to
tease and make fun of each other and it may also amount to exchange
of abuses and vulgar references e.g. relationship between a man and
his wife's sister and between a woman and her husband's younger
brother.
3.Teknonymy:- It was used for the first time by Edward Burnett
Tylor(E.B.Tylor). Teknonymy is the custom of addressing a person
neither by his/her name nor by the kinship term but is referred through
another kin e.g. In Traditional Hindu Families, wife did not directly utter
the name of her husband but referred to her husband as the father of
child.(Raja's father, baby's mother) etc.
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DEGREES OF KINSHIP
On the basis of nearness or distance, relatives are classified into
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Kins as the relationships may be very
close, not so close, distant, remote and so on.
Primary Kinship:-Primary Kinship relatives are those who belong to
the same nuclear family and are directly related to Ego. e.g. Ego's
father, Ego's mother, Ego's brother etc. There are eight primary kins in
a Nuclear Family.
Secondary Kinship:- Any Kin related to Ego through Primary kin
themselves being the Primary kins of Ego's Primary kins are Ego's
Secondary Kins. e.g. Father's father, Father's brother, Mother's brother
etc. An individual can have 33 Secondary Kins.
Tertiary Kins:- The Secondary Kins of Ego's primary kins or the
primary kins of Ego's secondary kins would be Ego's Tertiary Kins. e.g
Great Grandparents, father's brother's wife, father's brother's son, wife
of Ego's brother-in-law etc. An individual can have 151 Tertiary Kins.

Define ‘Distant Relatives’:- All other relatives who are more remote
than Tertiary relatives were termed by G. P. Murdock as Distant
Relatives.

Define ‘Agnates’:- When two persons are related to each


other by blood or adoption but wholly through male
(father).These are also known as Patrilineal kins.

Define ‘Uterines’:- When two persons are related to each


other by blood or adoption but wholly through female
(mother).These are also known as Matrilineal Kins.

Define ‘Cognates’:- All the people who are related by blood to


an individual in any way, either through father or mother are
known as Cognates.

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Define ‘Kindred’:- The totality of Patrilineal and Matrilineal Kins


recognised by a person is known as his Kindred.

Define ‘Siblings’:-Children of the same parents are Siblings. e.g.


brother and sister, brother and brother, sister and sister etc.

 RELIGION:-CONCEPT,ROLE AND FUNCTIONS

CONCEPT OF RELIGION
Religion is the set of beliefs, rituals, feelings, dogmas and practices that
define the relations between human beings and Sacred/divinity .It is a
system of beliefs in the existence of supernatural beings. Religion has
existed throughout the history of human society. It is a part of culture and
an important aspect of human social life.

DEFINITIONS
1.E.B.TYLOR..... He defined Religion 'as a belief in supernatural beings'.

2.Emile Durkheim....He defined Religion 'as a unified system of beliefs


and practices related to Sacred things that is, things set apart and
forbidden-—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community called as church, all those who adhere to them'.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION


The Universal existence of religion shows that religion has a great survival
value for humans. Religion has the following functions from individual and
social point of view:-
i. Religion provides peace of mind. It is the religion which consoles and
encourages an individual at every crisis. lt offers man inspiration, hope,
faith, optimism and courage.
ii. It promotes social solidarity, unity and identity. lt gives rise to the
spirit of brotherhood.

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iii. Religion is an important agent of social control and socialization.


lt is one of the Informal means of social control and prescribes
rules of conduct for people to follow.
iv. Religion promotes welfare. It teaches people to serve the masses
and to be sympathetic, merciful and cooperative.
v. Religion provides recreation through religious lectures, bhajans,
music, fairs and festivals .It tries to make men fearless and
sorrow less.
vi. Religion explains individual suffering and helps to integrate
person by acting as an emotional support.
vii. Religion enhances self-importance .An individual considers
himself as the noblest work of God and feels grand and elevated.
viii. It contributes to the order and stability of society.

 EDUCATION:-ROLE AND FUNCTIONS

CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Education is derived from the Latin word 'Educare' which literally
means to 'bring-up'. Education is an effort of the senior people to
transfer their knowledge to the younger members of society.
Education is a life-long process, involving both Formal and Informal
institutions of learning .It is an institution which plays a vital role in
integrating an individual with his society, in perpetuation of culture
and to develop in him those habits and attitudes with which he may
successfully face the future.

DEFINITIONS

1.Emile Durkheim—He defined Education as the influence exercised by


the adult generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life. He
conceives of education as 'the socialization of the younger generation'.

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2. W. G.Sumner—He defined Education as the attempt to


transmit to the child the mores of the group, so that he can learn 'what
conduct is approved and what disapproved, how he ought to behave in all
kinds of cases, what he ought to believe and reject'.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Education as a social institution has a great social importance. Some of


the significant functions of education are as:-

1.The main social objective of education is to complete the socialization


process. The schools and other institutions have come into being in place
of family in modern societies to complete the socialization process.
2 .Education acts as an integrative force in society by communicating
values that unite different sections of society.
3 .Education acts as an instrument of livelihood and helps in occupational
and social placement. lt prepares the student for future occupational
positions and enables youth to play a productive role in society.
4 .Education transmits cultural heritage (beliefs, art, skills, literature,
philosophy, music etc) from generation to generation and perpetuates
culture. ln all societies, Education has the function of cultural transmission.
5 .Education helps in the formation and moulding of social
personalities and reformation of attitudes wrongly developed by the
children already.
6 .Conferring of status is one of the most important functions of
education. The amount of education one has, is co-related with his
class position.
7.Education encourages the spirit of competition. Through various
activities a school imparts values such as cooperation, discipline,
obedience, team-spirit and fair-play etc.

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 POLITY:- STATE, SOVEREIGNTY, LEGISLATURE,


EXECUTIVE AND JUDICIARY

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS:-
Political Institutions are concerned with the distribution of power in society.
Martindale and Monachesi has defined Political Institutions as those
holding monopoly in the exercise of legitimate force. Political Institutions
have existed ever since the emergence of society.
POWER:- When a person exercises his influence/Will over the other
person or persons irrespective of the will of the latter(on which influence
is exerted),this influence is called as Power.
AUTHORITY:- It can be defined as an exercise of influence which is
voluntarily accepted as legitimate, right and just by the persons on whom
it is exercised. The authority is a legitimate power and is a socially
recognised influence.

STATE:-
State is the political institution having authority to rule. According to Max
Weber, State is the most fundamental institutions of a political system.
According to him, "The state is a human community which successfully
claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of power within a given territory".
The state can use force to implement its policies and has sovereignty. The
state consists of four essential elements:-
Population, A definite Territory, Sovereignty and a Government.
1.Population:- State is a community of persons. Without population there
can be no state .The people living in the state are the Citizens of the state.
They enjoy rights and freedoms as citizens as well as perform certain
duties towards the state.
2.Territory:- State is a territorial unit. The state exists within fixed and
clearly definite territorial boundaries which determines its area of influence
and authority. The modern states contrary to traditional states have clearly
defined territorial boundaries.
3.Sovereignty:-State alone possess sovereignty. Without sovereignty,
state cannot exist. Sovereignty is the authority which is supreme. lt means
the supreme power that the government possesses to wield control over

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people within the definite territory of the state. AII the people have to
submit to the sovereignty of the state.
4.Government:- The Government constitutes the mechanism by which
the state carries out its functions. The government consists of the
following three organs which perform political functions:-
a. The Legislature:- It is the elected body of representatives who are
endowed with authority to make laws in order to regulate society within
the jurisdiction of constitutional provisions.
b. The Executive:- It is the body which executes the laws passed by the
legislature. It includes the Executive Head, Council of ministers,
Secretaries and other civil servants which are vested with the
administration of public affairs.
c. The Judiciary:- It looks after the impartial administration of justice .It has
the function of defining and interpreting laws .It also resolves disputes
according to the laws of the land, punish criminals and protect the innocent
from injury and usurpation.

 ECONOMY:- CONCEPT AND NATURE

CONCEPT AND NATURE OF ‘ECONOMY’


Economy refers to the system of production and distribution .Social
institutions concerned with the production, distribution and management
of human resources are referred to as Economic institutions.
Kingsley Davis defines Economic Institutions as “those basic ideas, norms
and statuses which govern the allocation of scarce goods in any society,
whether society is primitive or civilised”. The economic institutions which
constitute the Economic system of society are the wages, the system of
exchange, the division of labour, the property and the contract etc.

NATURE
The Economic Institution has its own rules and regulations regarding
production, distribution or exchange. These rules are not same
everywhere. The economy of a society have its birth, progress and decay.
With time, the economy of a society also undergoes various changes.
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Consequently, the basic features of economy do not always remain the


same.

JAJMANI SYSTEM
The ‘Jajmani System’ represents one of the types of exchange that
prevailed in India for a long time. The term ‘Jajmani’ has been derived
from Sanskrit word ‘Yajman’, which means a person who performs ‘Yajna’
or fire sacrifice to appease the gods. William H. Wiser was the first one to
introduce the word ‘Jajmani System’ in his study of a village in Uttar
Pradesh in which he clearly describes how different castes interact with
each other for the agricultural and economic process. According to
Jajmani system, there is exchange of goods and services between
Landowning Higher Castes and Landless service castes. The Service
castes usually include weavers, leather workers, blacksmiths, barbers,
washer men etc. The Landowning castes used to receive services from
these occupational service castes. The Servicing castes are called
‘Kamins’ or ‘Praja’,while the castes which are served are called as
‘Jajmans’.For services rendered the servicing castes were paid in cash or
in kind ( food grains, fodder, clothes etc.) which provided economic
security to them. Jajmani system was considered as the backbone of the
rural economy and social order.

THE CAPITALIST ECONOMY


The Capitalist Economy is a free economy. It operates according to the
market forces without any governmental intervention (Laissez-
Faire).There is private ownership of the enterprises. The production is
controlled by the individual owners of capital employed in the enterprise.
It is also called the market economy because it is the buyers and sellers
who determine what goods and services in what quantity and at what
prices (demand and supply) should be bought and sold in the market. In
the capitalist economy, there is freedom to the people to carry out any
economic enterprise and the motive behind this is only the appropriation
of private property and profit. Under this system, there will be inequalities
of wealth and income in society. USA and the countries of the Western
Europe are among the capitalist economies.

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THE SOCIALIST ECONOMY


The socialist economy refers to the establishment of public ownership of
means of production. In this economic system, the capital is in the
ownership of the state. The state controls the production and distribution
of goods and services. It advocates production for use rather than for
profit. There is an equitable distribution of income and equal opportunities
are provided to all. It is a centrally planned economy and aims to establish
a classless society. Russia and China are among the socialist economies.

UNIT 4:-CULTURE AND SOCIETY


 CULTURE:CONCEPT AND DIMENSIONS

CONCEPT OF CULTURE
The word culture has been derived from the Latin word ‘colere’ which
means to cultivate, to till the soil. In medieval times, The term came to
refer to the progressive refinement of crops - hence the term agriculture
was associated with the art of farming. But in the 18th and 19th century,
the term referred to the refinement of people as well. A new born human
baby is helpless. In order to survive, it must learn the skills, knowledge
and accepted ways of behaviour in the society into which it's born. It must
learn a way of life, in sociological terminology, he must learn the culture of
its society.
Sociologists define culture in different ways.
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Edward B Taylor: in 1871 defined culture as ''culture is a complex whole


which includes knowledge, beliefs, art ,morals , laws and customs and
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society.
Ralph Linton states that “the culture of a society is the way of life of its
members, the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and
transmit from generation to generation”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1) Culture is learned. It is an acquired behaviour shared by all the
members of a society
2) It is an accumulated knowledge which is transmitted from generation to
generation with modifications and additions.
3) It is not the individual asset or heritage of a man .it is a product of society
and develops through social interaction.
4) Culture varies from society to society. Every society has a culture of its
own which is unique to itself.
5) It provides proper opportunities and prescribes means for the
satisfaction of the man's biological and socio-cultural needs.
6) Culture is dynamic not static. It's continuously changing. It's subject to
slow but constant changes

DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
Robert Bierstedt, In his book 'The social order' 1970 has classified the
contents of culture into three large components of culture: Ideas , Norms
and Material. The components of culture may also be classified into three
demensions:-
The cognitive Dimension: ‘Ideas’ refer to the cognitive dimension of
culture which consists of myths, superstitions, beliefs, knowledge,
scientific facts , art, religion etc. This reflects ways of thinking and
understanding how people make sense of all the information coming to
them. In literate societies, ideas are recorded, written down and stored in
books and documents. In non-literate societies they constitute the folklore
and the legends committed to memory and transmitted orally.
The Normative Dimension: It is the second large dimension of culture. It
includes rules, guidelines, expectations and standardised procedures that
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guide the individuals behaviour in different contexts. In short, it includes


the ways of behaving in almost all the situations that we confront and in
which people participate. Norms can be classified as Folkways, mores,
customs and laws etc. which guide individual conduct. Values are also
usually considered from the standpoint of how the group acts , feels or
thinks .Hence, norms ( Folkways , mores Customs , laws ) and values are
included in this dimension. It refers not to the ways of thinking but to the
ways of doing.
The Material dimension: It refers to what we possess or what we have
as members of society. It includes the material items that the members of
a society have and use and also to science technology and instruments of
production, transport and communication .Material culture is often
counter-posed with Non-material culture under which the Cognitive and
Normative dimensions of culture are classified, which are intangible
products of human creation. Tangible or concrete products of human
creation is labelled as Material culture.

 NORMS
Norms are established and shared standards of desirable social behaviour
which individuals in a group are expected to follow while interacting with
others. They indicate how people have to behave in a particular situation
by providing various rules and guidelines.
Norms vary from society to society, from group to group and from situation
to situation. Some norms are applicable to all the members of the society
while other norms are applicable to certain categories of people. Some
norms are more important to the members as compared to some other
norms. Norms are Perspective as well as Prospective which means that
norms prescribe or require us to behave in a certain way but at the same
time prohibit people from doing certain activities. Norms also govern
individual’s emotions and perceptions. Members of all the societies
inculcate norms through the process of socialization and follow them
automatically without questioning.

 VALUES

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Values are shared agreements among members of a society as to what is


desirable or undesirable in social life .These are the generalized standards
by which people define what's good or what's bad, proper or improper,
beautiful or ugly. Values guide our choices and our behaviour and are key
to the understanding of how people conduct themselves in a given society.
Values are an important part of any culture and may vary from society to
society.

 FOLKWAYS
The term Folkway was coined by the American sociologist William Graham
Sumner in his book "Folkways" published in 1906. The word Folkways
literally means the ways of the folk i.e simply the customary, normal and
habitual ways a group does things. New generations absorb Folkways
partly by deliberate teaching but mainly by observing and taking part in
social life. They are looked on by members of society as not being
extremely important and their violation may result in a raised eyebrow or
a murmur of disapproval but to no punishment. Matters of etiquette are
the best examples of Folkways- vacating seat in a bus for an elderly
passenger, not leaving in the middle of discussion or a concert etc.

 CUSTOMS
Customs are the long established habits and socially accepted usages of
the people in which they do things together in personal contacts. It's
formed on the basis of habit, gaining the sanction and the influence and
therefore the social significance, which is peculiar to custom. Thus,
customs are social habits and through repetition become the basis of an
order to social behaviour. Customs emerge gradually without enactment,
without any constituted authority to declare it, to apply it or to safeguard it.
e.g. touching the feet of elders, the Hindu women taking meals after
husband takes. Etc.

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 SOCIALIZATION
Socialization can be defined as the process whereby the helpless infant
gradually becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person,skilled in the
ways of culture into which she/ he is born . Socialization is often referred
to as the ‘transmission of culture’, the process whereby a man learns the
contents of his culture and the rules and practices of the group to which
he/she belongs. It transforms human animal into a human being, converts
the biological being into a social being.
Socialization is a life- long process but the most important aspect of this
process starts during infancy. By the time individual becomes adult, the
major part of socialization is completed. Regardless of where we live ,we
are all products of socialization. This is the only way an individual can
become a full-member of society. It's the only way we can transmit
heritage from one generation to another.

AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Individuals learn the culture of their society through participation in a variety of groups
and institutions. The primary agencies of socialization are as::
1) THE FAMILY: Family is the most important agency of socialization. it's the source
of first set of values, beliefs and attitudes. A child learns the first words of his language,
religion and several role definitions from his family.
2) Peer Groups: Participation in peer groups gives the child an important social
identity such as team player, leader, resourceful person etc. Children also learn the
rules of games, their first exposure of impersonal rules which are not of their parents’
creation.
3) The School: School is the first formal agency which exposes the child to the rules
of broader society. The child learns to recognise and obey rules, practice skills and
relate to people in positions of authority. He learns to behave in a group settings, sit
quietly and listen to teachers, participate in social events and accept responsibilities.
4) Mass Media :- In contemporary society , mass media plays a significant
role in the socialization process. Through this there is now an instant
transmission of knowledge, events, images and styles and fashions from
around the world which influence the attitude and behaviour patterns of
people.

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5) Workplace: People learn office norms , unwritten rules of behaviour


and other occupational roles at the work place by observing people whom
we meet while they are performing their duties. The friends at workplace
can help individual tide over many life crisis.
6) The State : State is recognised as an important agency of
socialization because of its growing impact on the life- cycle of a person.
The State has become a provider of child care which gives it a new and
direct role in the socialization of infants and young children.

 Pluralistic and cultural Ethos: with


special reference to J&K.
Plural societies are those societies which are characterized by
conditions of cultural diversity which is maintained in terms of
religion, territory, race, ethnicity, language, caste or tribe etc.
In India, there are diverse cultural groups in each region. These
cultural groups are characterized by different features. There is
diversity on the basis of religion, language, race, dresses, living
patterns, castes , tribes ,ideologies etc. India's pluralism and
unity in diversity has received due acknowledgement worldwide.
The former state of J&K has diversity and plurality as that of the
entire country.

Plurality in J&K:
J&K is culturally and ethnically plural as it possess diversity of
cultures within the same political entity. There is plurality of
groups in terms of religion, region, language, caste and tribe etc.
making J&K incomparably the most plural UT of India. The
plurality of j&k can be understood under the following headings.
Regional plurality: The Erstwhile State of j&k comprises of
three natural regions Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh further
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divided into 22 districts . These regions have their distinct


cultures and unique lifestyles.
Religious Plurality: J&K is characterized by a distinct religious
Plurality. Followers of almost all the important religions viz. Islam,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism and Christianity live
there. The Muslims constitute 66.97%, Hindus 29.63%, Sikhs
2.04%, Buddhists 1.12%, and Christians 0.20% of total
population of former state .
Linguistic Plurality: The constitution of the former state
recognises eight regional languages while the Census lists over
a hundred tongues spoken by the people. The numerically
biggest languages include Kashmiri, Hindi, Dogri, Gojri, Ladakhi,
Pahari, Balti and Urdu . ‘Kashmiri’ has maximum speakers in
Kashmir division, ‘Dogri’ in Jammu and Ladakhi and Balti in
Ladakh.
Caste Plurality: Various caste groups are found in j&k like
Brahmans, Rajputs , Thakkur , Khatri, Pandit , Sayyed , Sheikh,
Pathan , Rather, Mir, Bhat, Dar, Wani etc . SC's constitute about
7.59% of the total population of the former state .
Tribal plurality: ST's constitute about 10.9% of the total
population of the former state. The main tribal groups found in
the former state are gujjar, Bot , Bakerwal, Gaddi, Purigpa, Balte
, Sippi, Mon, Garra, and Beda etc.

From the above discussion, it is clear that the former state of J&K
is an interesting mosaic. It is a plural society wherein there is
space for people from diverse cultures. Thus, Plurality is a living
reality of J&K.

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Define Pluralism?
Pluralism is defined as the existence of tolerance of various
groups within a society or state whether, cultural, ethnic, political
or religious etc.

UNIT 5 - DOING SOCIOLOGY


CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Research is an attempt to know new things, facts, information
etc. in a scientific manner. It is a systematic, careful and detailed
investigation of a phenomenon with an objective of advancing
knowledge. Its main purpose is to diffuse knowledge and
establish theories on the basis of believable facts.
Theodorson and Theodorson --"Research is building of a body
of scientific knowledge through observation, experimentation,
generalization and verification. It is a systematic and objective
attempt to study a problem for the purpose of deriving general
principles."

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Empirical :-The research should be conducted using


proper scientific methods and procedures.
2. Reliable:- The research must produce replicable data each
time it is tested.
3. Validity :-It must be possible to define the instruments and
validate their credibility on how accurate are the conclusions,
prepositions and assumptions.

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4. Credibility:-The sources chosen for the research should


be authentic.
5. Verifiable Evidence:- i.e. factual observation which other
observers can see and check.
6. Accuracy:-i.e. describing what really exist.
7. Precision :- i.e. making it as exact as necessary or giving
exact number or measurements.
8. Systematic :- The research must be conducted in an
organised, methodical and systematic manner.
9. Objectivity:- The research should be free from all biases
and vested interests.
10. Recording:- i.e, jotting down complete details as
quickly as possible.
11. Controlling Conditions :- i.e, controlling all variables
except one and then attempting to examine what happens
when that variable is varied.
12. Training Investigators :- i.e ,imparting necessary
knowledge to investigators to make them understand what to
look for,how to interpret it and avoid inaccurate data
collection.

CONCEPT OF SOCIAL RESEARCH


Researches are taking place not only in physical sciences but
also in the realm of social sciences. Research has become a
significant part of sociology. The two sides of Sociological
Enterprise --Theory and Research-- depend on one another and
each hinges on the other. A Theory inspires research that can be
used to verify or disprove it, and the findings of research are used
to confirm, reject or modify the theory, or even to provide the
basis of new theories.

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DEFINITIONS
1. According to Wallace and Wallace---"Sociological
Research refers to the structural observation of social
behaviour".
2. According to P. V. Young ---"Social Research is a
systematic method of exploring ,analysing and conceptualising
social life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge whether
that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the
practice of an art".

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH


The importance of social research can be stated as:-
1. Social research is essential to diffuse knowledge about
society, individual behaviour, social action ,social life etc. and to
expand its horizon.
2. Social research helps us to verify or disprove, confirm or
reject, modify and re-assert the existing theories and to establish
new ones.
3. Social research provides practical clues to undertake
measures that leads to social improvement, social change and
social progress.
4. Social research helps us to know the nature and the
magnitude of social problems and can provide their solutions.
5. Social research can provide all the required data and facts
to the administrators to adopt and undertake appropriate
policies, plans and programmes.
6. Social research has educational importance too and the
information obtained through it may have educational value.

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RESEARCH PROCESS / STEPS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Research process includes the various steps taken to conduct a


research. The general overview of the various steps involved in
a Social research is as:-
1.Selection of the Topic :- It is the first step in the research
process i.e. stating what is worth studying through the methods
of science.
2. Review of Literature:- so that the errors of other research
scholars may not be repeated.
3. Formulation of Hypothesis :- Based on his experiences, the
researcher may assume possible results and relationships
between certain sets of variables.He formally states his
expectations in the form of a series of Hypothesis.
4.Selection of Research design:- It means outlining the process
as to what, how and where the data is to be collected, processed
and analysed. It is the blue print of a research and depends
largely on whether the research is Qualitative or Quantitative.
5.Collection of data:- It is the actual collection of facts and
information in accordance with the research design. It is
obviously a tedious task but something that must be done
consciously.
6. Analysis of data:- i.e. classify, tabulate and compare the
data, making whatever tests are necessary to get the results.
7. Drawing Conclusions :- It means examining the data to see
whether the original hypothesis is confirmed or rejected, found
true or false ,or are the results inclusive? What has the research
added to our knowledge? What implications has it for
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sociological theory? What new questions have been posed for


further research?
8.Report Writing (Sharing Results):- After drawing conclusions,
the researcher begins to prepare a detailed report of the entire
research process. The report must not only deal with a summary
of the findings but also the various steps involved in the research
process including a statement of methods and tools used ,so that
the other researchers can replicate the study.
9.Replicate the Study:- Though the above mentioned steps
complete a single research study but the research findings are
confirmed by replication.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design means drawing an outline or planning or
arranging details. It is a process of making decisions before the
situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out.
Research design is planning a strategy of conducting research.
It plans as to :-What is to be observed, How it is to be observed,
When/Where it is to be observed, Why it is to be observed, How
to record observations and How to generalize. Research design
is thus a detailed plan of how the goals of research will be
achieved.

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN


i. It provides Blue Print. As before building a
house, we get a blue print of the house. Similarly,
Research design is the blue print of the project of
research we want to undertake.

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ii. It limits the boundaries of the research activity.


iii. It makes Investigator to know the main problem
of the research.

RESEARCH METHODS
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques
used in the collection of data or evidences for analysis in order
to find out new information or create better understanding of a
topic. The methods of conducting research are broadly classified
as Qualitative and Quantitative.
i. QUALITATIVE METHOD:-Qualitative method deals with
more abstract and hard to measure phenomenon like
behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, emotions and so on. The
responses collected are essentially non-numeric and
philosophic in nature. This method helps a researcher
understand what participants think and why they think in
a particular way. It can be used to gather in-depth insight
into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Examples of Qualitative methods are Case study, One-
to-one Interview, Ethnographic studies etc .
ii. QUANTITATIVE METHOD:- Quantitative method deals
with countable numbers or measurable variables (
proportions, averages and the like). It relies on
mathematical or statistical tools and techniques of
measurement of data. It answers questions to justify
relationships with measurable variables to either explain,
predict or control a phenomenon. The result obtained by
the application of this method is more precise and certain.
Examples of Quantitative methods are Survey,
Questionnaires etc.
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OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY


The word 'objective' means unbiased, neutral or based on facts
alone. In order to be objective about something, we must ignore
our own feelings or attitudes about that thing. On the other hand,
'Subjective' means something that is based on individual values
and preferences. Every science is expected to be 'objective' to
produce unbiased knowledge based solely on facts. But this is
much harder to do in the social sciences than in the natural
sciences. Social scientists study the world in which they
themselves live--the social world of human relations. This
creates special problems for Objectivity in a social science like
sociology because sociologists are also members of society,
they will also have all the normal likes and dislikes that people
have.
In fact, the old notion of objectivity is widely considered to be
an outdated perspective. Social scientists no longer believe
that the traditional notion of an 'objective, disinterested' social
science is attainable; in fact such an ideal can be misleading.
This does not mean that there is no useful knowledge to be
obtained via sociology, or that Objectivity is a useless concept.
Objectivity has to be thought of as the goal of a continuous,
ongoing process rather than an already achieved end result.

TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION


1.SURVEY
Survey is the best known sociological method for all Quantitative
outcome research studies. As the word itself suggests, a 'survey'
is an attempt to provide an Overview. It is a comprehensive or
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wide-ranging perspective on some subject based on the


information obtained from a carefully chosen representative set
of people. Such people are usually referred to as 'Respondents'
--they respond to questions asked to them by the researchers.
Survey research is usually done by large teams consisting of
those who plan and design the study (The Researchers) and
their Associates and Assistants (the latter are called
'Investigators' or ' Research Assistants').
The survey questions may be asked and answered in
various forms. Often they are asked orally during personal visits
by the investigator and sometimes through telephone
conversations. Responses may also be sought in writing to
questionnaires brought by investigators or sent through the post. .
Finally, with the increasing presence of computers and
telecommunication technology,these days it is also possible for
surveys to be conducted electronically. In this format, the
respondent receives and responds to questions by email, the
internet, or similar electronic medium.
The Survey's main advantage as a social scientific method is that
it allows us to generalise results for a large population while
actually studying only a small portion of this population. Thus a
survey makes it possible to study large populations with a
manageable investment of time, effort and money. That is why it
is such a popular method in the social sciences and other fields.

2:- CASE STUDY


Case study is an intensive study of a Case which may be an
individual, an Institution, a system ,a community, an organisation
,an event ,or even the entire culture .Case study is an Ideal
method when a holistic, in-depth investigation is needed .This

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method is usually used in Qualitative research design. Case


studies are designed to bring out the details from the viewpoint
of the participants by using multiple sources of data. It is
therefore, an approach to explore and analyse the life of social
unit ---a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even
an entire community within its real –life context.
Its aim is to determine the factors that account for the
complex behaviour patterns of the unit and the relationships of
the unit to its surroundings. Case data may be gathered
exhaustively on the entire life cycle or on a definite section of the
cycle of a unit but always with a view to ascertain the natural
history of social unit and its relationship to the social factors and
forces involved in its environment. In other words, through case
study, researchers attempt to see the variety of factors within a
social unit as an integrated whole.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE STUDY


The various characteristic features of Case study are as :-

I. It studies whole unit in their totality and not some selected


aspects or variables of these units.
ii. It employees several methods in data collection to prevent
errors and distortions.
iii. It often studies a single unit , one unit is one study.
iv. It perceives respondent as knowledgeable person, not just
as a source of data.
v.It studies a typical case.

3 :- OBSERVATION
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Observation is a technique that employs sense of Vision as its


main means of data collection. It has occupied an important
place in descriptive sociological research. It is the most common
and most significant Qualitative technique of data collection
.Observation is the process in which the Researcher/Observer
observes what is occurring in some real life situation in its natural
setting and then they systematically record their observations,
analyse their findings and arrive at conclusions supported by
theories or other findings .It is the active acquisition of knowledge
from a primary source and is a planned, purposive, systematic
and deliberate effort to focus on the significant facts of a
situation.
DEFINITIONS
1. P.V.YOUNG --"Observation is the systematic and
deliberate study through eye,of spontaneous occurrences
at the time they occur". 2.
Wallace and Wallace--"In an Observational study the
researcher actually witnesses social behaviour in its natural
setting".

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION :- It is an observation


method in which the researcher becomes a member of the
target group while observing its group processes and
recording his findings. He freely interacts with the group
members, participates in various activities of the group and
also acquires the way of life of the Observed/Target Group.
It is also known as 'Field Study'. Sociologists have studied
Prisons, Tribal Groups and Religious Cults in this way.

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2. NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION:-Type of
observation in which the Researcher observes the Target
group from the outside/ at a distance ,without participating
in group activities and without becoming involved in it. e.g.
The observation of children at play in natural setting or
watching how the faithful perform religious /ritualistic
ceremonies.

4:- QUESTIONNAIRE
It is an important tool of data collection. It is a form
or set of forms consisting of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order. The answers to
them should be filled in personally by the
respondent on his own without being aided by the
researcher. It is administered to a respondent either
personally by the researcher or through mail.
Questionnaires are widely used data collecting tool,
particularly when data is to be collected from
educated, large and widely scattered groups of
people.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is mainly of two types:-

I. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:-Open-ended
questionnaire gives an opportunity to the respondents to
express their opinions in a free-flowing manner. These
questionnaires do not have pre-determined set of
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responses and the respondent is free to answer whatever


he/she feels right.

CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:- Questionnaires which


II.
have multiple options as answers to the questions and the
respondents are restricted to choose a single option amongst the
given answers are known as Closed-ended questionnaires. The
respondent cannot go beyond it to express his true opinion on a
particular issue.

DEFINE
1:- SELF-REFLEXIVITY/ REFLEXIVITY:- It is a
technique in which a Researcher tries to take an
outsider's perspective on his own work and tries to
look at his research through the eyes of others. The
researcher constantly subjects her/his own attitudes
and opinions to self-examination. She/he tries to
consciously adopt the point of view of others,
especially those who are the subjects of his research.

2:-SAMPLING:-Sampling is the statistical process


of selecting a sub-set (or sample) of a population of
interest for the purposes of making observations
and statistical inferences about the entire
population.
We cannot study the entire population because of
feasibility, cost and time constraints. Hence, We
must select a Representative Sample from the
population of interest for observation and analysis.
It is extremely important to choose a sample that is
truly representative of the population so that the
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inferences derived from the sample can be


generalised back to the population of interest. A
sample will be 'representative' of the population only
if it has the same basic characteristics as that of the
population from which it is drawn.

3:-SAMPLE
A sample is a part of population having more or less the same
characteristics as that of the population, which is studied in order
to make inferences about the whole population.

4:- POPULATION
A population can be defined as all the people or items (units of
analysis) with the characteristics that the researcher wishes to
study and from which a sample is drawn.

5:- HYPOTHESIS
It is a pre-conceived, possible or tentative answer to a research
problem before doing the actual research,which can be proven
true or false by the end of the research. It is in the form of a
statement of relationship between two or more variables that
must be testable.

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UNIT: 6 CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT

 AUGUSTE COMTE: LAW OF THREE STAGES

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was a great French thinker, a famous


social philosopher and the first sociologist. It was he who laid the
foundations of sociology and is acclaimed as the "Father of Sociology".
Comte was born at Montpellier, France on 19th January,1798 a decade
after the French Revolution. He died in Paris, France on 5th September
1857 from stomach cancer.

IMPORTANT BOOKS:- 1.Positive Philosophy (1830-42)


2. System of Positive Polity (1851-54)
3. Religion of Humanity (1856)

LAW OF THREE STAGES:-

The law of three stages is the corner stone of Auguste Comte's approach.
Law of three stages are the three stages of mental and social
development. As per Auguste Comte, the evolution of human society
parallels the evolution of human mind. There has been an evolution of
human thinking, so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more
evolved than the preceding stage. In other words, the Individual mind,
Human activity and Society pass through successive stages of historical
evolution leading to some final stage of perfection. This law appeared in
the year 1822 in his book "Positive philosophy" .Comte proposed the law
of three stages governing social evolution as follows:-

First stage:-Theological or fictitious stage


Second stage:-Metaphysical or abstract stage
Third stage:- Positive or scientific stage

l. Theological stage:-This is the first stage and characterised the


world prior to 1300 A.D. In theological stage, all the natural

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phenomenon and social events were explained in terms of


supernatural forces and deities, which ultimately explained everything
as the product of God's will. It has three sub stages:-
a) FETISHISM:- This is the philosophy which believes that
supernatural power dwells in inanimate objects, and these objects are
believed to possess divine power. But too many fetishes created
confusion for people. Hence they started believing in several gods.
Thus, arose Polytheism.
b) POLYTHEISM:- Belief in many gods is called Polytheism. Human
being received diversity of natural phenomena and each phenomena
was kept under the disposal of one god. One God was believed to be
the incharge of one particular natural phenomena. People created the
class of priests to seek the goodwill and blessings of these gods. The
presence of too many gods also created mental contradictions.
Finally, they developed the idea of one God i'e. Monotheism.
c) MONOTHEISM: It means belief in one single God. He is all in all.
He controls everything in this world. Monotheism is the climax of the
theological stage of thinking. Slowly, feelings and imaginations started
giving place to thinking and rationality. This kind of thinking was suited
to the Military society.

II.METAPHYSICAL STAGE:- This stage started about 1300 A.D and


lasted roughly till 1800 A.D. The Metaphysical Stage is almost an
extension of theological thinking. Rationalism started growing instead
of imagination. Under metaphysical thinking it is believed that an
abstract power or force guides and determines the events in the world.
Thus, principles and theories gained ascendency over feelings and
speculations. This kind of thinking corresponded with the Legal type
of society.

III. Positive stage: The Positive stage represents the scientific way
of thinking. In 1800, the world entered the positivistic stage. In this
stage, all phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can
be investigated by observations and experimentations. Human mind
tries to establish cause and effect relationship. The positive thinking

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suits the needs of the Industrial society and is the ultimate stage in
a series of successive transformations.

 KARL MARX:-CLASS AND CLASS STRUGGLE

Karl Marx, the father of communism was born on 5th may, 1818 in
Germany. He received his early education at Trier. In collaboration with
Friedrich Engels, he wrote famous books "The Communist Manifesto",
"The Holy Family" and "The German ideology". He died in London on
march 14,1883. After his death his trusted friend Engels became the
spokesman for the Marxist thought.

IMPORTANT BOOKS:-
1. The Communist Manifesto(1848)
2. The German Ideology(1845-46)
3. Das Capital (1867)

Karl Marx’s concept of ‘CLASS’:- According to the Marx, "Class is the


manifestation of economic differentiation". 'Class' according to Marx, is
basically economic in nature, though it had great social importance. Marx
defined class "as all those people who share a common relationship to
means of economic production" .Those who own and control the means
of production, Slave owners, Feudal landowners or the owners of property
such as Factories are the Dominant class. Those who work for them;
Slaves, Peasants or Industrial labourers are the Sub-ordinate class. The
relationship between the two classes, is not only of only dominance and
subordination but also of exploitation.

CLASS STRUGGLE:- The theory of 'Class Struggle' is the central


theme of the writings of Karl Marx. The opening sentence of his famous
work The Communist Manifesto',1848 reads as 'history of all hitherto
existing societies is the history of class struggle'. He was of the view
that human society passed through different stages of development viz.
Primitive communist stage (Classless society), Ancient stage(Masters
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and Slaves), Feudal stage(Landlords and Serfs), Capitalist


stage(Capitalists and Workers). Each of these stages of development
is defined by the mode of production. The Oppressors have control over
the factors of production and the Oppressed are deprived of it. Another
Phrase 'Haves' and 'Havenots' is used to characterise these two
classes. Each stage of development contained the seeds of its own
destruction. The conflict whether it is between Master and Slaves,
Landlord and Serfs, Bourgeoisie and Proletariat characterised all the
stages of development. The contenders differed in each stage and the
class struggle takes place. Marx explained the process of Class
Struggle with the help of 'Dialectical materialism' and 'Theory of surplus
value'.
In the Capitalistic stage of development, The Bourgeoisie and The
Proletariat become polarised and the conflict takes place between
them. Bourgeoisie are those who own the means of production and
distribution and The Proletariat are those who do not own means of
production. They are the working class people who sell their labour.
It is the Capitalistic mode of production when Proletariat become
conscious of its class position. The Proletariats acquire the
revolutionary character by overthrowing these Oppressors i'e. The
Capitalist or Bourgeoisie. This may turn into a violent revolution
resulting in the destruction of the structure of Capitalist society.
Ultimately, a Classless society is likely to be created with the social
dictatorship of the Proletariat.

 EMILE DURKHEIM: SOCIAL FACT, SUICIDE

Emile Durkheim was born in 1858 in France. He worked as a professor of


sociology at University of Bordeaux. He died in 1917.

IMPORTANT BOOKS:- 1.The Division of Labour in Society (1893)


2. The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)
3. Suicide (1897)
4. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912)

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EMILE DURKHEIM’S CONCEPT OF ‘SOCIAL FACT’


The concept of 'Social Fact' assumes importance in Durkheimian
sociology. In fact, Durkheim have even defined Sociology 'as a
science of Social Facts' .Durkheim's view about Social facts are
extensively expressed in his book "THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL
METHOD" published in 1895.
As per Durkheim, "Social Facts are the collective ways of thinking,
acting and feeling that present the noteworthy property of existing
outside the individual consciousness and endowed with the power of
coercion by means of which they control him". Social customs, mores,
laws, institutions, rules of professional behaviour and even so-called
superstitions are social facts handed down by society from generation
to generation. The distinct characteristics of social facts are:-
i. They are general throughout society.
ii.They are external to individuals and exist independently of their will.
iii. Social Facts endure through time, outlasting individuals and
groups.
iv. They exercise external constraint over individuals.

Social facts according to Durkheim are Collective representations


into which the ideas of the society have been condensed e.g. our
common moral beliefs, religious doctrines, myths, popular legends,
proverbs, customs and traditions etc. The individuals have to
conform to these collectively established ways of thinking and
behaving. They are not created by any individual on his own.

THEORY OF ‘SUICIDE’:

Durkheim's book "SUICIDE" published in 1897 is one of his


monumental landmark. In this book, Durkheim takes the Suicide
Rate as an example of Social Fact and attempts to explain
scientifically the variations in it. Durkheim did not attempt to explain
the inner feelings of someone contemplating Suicide, nor even the
causes of individual suicides. Instead, he examined variations in the
Suicide Rates. What causes these variations? He argued that
different Social Conditions, different Causes produce different
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patterns of Suicide. In Modern societies, the most important cause


is the disconnection of people from social bonds------ resulting either
from isolation or from disorienting changes in society. Durkheim
conceptualised four types of Suicide depending on the level of
‘regulation’ and ‘integration’ of society viz.
1. Egoistic Suicide :- It results from the lack of the Integration
of the individual into his social group. Thus, the rate of Egoistic
suicide increases as a result of the weakening of the bonds of
solidarity in the family, religious and political organisations e.g.
Married people show far less suicides than Unmarried;
Catholics show far less suicides than Protestants because
Catholicism is able to integrate its members more fully into its
fold.
2. Altruistic suicide:-This type of suicide results from over
Integration of the individual into his social group. In such a
condition, suicides occur for the cause of society and are in the
nature of sacrifice for the society, e.g. women throwing
themselves at the funeral pyre of their husbands (Sati).
3. Anomic suicide:-Anomic suicide results from the state of
normlessness or degeneration found in society. It is found in
societies which experience sudden changes. This kind of
suicide occurs during Industrial or financial crises or sudden
gain in wealth because the society is temporarily incapable of
exercising influence and normlessness ensues resulting in an
increase in the rate of Anomic suicide.
4.Fatalistic suicide :- lt occurs because of an excessive degree
of regulation and an overly developed regime .As an example of
fatalistic suicide, Durkheim cited the suicide of slaves, who
seeing no alternative to enslavement under the master, take
their own lives.
Having analysed the above types of suicide, Durkheim
concludes that "Suicide is an Individual phenomena whose
causes are essentially Social".

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 MAX WEBER :- RELIGION

Max Weber was born on 21 April, 1864 in a Protestant


family in Germany. In 1893, Weber was appointed
Professor of Economics at the University of Freiberg. In
1918, he became the professor of sociology at Munich. He
died of Pneumonia on 14 July, 1920.

MAJOR WORKS:-

1. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905)


2. Methodology of the Social Sciences(1949)
3. The Religion of India (1958)
4. Economy and Society (1968)

WEBER'S THEORY OF RELIGION


Religion is a system of values, beliefs and practices which shape
actions and orientations of human beings. It is a social phenomenon
intimately connected with other social systems. Max Weber showed
deep interest in identifying the link between religious ideas and
Economic institutions. He studied world Religions including
Hinduism with a view to trace the role of religion in Economic
development. Max Weber's 'Theory of Religion' clearly indicates that
there is close relationship between the Religious beliefs of the
people and their Economic activities. Weber wrote in his work "The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"(1905) that the
development of modern Capitalism in the West is essentially due to
rise of Ascetic Protestantism (Calvinism).Weber argued that a
certain cluster of Values embedded in Ascetic Protestantism
promoted hardwork, earning money and reinvesting for profit, thrift,
attacked time- wasting, laziness, ideal gossip, and more sleep than
was necessary and several similar values which fostered Capitalism
in the West. Calvinism according to Weber, helped development of
entrepreneurs.it is because the Protestantism believes that real
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service to god is honestly working for material success. Weber


observed that movement to a capitalist society was primarily caused
by the habits, attitudes and beliefs of Protestantism, more
specifically of Calvinism.

UNIT:7 INDIAN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT

 G.S.GHURYE:- CASTE AND RACE IN INDIA:

Govind Sadashiv Ghurye was born on 12 december,1893 in a


Brahman family in the west coast of India. In 1924, he was
appointed as reader and Head of the department of Sociology
in the Bombay University. He is known as "Father of Indian
Sociology". He died at the age of 90, on 28 December 1984.

IMPORTANT WORKS:-
1. Caste and Race in India (1932)

2. Indian Sadhus (1953)

3. Family and Kinship in Indo-European Culture (1955)

4. Social Tensions in India (1968)

CASTE AND RACE IN INDIA

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G. S. Ghurye's work "Caste and Race in India"(1932) effectively combined


historical, anthropological and sociological approaches. He analysed the
Caste system through both textual evidence as well as structural, cultural
and empirical data. As for as the origin of "Caste" is concerned, he put
forth that it had come to India with the Aryans, therefore terming it a
product of race.
G.S.Ghurye explained caste system in India on the basis of six structural
features :-

1.SEGMENTAL DIVISION OF SOCIETY: The Caste system


divides the whole society into various closed, mutually exclusive
segments or sections. Each of these segments or castes is a well-
developed social group, the membership of which is fixed by birth.
So, change from one caste to another is not possible.
2.HIERARCHY: The caste system is characterised by hierarchical
order. The castes are arranged in hierarchy in terms of higher and
lower status in relation to each other. At the top of the hierarchy are
Brahmins and at the bottom are the Untouchables.
3. PRINCIPLES OF PURITY AND POLLUTION: In caste system
there are some restrictions on feeding and social intercourse. This
reflects the separation or distance between the castes.
4.CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS DISABILITIES AND PRIVILIGES OF
DIFFERENT CASTES: In caste system, there is an unequal
distribution of privileges and restrictions among its members. The
higher caste people enjoy all the privileges and the lower caste
people are put to all kinds of restrictions and disabilities.
5. LACK OF CHOICE OF OCCUPATION: Under the caste system,
each caste has its own hereditary occupation. Occupation is fixed at
the time of birth and the members are forced to follow the occupation
of that caste.
7. RESTRICTIONS ON MARRIAGE: In the caste system, the
principles of endogamy are strictly followed. The inter-marriage
between the castes was prohibited. According to Ghurye, endogamy
is the key factor behind the caste system.

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 D.P.MUKHERJEE:- TRADITION AND MODERNITY

Dhurjati Prasad Mukherjee was born in a middle class Bengali Brahmin


family on 5thOctober,1894. In 1924, he was appointed as lecturer in the
Department of Economics and Sociology at Lucknow University. He
was strongly influenced by Marxism. He died on 5 December, 1962 of
throat cancer.
IMPORTANT BOOKS:-
1. Personality and the Social Sciences (1924)

2. Basic Concepts in Sociology (1932)


3. Modern Indian Culture (1942)
4. Views and Counterviews (1946)
5. Diversities (1958)

D.P.MUKERJI’S VIEWS ON TRADITION AND CHANGE

D.P.Mukerji felt very strongly that the crucial distinctive feature of


India was its social system. Given the centrality of society in India, it
became the first duty of an Indian sociologist to study and to know the
social traditions of India. For D.P. this study of tradition was not
oriented only towards the past, but also included sensitivity to change.
Thus, tradition was a “living tradition”, maintaining its links with the
past, but also adapting to the present and thus evolving over time. He
wrote that it is not enough for the Indian sociologist to be a sociologist-
he must be an Indian first. He believed that sociologists should learn
and be familiar with both ‘high’ and ‘low’ languages and cultures-not
only Sanskrit, Persian or Arabic, but also local dialects.

THE MEANING OF TRADITION:- D.P.Mukherjee points out that


‘Tradition' comes from the root word 'tradere', which means 'to
transmit'. The Sanskrit equivalent of tradition is either 'parampara'
,that is, succession or 'Aitihya' which has the same root as 'itihasa'or
history. Traditions are supposed to have a Source. It may be
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Scriptures, or Statements of Sages, or mythical heroes with or without


names. The historicity of tradition is recognised by most people. They
are quoted, recalled and esteemed. Their age-long succession
ensures social cohesion and social solidarity.

THE DYNAMICS OF TRADITION: Traditions are strongly rooted in


the past that is kept alive through the repeated recalling and retelling
of stories and myths. However, this link with the past does not rule out
change, but indicates a process of adaptation to it. Internal and
External sources of change are always present in every society.
D.P.Mukherje believed that there were Three principles of change
recognised in Indian traditions: Shruti, Smriti, and Anubhava. It is
Anubhava or personal experience which is the revolutionary principle.
However, in the Indian context personal experience soon flowered
into collective experience. This meant that the most important
principle of change in Indian society was the generalised anubhava
or the collective experience of groups.

DIALECTICS OF TRADITION AND MODERNITY:


D.P. analysed Indian society from the Marxian perspective of dialectical
materialism. He argued that there is dialectical relation between Indian
tradition and Modernity. He believed that encounter between tradition and
modernity has ended up in two consequences- Conflict and Synthesis.
The forces of assimilation and conflict has led to the emergence of present
day Indian culture, a mosaic of Hindu, Islamic, Buddhist and Western
mode of living. It is a synthesis of all. D.P. criticised all instances of
unthinking borrowing from western intellectual traditions. Tradition was
neither to be worshipped nor ignored, just as modernity was needed but
not to be blindly adopted. He was of the opinion that Indians and Indian
tradition will never cease to exist as assimilation and adjustment is the
hallmark of Indian tradition. As he would often claim that, “traditionally,
therefore living in adjustment is in India’s blood”.

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 IMTIYAZ AHMAD:- ASHRAFIZATION AND AJLAFIZATION

Dr. Imtiyaz Ahmad was born on April 28, 1940. He did B.A from
Lucknow, M.A from University of Delhi and Higher programs from
university of Chicago in 1967-68.

IMPORTANT WORK:-
1. Caste and Social Stratification among Muslims in India (1978)

ASHRAFIZATION AND AJLAFIZATION


Though Islam follows the egalitarian principle, in reality however there are
social divisions among Muslims in India, which to a larger extent is the
influence of Hindu beliefs and practices
Dr Imtiyaz Ahmed explains that in the Muslim social organisation of South
Asia, three main hierarchical divisions emerge ( Ashrafs,Ajlafs and Arzals)
within which we find many social units that are interdependent more or
less endogamous, of varying size similar to Hindu castes and sub castes
‘Ashrafs’ are at the top of social hierarchy and included nobles who
immigrated from Persia, Afghanistan, Arab and Turkistan . They enjoy
higher social prestige and count themselves as ritualistically pure by
claiming themselves as direct descendants of Prophet ( Sayyids), or his
tribe (in case of Qureshi's), The Sheikhs ( descendants of the prophets
companions ), The Pathans ( descendants of migrants from Afghanistan)
and even Mughals ( originating in Central Asia and Iran ) can also be
included in this group. Many Ashrafs are either Ulamas in the case of the
Sayyids, or else landowners merchants or business people.
At the middle level ‘Ajlafs’ represent the masses whose status is defined
by both their profession (pesha) and their identity as descendants of
converts to Islam . Many castes of intermediate status fall in this category,
such as Farmers, Traders and weavers.
At the bottom of social hierarchy came the ‘Arzals’, a group comprising of
non-untouchables and converted ' Untouchables who, as in Hinduism,
practice supposedly impure jobs such as ( Chammars , sweepers ,
washermen) etc.

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The Ashrafs usually maintain a social distance from many a ' Ajlaf and
Arzal ' castes in terms of marriage, free mixing or in sharing of foods and
sometimes the places of worship. However the prevailing caste based
practices are not prominent as found among Hindus. However in view of
the affluence, power and prestige commanded by high caste muslims (
Ashrafs) many a lower castes ( Ajlafs and Arzals) find a tendency to
emulate the life style, behaviour patterns and manners of high castes
( Ashrafs) and this process is referred as Ashrafization. A mechanism of
status mobility where the high castes serve as reference model for
aspiring members of low castes.
Ashrafization is a term used by Dr Imtiyaz Ahmad like ‘Sanskritisation’ by
M.N Sriniwas ,to indicate the social mobility of an Ajlaf or Arzal in the
ladder of hierarchy. The process of Ashrafization saw individuals or whole
groups adopting new social and ritual practices, taking on names and titles
from higher castes, sometimes rewriting the groups history and giving
themselves a new community genealogy as a way of symbolically
improving their social status. There are many instances e.g when a lower
class Muslim in UP makes money , he puts his women in Pardah
( practice observed only by Ashrafs) , changes the occupation, caste ,
surname, manners and marriage relationships.
With the changes in socio- economic structure caused by industrialisation,
urbanisation, certain legislative measures introduced by government, a
number of high caste groups among the Muslims find it difficult to engage
in or continue with their traditional occupations. At the same time some
traditionally low caste groups have become economically and politically
dominant. In some instances, the sheer force of circumstances has led
the high caste groups to take the occupations of low caste groups ,
occupations they would disdain earlier in heyday of their power and
affluence. This process where the reverse occurs, instead of upward
mobility a downward mobility is experienced , is known as Ajlafization. It
indicates a tendency among high caste Muslims to adopt the customs and
cultural features of the traditionally low caste groups . This process is
somewhat similar to the concept of De-Sanskritisation proposed by D.N
Majumdar.

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 M.N.SRINIWAS:- SANSKRITIZATION

Mysore Narasimhachar Sriniwas was born on 16th November, 1916


in an lyenger Brahmin family in Mysore. His early education was at
Mysore University and he later went to Bombay to do M.A under
G.S.Ghurye. He passed away on 30 November, 1999.Many terms
like ‘Dominant caste’, ‘Westernization’, ‘Secularization’, and
‘Sanskritization’ have been introduced by M.N.Sriniwas.

IMPORTANT WORKS:-
1.Marriage and Family in Mysore(1942)
2.Religion and Society among Coorgs of South India (1952)
3. India’s Villages (1955)
4.Caste in Modern India and other essays (1962)
5.Social Change in Modern India (1966)

SANSKRITIZATION
The term 'Sanskritization' was first used by M.N.Sriniwas in the
course of his study of the Coorgs of Mysore. lt has emerged as the
most influential concept to explain cultural and social changes in
India.
According to Sriniwas, "Sanskritization is a process by which a Low
Hindu Caste ,or Tribal or other group changes its customs, ritual,
ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently
'twice-born' castes.
Sriniwas found that lower-castes in order to raise their position in
caste hierarchy, adopted some of the practices of the Brahmins. At
the same time, these Castes gave-up some of their own customs
which were considered Impure such as meat-eating, consumption of
alcohol and animal sacrifice to their deities. They also emulated life-
styles of the High-Caste Brahmans in terms of dress, food and
rituals. By imitating these practices the Lower castes claimed higher
position in the local hierarchy of castes. This process of mobility was

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initially called as Brahmanization. But it was realised later that the


process described by Brahmanization was not a general trend and
the Lower castes in several cases adopted the practices of the Non-
brahman higher castes. Therefore, the term 'Brahmanization' was
replaced by 'Sansktitization' which was considered more
appropriate.

UNIT8. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND


PROCESSES IN INDIAN SOCIETY

 SOCIAL STRUCTURE:-CONCEPT

Social structure is one of the basic concepts of sociology.


The word 'structure' in its original meaning refers to
"arrangement of parts" or "manner of organisation". This
term became popular in sociological studies with the work
of 'Herbert spencer' after 1850. He applied the term
'structure' to his analysis of society and spoke of 'social
structure'.
The term "structure" refers to "some sort of ordered
arrangements of parts or components" .A building has a
structure, a molecule has a structure, an animal has a
structure and so on. In the same way, the society too has
its own structure called ' Social structure' .The
components or units of social structure are 'persons'.
A society consists of:-
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 Males and females, adults and children, various


occupational and religious groups and so on.
 The interrelationship between various parts(such as
relationship between husband and wife, between parents
and children and between various groups)
 All the parts of the society are put together to work as a unit.
Thus, the term social structure refers to the way the
various parts are organised and follow stable patterns of collective
rules, roles and activities. Although, the structure remains
invisible, it silently shapes our actions. The basic elements of
social structure which guides our actions are Statuses, Social
Roles, Norms and Values.

DEFINITIONS:
1) Redcliff Brown defines social structure as " an arrangement of persons
in institutionally controlled and defined relationships".
2) Ogburn and Nimkoff, "in society the organisation of group of persons is
the social structure"
3) Morris Ginsberg, "the complex of principal groups and institutions which
constitute societies is known as social structure".
4) Talcott Parsons, “Social Structure is the term applied to the particular
arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns,
as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the
group”.

 SOCIAL PROCESSES:-CONCEPTS,NATURE AND TYPES

Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact,
adjust and readjust, establish relationships and pattern of behaviour
which are again modified through social interactions. Interaction is the
essence of social life and goes on continuously in the society as an

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ongoing process. Social processes refers to the forms of social


interactions that occur again and again.

DEFINITIONS:

1.PAUL B.HORTON and CHESTER L.HUNT(1972): They defined the


term Social processes as "repetitive interaction patterns of social
behaviour which are commonly found in social life".
2.MACIVER: "Social process is the manner in which the relations of the
members of a group, one brought together, acquire distinctive
character".

TYPES/FORMS OF SOCIAL PROCESSES

There are two principle forms of Social processes found in a society viz.
Associative Social Processes and Dissociative Social Processes.
a) Associative Social Processes:-These Social Processes work for the
Unity, Solidarity and benefit of society. They link and connect the
individuals with one another in a social group. This category of Social
processes include Cooperation, Accommodation, Adjustment, Adaptation,
Integration and Assimilation etc.
b) Dissociative Social Processes:- These Social Processes result in
disunity and disintegration of society. They put individuals in opposition to
each other in a social group This form includes Competition, Conflict and
Contradiction etc.

 COOPERATION
Cooperation is one of the most fundamental Associative
Social process of social life. It is a form of Social process in
which two or more individuals or groups work together to
achieve common goals. The term 'Cooperation' has been
derived from two Latin words 'co' meaning 'together' and
'operari' means 'to work'. Hence, Cooperation means working
together for the achievement of a common goal or goals. It
has two elements—Common End and Organized Effort.

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TYPES OF COOPERATION
Cooperation may be of the following different types:-
i) Direct Cooperation:- Under Direct Cooperation individuals
involved do like things together.They do the identical function, e.g.
carrying a load together, playing together etc.
ii) Indirect Cooperation:- In this case, people do unlike tasks
together towards a common end. People work individually for the
attainment of a common end e.g. Carpenters, Plumbers and
masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on
the principle of division of labour and specialisation.
iii) Primary Cooperation:- Primary Cooperation is found in primary
groups such as family. In this form, there is an identity of ends
between the individuals and the group.
iv) Secondary Cooperation:-Secondary Cooperation is found in
secondary groups such as government, industry etc. It is the
characteristic feature of modern civilised societies. There is
disparity of interests between the individuals, attitudes of people are
more likely to be individualistic and calculating and the welfare of
the group is not their first consideration.
V) Tertiary Cooperation:- This type of cooperation may be found
in the interaction between various big and small groups to meet a
particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating parties are
purely opportunistic, the organisation of their cooperation is both
loose and fragile .e.g. Two political parties with different ideologies
may get united to defeat their rival party in an election.

 DIVISION OF LABOUR

Division of Labour is an Associative Social Process. It is the


system of distribution of work among the people according
to their skill and competence. Division of labour involves the
assignment to each unit or group a specific share of a
common task e.g. The principal, the teachers, office clerks,
librarian and other employees of a college do the specific

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tasks assignment to them and contribute to the common


purpose of running a college to promote education.
Division of labour as a Social process has been prevalent in
every society, Primitive or Modern. In primitive societies, the
division of labour was very simple, determined only by sex
and age. The industrial economy as we have today, is
complex and replete with variety of occupations requiring
varied levels of training and skills for their execution. This
has led to the emergence of different specialised
professional classes. The sex based differentiation as we
had in primitive societies is no longer the rule. The division
of labour is a kind of economic cooperation. Its genesis is
socially determined. Emile Durkheim is of the opinion that
division of labour in society increases with the increase in
population. In primitive societies, the population was small
and the economy was simple. Therefore division of labour
was also simple (Mechanical Solidarity). With the
development of society following the growth of population,
the division of labour has become complex, leading to what
Emile Durkheim has called, growth of Organic Solidarity in
society. Division of labour contributes to the efficiency of
economy and have other far-reaching benefits.

 CONFLICT:
Conflict is one of the dissociative social processes. It is a Universal
and fundamental process in human relations. Whenever persons or
groups seek to gain reward not by surpassing other competitors but
by preventing them from effective competition, conflict takes place.
In other words, conflict is the competition in its more hostile and
personal forms .It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by
eliminating or weakening the competitors. Conflict makes an
individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or

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group who are seeking the same object. It is a deliberate attempt to


oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others.

TYPES OF CONFLICT
Conflict expresses itself in thousands of ways and degrees. Maclver and
Page have distinguished two fundamental types of conflict. These are:
i)DIRECT CONFLICT: In this type of conflict the conflicting
individuals or groups try to harm each other directly to obtain the
goal or reward at the expense or their opponents even by going
to the extent of injuring or destroying their rivals. Direct conflict
may be of two types:-Less violent ( e.g. litigation, propagandistic
activities) and More violent (e.g. wars, riots, revolutions) etc.

ii) INDIRECT CONFLICT: In this type of conflict, attempts are


made by individuals or groups to frustrate the effort of their
opponents in an indirect manner.

GEORGE SIMMEL has also distinguished four types of conflict


these are... War, Feud, Litigation and Conflict of impersonal
ideas.

 COMPETITION
Competition is one of the Dissociative Social Processes. It is the most
fundamental form of social struggle. It is the natural result of the
universal struggle for existence. Competition takes place whenever
there is an insufficient supply of things that human beings commonly
desire. Horton and Hunt define Competition as "The process of seeking
to obtain a reward by surpassing all rivals" .The means of fulfilling
desires are always limited by cultural norms. To gratify their desires
individuals or groups interact according to a set of rules. This interaction
is called Competition. In Competition, they try to obstruct each other's
attainment of goal. But they do not use force, coercion or fear nor try to
eliminate one another.

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FORMS OF COMPETION
Mercer and Wanderer (1970) have classified Competition into following
forms:-
1. Pure and Limited Competition:- Pure competition is the competition
which is pursued without any cultural restrictions. Pure competition is
an abstraction. When competition involves cooperation and individuals
compete according to rules, it is a case of Limited cooperation.
2. Absolute and Relative Competition:-When individuals or groups
compete for a goal which is scarce, only the successful candidate
attains it exclusively and the looser cannot share in the attainment of
the goal. This is known as Absolute competition.e.g. There can be only
one winner in an election to the post of president of India.
When sometimes people compete for power, prestige, wealth etc. in
the society and also succeed in their efforts, they do not expect that
their competitors will have none of these acquisitions, even though the
proportion in which the competitors have these may be smaller. This is
called Relative competition.
3. Personal and Impersonal Competition:-Sometimes, Competition
takes place between two persons. They directly interact with each
other. One of them becomes successful in achieving the desired goal.
This is Personal competition e.g. When a number of persons compete
for a job. Impersonal competition is found among the large business
houses when they compete which each other for marketing of the
products. They compete as firms, but not by way of a personal
interaction among the employees of these companies.
4.Creative and Non-Creative Competition:- Some competitions are
creative in nature. These may produce positive output and desired
social values with one another for attainment of a goal, e.g. The
companies in attracting the customers and expanding the market,
produce new products with better qualities.
Some competitions are non-creative in as much as they destroy natural
resources for gaining immediate advantage. It is common among the
oil and mining industries which often waste scarce natural resources.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘COMPETITION’ and ‘CONFLICT’


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COMPETITION CONFLICT
1. Competition is a process of seeking to
1.Conflict is a process of seeking to possess a
monopolize a reward by overtaking all
reward by eliminating all rivals.
rivals.
2. Competition may be conscious or
2. Conflict is always a conscious activity.
unconscious.
3. Conflict is Universal but not continuous. It is
3.It is Universal as well as continuous.
intermittent.
4.It is mostly Impersonal in nature. 4. Conflict is mostly personal in nature.
5.Competition is non-violent. 5. Conflict may involve violence.
6.Competition does care for the norms. 6. Conflict disregard social norms
7.Competition when becomes rigorous results 7. Competition when becomes personalised, leads
in conflict. to conflict.

UNIT 9: SOCIAL CHANGE


 SOCIAL CHANGE: EVOLUTIONARY MODEL AND CONFLICT
MODEL

CONCEPT OF ‘SOCIAL CHANGE’:-


Any alteration, difference or modification that takes place in a
situation or in an object through time can be called 'Change'. Any
change in society is called Social Change. The term 'Social Change'
is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions
and inter-relations. Society is a 'web of social relationships' and
hence, 'Social Change' obviously means a change in the system of
social relationships. Social relationships are understood in terms of
social processes, social interactions and social organisation. Thus,
the term 'Social change' is used to describe desirable variations in
social interactions, social processes, and social organisation. It
includes alterations in the structure and functions of the society.
Social Change is an inevitable and continuous process. Society is

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dynamic and changing continuously. Social Change may occur


rapidly or it may occur slowly. Social Change occurs due to various
factors. Some of the factors of change are internal to the society
concerned (Endogenous), while others are external
(Exogenous).The most important factors of social change are
environment, population, technology, values and beliefs etc.

 EVOLUTIONARY MODEL OF SOCIAL CHANGE


Sociologists in the 19th century applied Charles Darwin's
work in biological evolution to the theories of Social
change. According to Evolutionary model, societies
gradually change from simple beginnings into even more
complex forms. They believe that human societies evolve
in a Unilinear way...that is, in one line of development.
They saw social change as positive and beneficial.
According to them, social change meant 'progress'
towards something better. L.H. Morgan, for example,
believe that there were three stages of the societal
progress :Savagery, Barbarism and Civilisation. Auguste
Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the
development of human mind and of society namely....The
Theological, The Metaphysical and The Positive... in way
a represent three basic stages of social change. Herbert
Spencer also put forth that society has been gradually
progressing towards a better state.
He argued that it has evolved from Military society to the Industrial society.
The basic assumption of this theory is that change is basically the result
of operation of various forces within the society or culture. Underlying this
model, there exists a belief of infinite improvement in the next over the
preceding one.

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 CONFLICT MODEL OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Conflict theorists highlighted the forces producing instability,


struggle and social disorganisation resulting in social change.
Ralf Dahrendorf, says that the conflict theories assume that—
• Every society is subjected at every moment to change, hence
social change is Ubiquitous.
• Every society experiences at every moment social conflict, hence
social conflict is Ubiquitous.
• Every element in society contributes to change.
• Every society rests on constraint of some of its members
by others.
Karl Marx, the most famous and influential of the conflict
theorists wrote in 'Communist Manifesto' that "All history is
the history of class conflict' .He also believed that "The
existing conditions in any society contain the seeds of future
social change". Individuals and groups with opposing
interests are bound to be at conflict .History is the story of
conflict between- The Exploiter and The Exploited. This
conflict repeats itself off and on until Capitalism is overthrown
by workers and a Socialist state is created.
George Simmel too stressed the importance of conflict in
Social change. The conflict theorists deem society as
basically dynamic and not static. According to them conflict is
a permanent feature of a society which keeps it dynamic and
ever changing.

 CONCEPT OF ‘SOCIAL ORDER’


The term 'Order' refers to 'conditions of normal functioning'.
Social Order is a fundamental concept in Sociology that refers
to the way in which the various components of society—social
structures and institutions, social relations, social interactions
and behaviour and cultural features such as norms, beliefs,
and values—work together to sustain the society. Social
Order refers to the organization of many interrelated parts of
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a society. It is present when individuals agree to a shared


social contract that states that certain rules and laws must be
abided and certain standards, values and norms which people
learn through socialisation be maintained.
Orderliness in social behaviour is a Universal characteristic. It
was found in the most primitive as well as is found in the
advanced societies. Social control makes the people to
observe and maintain the orderliness of society. Practices
and behaviours that are counter to the social order are
typically framed as deviant and are curtailed through the
enforcement of laws, norms and taboos.

DEFINITIONS
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff—"Order in society consists of the groupings of
persons and the arrangements of their behaviour."

2. Horton and Hunt—"Social Order refers to a system of people,


relationships, and customs operating smoothly to accomplish the
work of a society."

 CONFORMITY

'Conformity' is the action that is oriented to a social norm or norms


and falls within the range of a behaviour permitted by the norms.
When a person accepts both the goals and means of a society,
the result is generally 'Conformity'. Thus, a student who values
higher education and thinks that the college rules are necessary
for earning a degree, always tries to conform to the rules to get
the degree. 'Conformity', thus implies behaving in accordance with
the norms. Our behaviour is in conformity with the rules that we
learn through socialisation. But we are not sure that in our
behaviour the norms are always alive at the level of our
consciousness.

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 DEVIANCE

'Deviance' refers to the non-conformity to or violation


of the norms, values or civic expectations of a group.
'Deviant' is someone whose behaviour departs from
the established moral standards of a group. Deviance
is a behaviour that violates the standards of conduct
or expectations or social norms of a group or society.
Alcoholics, gamblers, drug addicts or late comers in
the class are all classified as Deviants or Deviant
acts. Deviance in one shape or another is found
in every society. Standards of deviance vary from
situation to situation, group to group and also vary
over time. It is a very comprehensive concept that
includes not only criminal behaviour but also many
deviant acts not subject to persecution. Moreover,
Deviance can be understood within a particular social
and cultural context.

• SOCIAL CHANGE IN RURAL SOCIETY


(STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL)
Rural Society or The Village Community consists of people
living in a limited physical area who have common
interests, primacy of primary relations and where most of
the people depend upon agriculture. Rural Society is not
stagnant. It has also been undergoing fast changes
structurally as well as functionally. The various changes
witnessed by rural society are discussed as:-
1. There has been transformation in the network of Social
relationships and social institutions including caste,
family, kinship and occupational groups.

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2. With the commercialization and mechanization of


agriculture, old-relations have changed as family labour is
replaced by hired labour with a view to produce for the
market.
3. Joint Families are disintegrating, changes are coming
in division of labour, status of women is improving and the
social values are deteriorating.
4. The importance of Religion and Neighbourhood is
diminishing. The rituals at the time of birth, marriage,
death etc. are slowly vanishing.
5. Significant changes are observed in case of Caste
System which is an important structural reality of rural life.
Caste relations have been changed, supremacy of
Brahmins exists no more and the mobility of occupations
is increasing.
6. Jajmani System no more prevails, the impact of social
kinship is decreasing and the importance of primary
group is also diminishing.
7. Development of transport and communication has
resulted in far reaching consequences and have
quickened the rate of both internal and external migration
thereby altering the structure and functions of Rural
Society.

• SOCIAL CHANGE IN URBAN SOCIETY


(STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL)

Urban Society may be defined as a relatively large,


dense and permanent settlement of socially
heterogeneous individuals whose occupations are non-
agricultural. In comparison to the rural society, the
urban society is much dynamic and changeable. The
urban society is experiencing rapid changes both in its

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structure as well as in its functions. Some of these can


be discussed as :-

1. Affordable, efficient and safe public transport


quickened the rate of people migrating from Rural to
Urban areas which resulted in homelessness, growth of
slums and suburbs. Slums refer to the congested, over-
crowded neighbourhood with no proper civic facilities
like water, electricity and sanitation.
2. The transformation of Joint family into Nuclear family
brought about various changes into the structure and
functions of family. Most of the functions of family have
been taken over by the specialised agencies such as
Kids homes, schools, economic organisations,
government departments etc.
3. The urban life is becoming more individualistic .The
traditional family norms are relaxed and interpersonal
relationships have become more formal. Child develops
a new type of personality characterised by the ideas of
freedom and innovation.
4. Elaborate Division of labour, specialisation of tasks and growth of
a class of professionals have resulted from changes in the industrial
system.
5. The caste and kinship obligations are diminishing. Marriage system
has become more complex as the Late marriages are increasing.
6. Social status is increasingly switching over from Ascription to
Achievement based. There has been change in the status of women.
They participate in different activities of social life which in turn has
brought greater participation of women in workforce. The division of
domestic duties between husband and wife is also changing in urban
setting. The Stratification system in urban setting has got streamlined
across the lines of class.
7. Another change in Urban areas is the formation of Ghettos.
Ghettiosation refers to any neighbourhood with the concentration of
people of a particular religion, ethnicity, caste or other common
identity.
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8. Gentrification refers to the conversion of previously lower class


neighbourhood into middle or upper class one.
9. Gated Communities refers to the creation of Upper-class
neighbourhoods that are separated from their surroundings by walls
and gates with controlled entry and exit.

UNIT 10: ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

 ECOLOGY AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (RELATIONSHIP)

'Ecology' is the study of relationship between living things and their


environment. It also refers to adaptation to the environment. The
concept of Ecology has naturally included the humans as a part of the
total web of life on earth. The interrelationship of physical, biological
and cultural features of a region is the subject matter of social ecology.
Ogburn and Nimkoff define Social Ecology as a study of relationship
between communities and environment.
Human beings try to adapt themselves in the particular geographical
and cultural environment, on the one hand , and also try to control the
Environment according to their requirement, on the other. This
interaction is a two-way process i'e. Nature shapes Society and
Society shapes Nature. The biological makeup of societies' population
needs food, water and air for survival. The geographical environment
is exploited for these needs. The various types of societies i'e. Hunting
and Food-gathering societies, Pastoral societies, Agricultural
societies and Urban-Industrial societies each have a distinct set of
relationships to the physical environment according to their
technological development. People adapt themselves and try to live
comfortably under different ecological situations of hot and cold

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climate or on hills or plains, in forests or plain valley regions. Also with


the help of modern technology, humans have controlled nature for
comfortable living on earth. The over-exploitation of natural
environment by man and its pollution by various agents have given
rise to many serious environmental problems and have disturbed the
balance in the Ecosystem which may become the cause for
destruction of world's societies in future.
Therefore, human beings in societies are in the constant process
of adjustment to the Environmental conditions. This process of
adjustment to the environment began along with their existence on
Earth and has led to their Cultural development.

 DEFORESTATION AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIETY

Deforestation is the clearing, destroying or removal of tress through


deliberate, natural or accidental means. It is the permanent
devastation of native forests and woods.
Deforestation has increased along with population growth. Due to
population explosion, humans are indiscriminately harvesting
forests for their needs. That is why the existence of forests today is
in danger and consequently human life is also in danger.
The ill-effects of deforestation on society are discussed as:-

i. Loss of Habitat:-Forest is habitat for many animal and


plant species. Due to loss of their habitat, they are
endangered and some are on the verge of extinction.
ii. Global Warming:- Deforestation has a direct impact on
the natural climate change, thereby increasing the global
temperature. Global warming has direct impact on human
societies.
iii. Soil Erosion and Flooding:- When it rains, trees absorb
and store large amount of water with the help of their roots.
When they are cut down, soil erodes and washes away

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causing flood which poses grave threat to human societies


in terms of losses to human life and property.
iv. Air Pollution:- The biggest disadvantage of
deforestation is in the form of air pollution. The problem of
air pollution is highest in cities. There the people suffer from
many diseases especially breathing problems.
v. Homeless Animals:- Due to endless deforestation,
destitute animals are taking shelter in villages posing a
grave danger to human life.
vi. Damage to Ozone Layer:- Deforestation is posing grave
damage to the Ozone layer which is necessary for the
overall defence of the Earth.
vii. Endangering TribaIs :- The indigenous tribes who
depend on forests to sustain their way of life are also irreparably damaged.

Q) How can we control deforestation?

1.Set up Agro-forestry practice:- Agro forestry refers to combing


agriculture and forest activities so that it provides food, fodder, fuel, fibre
and fertilizers which are primary needs of farmers .This will make people
self-sufficient and they will not resort to forest damage.

2. Mass Plantation Drives:- Mass plantation drives should be


launched as we have a lot of encroachment of forest land,
vacant lands for re-forestation.

3. Use of other sources of energy:- Villagers should be


encouraged to use renewable energy sources for cooking
and other purposes.

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 PRESERVATION OF WATER BODIES AND THEIR


SIGNIFICANCE WITH SPECIAL REFRENCE TO J&K DAL
LAKE,WULAR,JHELUM,TAWI AND MANSAR

The UT of Jammu and Kashmir has been bestowed with water


resources which is one of the finest components of its scenic beauty.
The UT is enriched with water bodies in the form of rivers, lakes,
glaciers, ponds, streams etc. These water bodies play a significant
role in the life of common people.

SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESERVATION OF JHELUM


The river Jhelum (Vyeth) arises from a famous Verinag spring in
Anantnag. It flows through Srinagar into the Walur Lake before entering
Pakistan. It is a tributary of the river Indus and has a total length of about
725 Km.
Significance:-This river has a great socio-economic significance. The
lower course of Jhelum has been developed for irrigation and the
production of hydro-electric power. The river is greatly utilized for its water
and water foods such as fish and sand extraction. Sand extraction and
fishing is a source of direct or indirect employment for many Kashmiris.
Preservation:-The lesson from the devastating flood of 2014 triggered
by siltation and encroachment brought experts under deep pressure
to take steps for its conservation. However, the river is witnessing
heavy pollution with solid and liquid wastes from settlements,
agricultural run-off and effluent discharges from various industrial
units. So, steps like dredging, banking and removal of encroachments
alongside Jhelum should be taken to preserve it. Also, no conservation
effort would work until effective measures are taken for controlling
pollution and siltation of riverbed.

SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESERVATION OF DAL LAKE


Dal Lake is located in the heart of Kashmir i'e. Srinagar. It is the
second largest lake of JK and is named as 'Jewel in the crown of
Kashmir'. It is the most beautiful of all the lakes in JK. The lake is

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located within a catchment area covering 316 sq.km.


Significance: Dal Lake is central to many people’s livelihood. It is the
biggest source of Tourism, recreation and is also important for fishing
and water plant harvesting. The lake houses many sites and places of
interest that are important to the cultural heritage of JK like Nishat,
Shalimar, Hari parbat, Cheshma shahi and Hazratbal shrine.
Preservation:-Owning to non- seriousness of those who were
supposed to preserve its pristine purity, the lake continues to
deteriorate and become polluted. However, a maintaining committee
was constituted with the terms of reference of preserving and
conserving the lake. The monitoring committee was given the
responsibility to ensure that there will be no encroachment or pollution
of the lake. The Dal Nigeen Conservation project also enjoins to
safeguard Dal. Conducting Environmental Education Programmes
among people, dredging and de-weeding, diversion of pollution load
are important for its preservation.

SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESERVATION OF WALUR LAKE


It is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia. It is sited in
Bandipora district in the UT of J&K. The lakes size varies seasonally
from 12 to 100 square miles. The lake is one of the 75 Indian
wetlands designated as Ramsar sites.
SIGNIFICANCE: Wular lake acts as a huge absorption basin for
annual flood water. It sustains a rich population of birds. It is the
biggest source of drinking water and is much significant for irrigation
purposes. Water-skiing, rafting, boating, swimming and other water
sports can be pursued on this lake. It is a hub of water foods (fishes,
lotus-stem, water chestnuts) thus acting as a source of livelihood for
many people.
PRESERVATION: This famous lake has been silted up, encroached upon
from all sides by massive plantation of willow trees and extended
agricultural fields. Also the pollutants enter into the lake through Jhelum
which is already polluted. This lake was included in 1986 as a Wetland of
national importance under Ministry of Environment and Forests for
intensive conservation and management and in 1990 it was designated
as a Wetland of International importance under the Ramsar conservation.
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It was proposed that two million willow trees will be cut down to restore
Wular lake under the National Lake Conservation Programme. TULBUL
project was launched at the mouth of the Wular lake to conserve the water
and use it at the time of shortages. Many NGOs like SAVE (South Asia
Voluntary Association of Environmentalists) aim to protect the ecology of
the lake. Public participation, conducting Environmental Education
Programmes and creating awareness among the local people is very
crucial for the preservation of the lake.

SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESERVATION OF MANSAR LAKE


Mansar lake is located about 62Km from Jammu. It is beautiful lake
surrounded by forest covered hills and is a holy lake sharing the sanctity
of Mansarovar.
Significance:- It is renowned Tourist destination and thus an important
source of income. The water of the lake is used for domestic use and
irrigation purposes. It features a number of ancient temples visited by
devotees in large numbers thereby considered a sacred site. It is also
important for water food harvesting.
PRESERVATION:- Presently, the condition of this beautiful water
body is sordid and painful. Cultivation of land coupled with the use
of fertilisers add wastes and toxic components to the lake water
which leads to water pollution and Eutrophication. Keeping in view
all these factors, Government of J&K have declared Surinsar and
Mansar areas as Surinsar-Mansar Wildlife Sanctuary. In 2005, this
lake was also designated as Ramsar site. Certain other measures
are taken for the preservation and effective management of this lake
like regular monitoring of water quality, diversion of pollution load,
dredging, de-silting and de-weeding by manual, mechanical and
biological methods, watershed management and creating
awareness among the common people.

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SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESERVATION OF RIVER TAWI


Tawi River is the major tributary of River Indus. The catchment
area of the river falls within the districts of Jammu, Udhampur
and a few parts of Doda. This also flows through Pakistan and
joins Chenab.

Significance:-River Tawi has got much socio-religious importance


and is also known as 'Suryaputari' i'e. Daughter of Sun-God. It flows
through Jammu region, so is the main source of drinking water and
irrigation. Besides being important for many reasons, it also serves
as the main source of Tourism in the state.
PRESERVATION:-Due to increasing discharge of wastes in the
river, the preservation of the river needs more attention and
care. The river once was considered as the best source of
drinking water but now it is even unsafe for bathing. The main
concern now is to clean up the river and give back to it the
crystal clear look .For this JK Cabinet approved Artificial Lake
Project on Tawi to clean it. Moreover, Pollution Control Board
(PCB) and Highcourt have advised to take strict action against
the offenders involved in polluting the water.

 SOCIAL RESPONE TO NATURAL DISASTERS: EARTH QUAKES,


FLOODS (J&K)
Disaster Response is the second phase of the Disaster
Management Cycle. It consists of a number of components
like warning, evacuation, search and rescue, providing
immediate assistance assessing damage, continuing
assistance and the immediate restoration or construction
of damaged infrastructure. The aim of social response to
disasters is to provide immediate assistance to maintain
life, improve health and support the morale of the affected
population. The main responsibility of response to a
disaster lies with the Government in whose territory the

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disaster has occurred, NGOs and Humanitarian


organisations etc.
Owing to a unique geographical setting, J&K has witnessed a multitude of
disasters. Ranging from the minor incidents up to catastrophic
earthquakes, JK has always paid heavily in terms of loss of life and
property. The most recent major natural disasters that occurred in the
state of J&K were the Earthquake (8 Oct,2005) and The Flood which hit
the state on 7 Sept,2014.These disasters caused huge loss to the life and
property, left everything shattered resulting in huge economic losses. In
response to these disasters Relief and Rehabilitation Camps were set up
by the Government, certain NGOs and other Humanitarian and Voluntary
groups. The initial response to these disasters included assisting the
victims with transport, temporary shelter, food, establishing semi-
permanent settlements in camps and other locations, healthcare services,
relieving sufferings and saving and protecting human life. The concerned
departments like Relief and Rehabilitation, Irrigation and Flood Control,
Police, Transport, Health, Public Distribution System (PDS) and
Consumer Affairs etc all were seen involved in reactive measures
especially relief distribution and other rehabilitation. Moreover, District
Control Rooms were also set up for helping out the affected population.

Q) What steps should be taken before an earthquake?


1) Repair deep plaster cracks in ceilings and foundations.
2) Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gas
connections.
3) Identify safe places indoors and outdoors.
4) Know emergency telephone numbers.
5) Have a disaster emergency kit ready including battery
operated torch with extra batteries, battery operated radio,
first-aid kit, emergency food and essential medicine.

Q) What should we do during an earthquake?


1. If you are indoors, stay inside.
2. If you are outside, stay outside.

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3. If you are indoors, stand in a doorway or crawl under heavy furniture.


Stay away from windows and outside doors.
4. If you are outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything
that might fall. Stay away from buildings.
5. If you are in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car till the earthquake
stops.
6. Donot use elevators.

Q) What should we do after earthquake?


1. Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first-aid for anyone who
needs it.
2. Check water, gas and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged,
shut off the valves.
3. Stay away from damaged areas.
4. Don’t use matches, lighters or candles inside.
5.Be careful around broken glass and debris.
6. Turn on radio and listen for emergency broadcasts.

Define ‘DISASTER’:- A Disaster is a serious disruption occurring


over a relatively short time that causes human, material and
economic losses exceeding the community's ability to cope up using
its own resources.

Define ‘NATURAL DISASTER’:- Natural Disaster is a major


adverse event resulting from the natural processes of earth e.g
.Floods, Volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami etc.

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