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TH
FOR CLASS 11
GOVT HIGHER SECONDARY
SCHOOL SOURA
Prepared by :
MISS ISMAT AARA
LECTURER SOCIOLOGY
(GHSS SOURA)
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UNIT1: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY
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• Auguste Comte, the founding father of Sociology, defines sociology as the
science of social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the
discovery of which is the object of investigation".
• H.M.JOHNSON:- He defined Sociology as the "science that
deals with the study of social groups".
• EMILE DURKHEIM:- He defines Sociology as the "science of
social institutions".
• MAX WEBER:-He defines Sociology as the "science which
attempts at the interpretative understanding of social action, in
order to thereby arrive at the casual explanation of its cause and
effects'.
NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
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SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
There are two main schools of thought regarding the scope of sociology:-
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2. It gives sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life like social
relationships, individual personality, groups like communities, associations,
organisations etc.
3. Sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and functions
of basic social institutions like family, marriage, kinship, religion, political,
educational and legal institutions etc.
4. It also pays attentions towards the study of the fundamental social processes
such as cooperation, competition ,social stratification, conflict, social control,
socialisation and social change etc.
5. Sociologists are also concerned with the task of “formulating concepts,
propositions and theories".
6. Sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also.
Sociologists have sought the application of scientific method in social
researches.
7. At last, in the present era of explosion of knowledge sociologists have
ventured to make specialisations also. Today number of specialised fields of
enquiry are emerging out like sociology of knowledge, sociology of
religion, sociology of culture, rural sociology, sociology of education etc.
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Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).During
this period, people emancipated themselves from superstitions and
prejudices as enlightened human beings they criticised everything which they
considered as unreasonable. It was characterised by the belief that people
could comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical
research. Their view was that the physical world was dominated by natural
laws, it was likely that the social world was too. With an emphasis on reason,
the enlightenment thinkers were inclined to reject the beliefs in Traditional
authority and traditional world view dominated by Christainity. Their mission
was to overcome the Traditional values and Institutions dominated by
churches which they found to be irrational. They aimed to teach people to
challenge what they hear, develop critical judgement and solve their problems
on their own. It was significant in the development of sociology.
• INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-
Industrial Revolution took place in England during the 18thC
and lasted approximately from 1750-1850.lt brought
sweeping changes throughout Europe which had never
before taken place in history. New Industries and
Technologies changed the face of the social and physical
environment. The Simple Rural life and small-scale
industries were replaced by the Complex Urban Society and
mass production of goods. It accelerated the process of
Urbanisation which in turn created problems of housing,
sanitation and slum-dwellings. Population increased,
religion began to loose its hold and Capitalist classes
emerged. Conflits between Owners and Factory Workers
became rampant. Sociology was born out of an attempt to
understand these problems of society and find solutions for
the same.
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Estate comprised of Clergy, the Second Estate comprised
of French Nobility ( big landlords, judges, magistrates
etc.) and the Third Estate comprised of the rest of society-
Commoners (peasants, merchants).
The Third Estate, which comprised about 98% of the
French population were excluded from the positions of
honour and political power and was looked down upon by
the other estates. It was angered and resented its position
in French society. This led them to come together and
launch a revolution against the autocratic ruler. The
French revolution lasted for 10 years and was the first
modern ideological revolution of its kind. It had a great
impact on society. It changed its structure and managed to
eliminate the social distinction between the people. The
power shifted from the church and came into the hands of
the people. This was the first time people were seen as
citizens. The revolution replaced feudalism by democracy.
The thinkers were disturbed by the chaos and disorder
especially in France. What attracted the attention of many
early theorists was not the positive consequences, but the
negative effects of such changes .They were united in a
desire to restore order to the society. They sought to find
new basis of social order in societies that had been
overturned by the political revolutions of the 18th and 19thC.
All these things emphasized the importance of creating a
new subject for the study of society.
It is clear from the above discussion that Sociology was
born out of the attempt to understand the changes that
seemed to threaten the order and stability of the
European society. Social thinkers like Auguste Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim etc argued that there
was an urgent need to establish a separate science of
society. They believed that such a science would be of
great help in understanding the nature and problems of
society and to find solutions for the same. This led to the
emergence of sociology.
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SOCIETY: CONCEPT, STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND TYPES
CONCEPT OF SOCIETY:-The term 'society' has been derived from the Latin
word 'socious' which means 'companionship or friendship'. ln simple terms
'society' refers to a network of social relationships. A concrete society consists
of persons (members) having different statuses.
‘Man’ is a social animal', said Aristotle centuries ago. An individual
cannot fulfill his requirements without society. Some have to produce food,
others have to weave clothes, others have to erect houses and so on. Thus,
in society there is consensus on the tasks to be performed for survival. Society
has become an essential condition for human life to arise and to continue.
Human life and society always go together.
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIETY:-
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY
III.Culture:- Each society is distinct from the other. Every society is unique
because it has its own way of life called Culture. Culture and society go together.
What distinguishes one society from other is culture.
Define 'Community' :-The term 'Community' is derived from two Latin words,
'com' means 'together' and 'munis' means 'to serve'. According to Maclver and
Page," Community is a small or large group in which people share no particular
interest but the basic condition of life itself". The basic criterion of community is
that all of one's social relationships may be found within it. The three important
features of Community are Territorial Identity, Self-sufficiency and We-
feeling/Community Sentiment.
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DEFINE 'ASSOCIATION':- Associations are groups which are established in
order to protect and enhance some specified interests or purposes through fixed
rules, system of organisation and formal manner.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIETY
Individuals have certain basic needs which must be satisfied for the survival of
society. The main functions of society are as:-
1.It fulfils the basic needs of individuals i'e. food, clothing and shelter.
2.It provides security for protection of its members.
3. Socialisation and Education of individuals is the important function of society.
Individuals learn the social norms and values from society.
4. Society regulates anti-social activities of its members and enforces social
control.
5. It helps in Goal-attainment.(It helps individuals to attain their goals).
6. It helps in replacement of society by adding new members through
reproduction.
7. It helps in Division of Labour.
8. It helps in production and distribution of resources.
9. Society shapes our beliefs, our morals and our ideals. lt stimulates the growth
of our personality etc.
TYPES OF SOCIETIES
Human Beings have created and lived in several types of societies
of societies. Sociologists have classified societies into the following
types:-
Based on the stages of socio-cultural evolution and
use of technology, Gerhard and Jean Lenski (1982)
classified human societies into the following five types:-
I.HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES:- This is the oldest and simplest form
of society characterised by small and sparse population and very primitive
technology. The members survive primarily by hunting, fishing and gathering of
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edible plants. They were nomads as they had to move from place to place if food
sources become depleted in any given area. The social structure was somewhat
egalitarian as there was no competition for wealth and power.
II.PASTORAL SOCIETIES AND PASTORALISM:- These societies are dependent
on products obtained through the domestication and breeding of animals. They
emerged in arid regions of North Africa, Middle East and Central Asia etc where
crops were not supported. Unlike Hunting and Gathering societies, Pastoral
societies only have to move seasonally when the land in which the animals graze
is no longer usable.
III.HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES:- The societies emerged about 10-12 thousand
years ago in Latin America , Asia and parts of Middle East .These societies rely on
the cultivation of fruits, vegetables and other plants in order to survive but the
technology was limited to digging-sticks and hand hoes. People often adopted the
Slash-and-burn strategy. These societies are forced to relocate when resources of
the land are depleted or when the water supply decrease.
IV..AGRARIAN SOCIETIES:- These societies rely on the use of technology in order
to cultivate crops on large areas of land including rice, wheat and corn. The
invention of metal and development of better tools like plough made it possible to
till the soil and raise crops year after year. The technological advances led to an
increase in food supplies, an increase in population and the development of trade
centres .This period of technological changes is referred to as the Agricultural
Revolution and began around 8500years ago. In these societies, there was the
emergence of new roles and increasing specialisation of functions. The importance
of landed property grew and wealth became concentrated in the hands of few Elites
and Class System began to take root.
V. INDUSTRIAL AND POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES:- The Industrial
Revolution which took place almost 200 years ago, greatly transformed the old
Agrarian societies. These societies rely heavily on science and technology
(machines) for the production of goods. Industries manufactured goods in large
quantities and produced even greater surplus than before. The gap between the
rich and the poor began to widen and the Class system(Upper,Middle,Lower)
became fully established. The inequality became even greater than before.
Most of the Industrial societies have entered a new phase called
Post-industrial society. Post-industrial society is also known as
Information society or Digital society .This society is dominated by
information, knowledge, services and advanced technology more
than the production of goods.
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OTHER TYPOLOGIES OF SOCIETY
Sociologists have used different typologies to classify
societies. Few of the most common types are the following:-
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III.The Interactionist Perspective
II. The Conflict Perspective:- The Conflict Perspective derives its strength and
support from the work of Karl Marx. The Conflict Perspective sees the social
world in continuous struggle. They assume that societies are in a constant state
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of change, in which conflict is a permanent feature. They regard conflict (tension,
hostility, severe competition etc.) as a constant process and an inevitable part of
social life.
The Conflict Perspective views society as composed of different groups with
opposite interests competing for power and resources. Karl Marx sees the
struggle between the social classes as the major fact of history.He suggested
that all societies go through various stages of economic development. As
societies evolve from Agricultural to Industrial, concern over meeting survival
needs is replaced by concern over making profit—the hallmark of a Capitalist
Society. Industrialisation leads to the development of two classes of people—
The Bourgeoisie (Owners of the means of production) and The Proletariat
(Workers who earn wages).The division of society into two broad classes of
people—the ‘Haves' and the 'Havenots ' is beneficial to the owners of the means
of production .The workers are exploited and denied access to many resources
.Thus, class struggle is then inevitable because of the exploitation of workers
under capitalism.
CRITICISM OF CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
The Conflict Perspective has its own limitations. This perspective
is viewed as more 'radical' and 'activist'. By focussing so narrowly
on competition and change, conflict theorists fail to come to grips
with the more orderly, stable and less controversial aspects of
society.
2:lt lays emphasis on social order, stability 2:lt focuses on the tension, hostility and
and consensus of society. various changes that conflict can bring.
3:The functionalist perspective because of 3:This perspective sees the social world in
its focus on the stability of society ,is continuous struggle. This perspective is seen
generally seen as more 'conservative'. as more 'radical' and 'activist’.
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4:lt stresses on cooperation among various 4:lt stresses on competition among various
aspects of society. aspects of society.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOCIAL GROUP
The various characteristic features of a social group are as:-
i. Social Group consists of People. Without individuals there can be no
social group .A single person cannot constitute a social group.
ii. There should be more or less stable pattern of relationship among
the members of a social group.
iii. There should be a stable and persistent pattern of interaction among
the members of a social group. Social interaction is the very basis
of group life and mere collection of individuals donot make a group.
iv. There should be shared sense of unity and belongingness among
the members of a social group.
v. The members of a social group have shared interests and there is
acceptance of common norms and values.
vi. A social group has a definable structure.
The concept of Social Group is different from other related concepts like
'Aggregate' and 'Social Category'.
'Aggregates' are simply collection of people who are in the same place at the
same time, but share no definite connection with one another e.g. AII school girls
who wear glasses is an aggregate .No doubt within aggregates various kinds of
group relationships may be found ,however, in contrast to members of a social
group, the individuals who makeup an aggregate neither share interests with one
another nor take one another into a group.
Another is 'Social Category' which is a statistical grouping---people classified
together on the basis of a particular characteristic they share, such as having the
same level of income or being in the same occupation.
Therefore, it can be summed up that Social group consists of individuals who
interact with each other on regular basis and have stable and persistent
interaction. Members of group expect a certain type of behaviour from another.
Also Social groups differ in size, ranging from intimate associations like a family
to large collectivities such as a Sports Club.
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TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Social groups differ from one another in terms of their size, nature, objective and
life-span. Sociologists have divided social groups in several types. Few of them are
given as:-
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS
The concept of Primary and Secondary groups was given by Charles Horton Cooley
in his book 'Social Organisation'.
PRIMARY GROUP:- It refers to small group characterised by intimate ;face-to-face
association and cooperation. A Primary group consists of a small number of people
who interact in direct, intimate and personal ways. The relationship between the
members have emotional depth and the groups are relatively permanent in nature.
C. H. Cooley, calls the Primary groups as 'groups of friends' or 'The Nursery of
Human Nature'. A Family or a Peer group are the examples of a Primary group.
3:-These groups are relatively permanent and 3:-These groups are often temporary and there
there is long-period of interaction. is short-period of interaction.
5:-These groups are more personal, 5:-These groups are more formal and
cooperative and friendly. Impersonal.
REFERENCE GROUP
The term 'Reference group' was used by Muzaffer Sheriff in his book 'An
Outline of Social Psychology' and by Herbert Hyman in 'Archives of
Psychology'.
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Reference groups are the groups which are the referring points of an
individual towards which he is oriented and aspire to be like that. The groups
whose life-styles are emulated are known as Reference groups. We do not
belong to our reference groups but we do identify ourselves with that group.
e.g. ln the colonial period, many Indians aspired to behave like Englishmen. In
this sense, The Englishmen could be seen as a Reference group for the
aspiring section.
'Social Class' is the type of Social Stratification found especially in the modern
civilised countries. In contrary to the Caste System which is unique to India, the
Class System is Universal in nature.
A 'Social Class' may be defined as a large-scale grouping of people
who share similar economic resources, which strongly influence the
amount and quality of goods and services available for them.
Classes are hierarchically ranked i.e ranked as Higher and Lower
relative to one another, primarily in terms of wealth and income.
Although sociologists have classified classes into several types,the
age- old classification of Upper, Middle and Lower classes still holds
good.
The individuals and families that are situated in the same class are
relatively similar in economic condition, education, power, living
style etc. Status in the case of Class System is achieved and not
ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of an
individual mostly decide his status. Hence, Class-System provides
scope for changing or improving one's status. The Class System
never imposes restriction on marriage and the members are free
to select his or her life partner from any of the Classes.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘CASTE’ and ‘CLASS’
CASTE CLASS
1. Particular: The caste 1. Universal: The Class system
system with all its is Universal in nature and is
peculiarities is Unique to found in almost all the modern
India. complex societies.
2. Ascribed status: Status 2. Achieved status: Status is
is ascribed to the individual achieved by individual through
by birth. hard work.
3. Closed system: It 3. Open system: It provides for
restricts social mobility. social mobility.
4. Divine origin: It is 4. Secular: It has nothing to do
closely associated with with religion.
Hindu religion.
5.Endogamous group: 5. Not Endogamous: The class
Inter-caste marriages are system never imposes
not allowed. restrictions on marriage.
6. Conservative: The 6.Progressive: The class laden
caste ridden system tends society is regarded as more
to become conservative. progressive
7. Complexity : The Caste 7. Simplicity: The Class system
system is a complex is known for its simplicity.
system.
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SOCIAL CONTOL:-CONCEPT AND NATURE
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5.The social control is Universal in nature. Where there is society, there is social
control.
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INFORMAL AGENCIES
1.Family:- Family is a very important agency of Social Control. lt
socialises an individual about social behaviour and prescribes rules
and regulations that the members have to follow.
2.Neighbourhood:- It like the family exercises direct control over
the behaviour of the individuals through suggestions, praises,
blame, criticism etc.
3.Religion:- It serves as an important agency of social control as it
supports the folkways and prepares individuals for smooth living in
its own way.
4.Public Opinion:- Public Opinion greatly influence our actions
because for the fear of public ridicule and criticism, people always
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CONCEPT OF STATUS
Status and Role have become the key concepts of sociology since the
influential writing of Ralph Linton, “The Study Of Man" in 1936. Status
is a recognised social position that an individual occupies in society or in
a group. lt refers to the social position with defined rights ,duties and
obligations assigned to these positions .e.g. Mother occupies a status
which has many norms of conduct as well as certain obligations and
responsibilities.
DEFINITIONS
1.Ralph Linton …. 'Status is the place in a particular system, which a
certain individual occupies at a particular time'.
2. Morris Ginsberg.... 'A Status is a position in a social group or grouping,
a relation to other positions held by other individuals in the group or
grouping'.
NATURE OF STATUS
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TYPES OF STATUS:-
Status may be of two types:
1. Ascribed 2. Achieved
1. Ascribed Status:- It is assigned to an individual involuntarily on the
basis of his birth or biological characteristics such as sex, age, race or
on the status of his/her parents .It is assigned to an individual by the
social system and is unchangeable .e.g. A person born in a royal family
becomes prince or princess. Caste system plays a significant role in
determining the status of an individual, which is an example of Ascribed
status .In traditional societies ,the statuses were mostly defined and
ascribed at birth.
2.Achieved Status:- It refers to a social position that a person occupies
voluntarily by personal ability, efforts, achievements, virtues and choices.
The most common basis for achieved status are educational
qualifications, income and professional expertise. Modern societies are
characterised by Achieved status.
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CONCEPT OF ROLE
A role is the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status. A role is what
people do in the status they occupy as every status has a set of
expectations associated with it. In other words, statuses are occupied, but
the roles are played.
DEFINITIONS
2.The number of roles that one plays depends on the number of statuses
that he assumes.
3.Social Roles are in accordance with the social values, ideals, patterns
and norms of a particular society. People perform their roles according
to social expectations.
4.Some social roles may be assumed voluntarily while the assumption of
certain roles is largely involuntary and are unchangeable.
5. All the social roles are not equally important. Some of the roles are more
important while the others are less important.
6. Every role has a limited area of operation and the role has to be confined
within that.
TYPES OF ROLE
Define ‘Role Set’:- This term was introduced by R.K.Merton .He defines
role-set as complement of role relationships which persons have by virtue
of occupying a particular social status. (OR) The
complex of roles that accrues to a single status is called as a role-set.
(OR) Cluster
of roles associated with a single status is known as role-set.
DEFINITIONS
1.According to Maclver and Page, “Institutions may be defined as
established norms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group
activities."
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DEFINITIONS OF FAMILY
1.According to Elloit and Meril, "Family is the biological social unit
composed of husband ,wife and children".
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAMILY
1.A Family come into existence when a man and a woman establish
mating relationship between them. The mating relationship is established
through the institution of marriage.
2. Every family is known or recognised by a distinctive name.
3.Family requires a home or a household to live in.
4.Family is Universal in nature. There is no human society in which some
form of the family donot exist.
5.The Family is grounded in emotions and sentiments .lt is built upon the
sentiments of love, affection sympathy cooperation and friendship.
6.The Family is the nucleus and a basic unit of society. lt is the first
institution which socialises a child.
7. The members of a family have certain duties, responsibilities and
obligations.
8.The Family is smaller in size. As a primary group its size is necessarily
limited.
9.The Family as a social institution is permanent.
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STRUCTURE OF FAMILY
FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
Family occupies central position in a society.The functions which family
performs for the survival and maintenance of society are as:-
I.Biological Functions:- The biological functions of the family includes
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CONCEPT OF MARRIAGE
Marriage is one of the Universal social institution. It is established
by human society to control and regulate sexual instincts of man.
Marriage is socially acknowledged and approved sexual union
between a man and a woman and grants them socially approved
status as husband and wife. It is an approved way of establishing a
family of procreation.
DEFINITIONS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE
1. Marriage is a Universal institution. lt is found in almost all
societies.
2. Marriage is a permanent, long-lasting and enduring bond
between two individuals of opposite sex and regulates sexual
relationship according to prescribed customs and laws.
3. Marriage requires social approval without which marriage is
not valid.
4. Marriage is always associated with some civil and religious
ceremony. This ceremony has its own rites, rituals, customs and
formalities etc.
5. Marriage creates mutual obligation between husband and wife
which they fulfil on the basis of customs and rules.
6. Marriage establishes family. Family helps in providing facilities for the
procreation and upbringing of children.
Define 'Incest'
Sexual involvement of two people who are closely related (blood -
relatives) to each other.
Define 'Incest Taboo’
It can be defined as a cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations
between closely -related persons .e.g. Marriage of father-daughter,
mother-son, brother-sister which is unknown all over the world.
TYPES OF MARRIAGE
The main types of marriage are discussed as :-
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Fraternal Polyandry:- When several brothers share the same wife, the
practice is called as Adelphic or Fraternal Polyandry.
Non-Fraternal Polyandry:- The type of marriage in which a woman has
several husbands who donot have any close relationship prior to the
marriage and are not related as brothers.
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CONCEPT OF KINSHIP
Kinship refers to the relationship of an individual with other members
established through marriage,blood or adoption which binds them
together in a group.The persons involved in kinship are called 'Kins'.
DEFINITIONS
1.Robin Fox .. “Kinship is simply the relations between 'kins' that is
persons related by real , putative or fictive consanguinity".
2.A.R.Radcliffe Brown.... "All those relations which come as a result or
made because of family and marriage are the part of kinship".
TYPES OF KINSHIP
The kinship systems are of two types:-
Affinal Kinship:- Affinal Kinship is based on marital bond. The relatives
related through marriage ties are known as 'Affinal Kins' or 'Affines'.e.g.
husband and wife, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, parents-in-law are all
Affines.
Consanguineous Kinship:- The relationships based on blood or
common ancestry is known as Consanguineous Kinship and the relatives
as 'Consanguineous Kins'.e.g. The bond between parents and their
children, brother-sister, father's brother. etc.
Define 'KINS'
Persons related through blood or marriage are Kins.
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KINSHIP TERMS
Kinship Terms are used to designate and address a Kin. L. H. Morgan has
classified Kinship Terms into two broad categories:-
A) Classificatory System :- Under this system, the various Kins are
included in one category and all are referred to by the same term. e.g. The
term 'Uncle' is a Classificatory Term as it is used for both father's brother
and mother's brother, 'Grandfather' includes both father's father and
mother's father etc.
B) Descriptive System :- Under this system, one term refers to only one
relation. lt describes the exact relation of a person towards another .e.g.
'Father', 'mother' are descriptive terms.
The rules which regulate the behaviour of different Kins are called
Kinship Rules or Kinship Usages. They assign guidelines for
interactions among persons in social groupings. Relationships of
Avoidance, Joking relationships and Teknonymy are some of the
usages which are almost universally practised.
1.Avoidance:- It implies that two kins should remain away, maintain
certain distance and avoid free interaction between themselves e.g.
There is avoidance relation between father-in-law and daughter-in-law.
DEGREES OF KINSHIP
On the basis of nearness or distance, relatives are classified into
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Kins as the relationships may be very
close, not so close, distant, remote and so on.
Primary Kinship:-Primary Kinship relatives are those who belong to
the same nuclear family and are directly related to Ego. e.g. Ego's
father, Ego's mother, Ego's brother etc. There are eight primary kins in
a Nuclear Family.
Secondary Kinship:- Any Kin related to Ego through Primary kin
themselves being the Primary kins of Ego's Primary kins are Ego's
Secondary Kins. e.g. Father's father, Father's brother, Mother's brother
etc. An individual can have 33 Secondary Kins.
Tertiary Kins:- The Secondary Kins of Ego's primary kins or the
primary kins of Ego's secondary kins would be Ego's Tertiary Kins. e.g
Great Grandparents, father's brother's wife, father's brother's son, wife
of Ego's brother-in-law etc. An individual can have 151 Tertiary Kins.
Define ‘Distant Relatives’:- All other relatives who are more remote
than Tertiary relatives were termed by G. P. Murdock as Distant
Relatives.
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CONCEPT OF RELIGION
Religion is the set of beliefs, rituals, feelings, dogmas and practices that
define the relations between human beings and Sacred/divinity .It is a
system of beliefs in the existence of supernatural beings. Religion has
existed throughout the history of human society. It is a part of culture and
an important aspect of human social life.
DEFINITIONS
1.E.B.TYLOR..... He defined Religion 'as a belief in supernatural beings'.
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CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Education is derived from the Latin word 'Educare' which literally
means to 'bring-up'. Education is an effort of the senior people to
transfer their knowledge to the younger members of society.
Education is a life-long process, involving both Formal and Informal
institutions of learning .It is an institution which plays a vital role in
integrating an individual with his society, in perpetuation of culture
and to develop in him those habits and attitudes with which he may
successfully face the future.
DEFINITIONS
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POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS:-
Political Institutions are concerned with the distribution of power in society.
Martindale and Monachesi has defined Political Institutions as those
holding monopoly in the exercise of legitimate force. Political Institutions
have existed ever since the emergence of society.
POWER:- When a person exercises his influence/Will over the other
person or persons irrespective of the will of the latter(on which influence
is exerted),this influence is called as Power.
AUTHORITY:- It can be defined as an exercise of influence which is
voluntarily accepted as legitimate, right and just by the persons on whom
it is exercised. The authority is a legitimate power and is a socially
recognised influence.
STATE:-
State is the political institution having authority to rule. According to Max
Weber, State is the most fundamental institutions of a political system.
According to him, "The state is a human community which successfully
claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of power within a given territory".
The state can use force to implement its policies and has sovereignty. The
state consists of four essential elements:-
Population, A definite Territory, Sovereignty and a Government.
1.Population:- State is a community of persons. Without population there
can be no state .The people living in the state are the Citizens of the state.
They enjoy rights and freedoms as citizens as well as perform certain
duties towards the state.
2.Territory:- State is a territorial unit. The state exists within fixed and
clearly definite territorial boundaries which determines its area of influence
and authority. The modern states contrary to traditional states have clearly
defined territorial boundaries.
3.Sovereignty:-State alone possess sovereignty. Without sovereignty,
state cannot exist. Sovereignty is the authority which is supreme. lt means
the supreme power that the government possesses to wield control over
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people within the definite territory of the state. AII the people have to
submit to the sovereignty of the state.
4.Government:- The Government constitutes the mechanism by which
the state carries out its functions. The government consists of the
following three organs which perform political functions:-
a. The Legislature:- It is the elected body of representatives who are
endowed with authority to make laws in order to regulate society within
the jurisdiction of constitutional provisions.
b. The Executive:- It is the body which executes the laws passed by the
legislature. It includes the Executive Head, Council of ministers,
Secretaries and other civil servants which are vested with the
administration of public affairs.
c. The Judiciary:- It looks after the impartial administration of justice .It has
the function of defining and interpreting laws .It also resolves disputes
according to the laws of the land, punish criminals and protect the innocent
from injury and usurpation.
NATURE
The Economic Institution has its own rules and regulations regarding
production, distribution or exchange. These rules are not same
everywhere. The economy of a society have its birth, progress and decay.
With time, the economy of a society also undergoes various changes.
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JAJMANI SYSTEM
The ‘Jajmani System’ represents one of the types of exchange that
prevailed in India for a long time. The term ‘Jajmani’ has been derived
from Sanskrit word ‘Yajman’, which means a person who performs ‘Yajna’
or fire sacrifice to appease the gods. William H. Wiser was the first one to
introduce the word ‘Jajmani System’ in his study of a village in Uttar
Pradesh in which he clearly describes how different castes interact with
each other for the agricultural and economic process. According to
Jajmani system, there is exchange of goods and services between
Landowning Higher Castes and Landless service castes. The Service
castes usually include weavers, leather workers, blacksmiths, barbers,
washer men etc. The Landowning castes used to receive services from
these occupational service castes. The Servicing castes are called
‘Kamins’ or ‘Praja’,while the castes which are served are called as
‘Jajmans’.For services rendered the servicing castes were paid in cash or
in kind ( food grains, fodder, clothes etc.) which provided economic
security to them. Jajmani system was considered as the backbone of the
rural economy and social order.
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CONCEPT OF CULTURE
The word culture has been derived from the Latin word ‘colere’ which
means to cultivate, to till the soil. In medieval times, The term came to
refer to the progressive refinement of crops - hence the term agriculture
was associated with the art of farming. But in the 18th and 19th century,
the term referred to the refinement of people as well. A new born human
baby is helpless. In order to survive, it must learn the skills, knowledge
and accepted ways of behaviour in the society into which it's born. It must
learn a way of life, in sociological terminology, he must learn the culture of
its society.
Sociologists define culture in different ways.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
1) Culture is learned. It is an acquired behaviour shared by all the
members of a society
2) It is an accumulated knowledge which is transmitted from generation to
generation with modifications and additions.
3) It is not the individual asset or heritage of a man .it is a product of society
and develops through social interaction.
4) Culture varies from society to society. Every society has a culture of its
own which is unique to itself.
5) It provides proper opportunities and prescribes means for the
satisfaction of the man's biological and socio-cultural needs.
6) Culture is dynamic not static. It's continuously changing. It's subject to
slow but constant changes
DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
Robert Bierstedt, In his book 'The social order' 1970 has classified the
contents of culture into three large components of culture: Ideas , Norms
and Material. The components of culture may also be classified into three
demensions:-
The cognitive Dimension: ‘Ideas’ refer to the cognitive dimension of
culture which consists of myths, superstitions, beliefs, knowledge,
scientific facts , art, religion etc. This reflects ways of thinking and
understanding how people make sense of all the information coming to
them. In literate societies, ideas are recorded, written down and stored in
books and documents. In non-literate societies they constitute the folklore
and the legends committed to memory and transmitted orally.
The Normative Dimension: It is the second large dimension of culture. It
includes rules, guidelines, expectations and standardised procedures that
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NORMS
Norms are established and shared standards of desirable social behaviour
which individuals in a group are expected to follow while interacting with
others. They indicate how people have to behave in a particular situation
by providing various rules and guidelines.
Norms vary from society to society, from group to group and from situation
to situation. Some norms are applicable to all the members of the society
while other norms are applicable to certain categories of people. Some
norms are more important to the members as compared to some other
norms. Norms are Perspective as well as Prospective which means that
norms prescribe or require us to behave in a certain way but at the same
time prohibit people from doing certain activities. Norms also govern
individual’s emotions and perceptions. Members of all the societies
inculcate norms through the process of socialization and follow them
automatically without questioning.
VALUES
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FOLKWAYS
The term Folkway was coined by the American sociologist William Graham
Sumner in his book "Folkways" published in 1906. The word Folkways
literally means the ways of the folk i.e simply the customary, normal and
habitual ways a group does things. New generations absorb Folkways
partly by deliberate teaching but mainly by observing and taking part in
social life. They are looked on by members of society as not being
extremely important and their violation may result in a raised eyebrow or
a murmur of disapproval but to no punishment. Matters of etiquette are
the best examples of Folkways- vacating seat in a bus for an elderly
passenger, not leaving in the middle of discussion or a concert etc.
CUSTOMS
Customs are the long established habits and socially accepted usages of
the people in which they do things together in personal contacts. It's
formed on the basis of habit, gaining the sanction and the influence and
therefore the social significance, which is peculiar to custom. Thus,
customs are social habits and through repetition become the basis of an
order to social behaviour. Customs emerge gradually without enactment,
without any constituted authority to declare it, to apply it or to safeguard it.
e.g. touching the feet of elders, the Hindu women taking meals after
husband takes. Etc.
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SOCIALIZATION
Socialization can be defined as the process whereby the helpless infant
gradually becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person,skilled in the
ways of culture into which she/ he is born . Socialization is often referred
to as the ‘transmission of culture’, the process whereby a man learns the
contents of his culture and the rules and practices of the group to which
he/she belongs. It transforms human animal into a human being, converts
the biological being into a social being.
Socialization is a life- long process but the most important aspect of this
process starts during infancy. By the time individual becomes adult, the
major part of socialization is completed. Regardless of where we live ,we
are all products of socialization. This is the only way an individual can
become a full-member of society. It's the only way we can transmit
heritage from one generation to another.
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Individuals learn the culture of their society through participation in a variety of groups
and institutions. The primary agencies of socialization are as::
1) THE FAMILY: Family is the most important agency of socialization. it's the source
of first set of values, beliefs and attitudes. A child learns the first words of his language,
religion and several role definitions from his family.
2) Peer Groups: Participation in peer groups gives the child an important social
identity such as team player, leader, resourceful person etc. Children also learn the
rules of games, their first exposure of impersonal rules which are not of their parents’
creation.
3) The School: School is the first formal agency which exposes the child to the rules
of broader society. The child learns to recognise and obey rules, practice skills and
relate to people in positions of authority. He learns to behave in a group settings, sit
quietly and listen to teachers, participate in social events and accept responsibilities.
4) Mass Media :- In contemporary society , mass media plays a significant
role in the socialization process. Through this there is now an instant
transmission of knowledge, events, images and styles and fashions from
around the world which influence the attitude and behaviour patterns of
people.
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Plurality in J&K:
J&K is culturally and ethnically plural as it possess diversity of
cultures within the same political entity. There is plurality of
groups in terms of religion, region, language, caste and tribe etc.
making J&K incomparably the most plural UT of India. The
plurality of j&k can be understood under the following headings.
Regional plurality: The Erstwhile State of j&k comprises of
three natural regions Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh further
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From the above discussion, it is clear that the former state of J&K
is an interesting mosaic. It is a plural society wherein there is
space for people from diverse cultures. Thus, Plurality is a living
reality of J&K.
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Define Pluralism?
Pluralism is defined as the existence of tolerance of various
groups within a society or state whether, cultural, ethnic, political
or religious etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
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DEFINITIONS
1. According to Wallace and Wallace---"Sociological
Research refers to the structural observation of social
behaviour".
2. According to P. V. Young ---"Social Research is a
systematic method of exploring ,analysing and conceptualising
social life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge whether
that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the
practice of an art".
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RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design means drawing an outline or planning or
arranging details. It is a process of making decisions before the
situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out.
Research design is planning a strategy of conducting research.
It plans as to :-What is to be observed, How it is to be observed,
When/Where it is to be observed, Why it is to be observed, How
to record observations and How to generalize. Research design
is thus a detailed plan of how the goals of research will be
achieved.
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RESEARCH METHODS
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques
used in the collection of data or evidences for analysis in order
to find out new information or create better understanding of a
topic. The methods of conducting research are broadly classified
as Qualitative and Quantitative.
i. QUALITATIVE METHOD:-Qualitative method deals with
more abstract and hard to measure phenomenon like
behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, emotions and so on. The
responses collected are essentially non-numeric and
philosophic in nature. This method helps a researcher
understand what participants think and why they think in
a particular way. It can be used to gather in-depth insight
into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Examples of Qualitative methods are Case study, One-
to-one Interview, Ethnographic studies etc .
ii. QUANTITATIVE METHOD:- Quantitative method deals
with countable numbers or measurable variables (
proportions, averages and the like). It relies on
mathematical or statistical tools and techniques of
measurement of data. It answers questions to justify
relationships with measurable variables to either explain,
predict or control a phenomenon. The result obtained by
the application of this method is more precise and certain.
Examples of Quantitative methods are Survey,
Questionnaires etc.
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3 :- OBSERVATION
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TYPES OF OBSERVATION
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2. NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION:-Type of
observation in which the Researcher observes the Target
group from the outside/ at a distance ,without participating
in group activities and without becoming involved in it. e.g.
The observation of children at play in natural setting or
watching how the faithful perform religious /ritualistic
ceremonies.
4:- QUESTIONNAIRE
It is an important tool of data collection. It is a form
or set of forms consisting of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order. The answers to
them should be filled in personally by the
respondent on his own without being aided by the
researcher. It is administered to a respondent either
personally by the researcher or through mail.
Questionnaires are widely used data collecting tool,
particularly when data is to be collected from
educated, large and widely scattered groups of
people.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is mainly of two types:-
I. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:-Open-ended
questionnaire gives an opportunity to the respondents to
express their opinions in a free-flowing manner. These
questionnaires do not have pre-determined set of
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DEFINE
1:- SELF-REFLEXIVITY/ REFLEXIVITY:- It is a
technique in which a Researcher tries to take an
outsider's perspective on his own work and tries to
look at his research through the eyes of others. The
researcher constantly subjects her/his own attitudes
and opinions to self-examination. She/he tries to
consciously adopt the point of view of others,
especially those who are the subjects of his research.
3:-SAMPLE
A sample is a part of population having more or less the same
characteristics as that of the population, which is studied in order
to make inferences about the whole population.
4:- POPULATION
A population can be defined as all the people or items (units of
analysis) with the characteristics that the researcher wishes to
study and from which a sample is drawn.
5:- HYPOTHESIS
It is a pre-conceived, possible or tentative answer to a research
problem before doing the actual research,which can be proven
true or false by the end of the research. It is in the form of a
statement of relationship between two or more variables that
must be testable.
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The law of three stages is the corner stone of Auguste Comte's approach.
Law of three stages are the three stages of mental and social
development. As per Auguste Comte, the evolution of human society
parallels the evolution of human mind. There has been an evolution of
human thinking, so that each succeeding stage is superior to and more
evolved than the preceding stage. In other words, the Individual mind,
Human activity and Society pass through successive stages of historical
evolution leading to some final stage of perfection. This law appeared in
the year 1822 in his book "Positive philosophy" .Comte proposed the law
of three stages governing social evolution as follows:-
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III. Positive stage: The Positive stage represents the scientific way
of thinking. In 1800, the world entered the positivistic stage. In this
stage, all phenomena are seen as subject to natural laws that can
be investigated by observations and experimentations. Human mind
tries to establish cause and effect relationship. The positive thinking
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suits the needs of the Industrial society and is the ultimate stage in
a series of successive transformations.
Karl Marx, the father of communism was born on 5th may, 1818 in
Germany. He received his early education at Trier. In collaboration with
Friedrich Engels, he wrote famous books "The Communist Manifesto",
"The Holy Family" and "The German ideology". He died in London on
march 14,1883. After his death his trusted friend Engels became the
spokesman for the Marxist thought.
IMPORTANT BOOKS:-
1. The Communist Manifesto(1848)
2. The German Ideology(1845-46)
3. Das Capital (1867)
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THEORY OF ‘SUICIDE’:
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MAJOR WORKS:-
IMPORTANT WORKS:-
1. Caste and Race in India (1932)
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Dr. Imtiyaz Ahmad was born on April 28, 1940. He did B.A from
Lucknow, M.A from University of Delhi and Higher programs from
university of Chicago in 1967-68.
IMPORTANT WORK:-
1. Caste and Social Stratification among Muslims in India (1978)
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The Ashrafs usually maintain a social distance from many a ' Ajlaf and
Arzal ' castes in terms of marriage, free mixing or in sharing of foods and
sometimes the places of worship. However the prevailing caste based
practices are not prominent as found among Hindus. However in view of
the affluence, power and prestige commanded by high caste muslims (
Ashrafs) many a lower castes ( Ajlafs and Arzals) find a tendency to
emulate the life style, behaviour patterns and manners of high castes
( Ashrafs) and this process is referred as Ashrafization. A mechanism of
status mobility where the high castes serve as reference model for
aspiring members of low castes.
Ashrafization is a term used by Dr Imtiyaz Ahmad like ‘Sanskritisation’ by
M.N Sriniwas ,to indicate the social mobility of an Ajlaf or Arzal in the
ladder of hierarchy. The process of Ashrafization saw individuals or whole
groups adopting new social and ritual practices, taking on names and titles
from higher castes, sometimes rewriting the groups history and giving
themselves a new community genealogy as a way of symbolically
improving their social status. There are many instances e.g when a lower
class Muslim in UP makes money , he puts his women in Pardah
( practice observed only by Ashrafs) , changes the occupation, caste ,
surname, manners and marriage relationships.
With the changes in socio- economic structure caused by industrialisation,
urbanisation, certain legislative measures introduced by government, a
number of high caste groups among the Muslims find it difficult to engage
in or continue with their traditional occupations. At the same time some
traditionally low caste groups have become economically and politically
dominant. In some instances, the sheer force of circumstances has led
the high caste groups to take the occupations of low caste groups ,
occupations they would disdain earlier in heyday of their power and
affluence. This process where the reverse occurs, instead of upward
mobility a downward mobility is experienced , is known as Ajlafization. It
indicates a tendency among high caste Muslims to adopt the customs and
cultural features of the traditionally low caste groups . This process is
somewhat similar to the concept of De-Sanskritisation proposed by D.N
Majumdar.
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M.N.SRINIWAS:- SANSKRITIZATION
IMPORTANT WORKS:-
1.Marriage and Family in Mysore(1942)
2.Religion and Society among Coorgs of South India (1952)
3. India’s Villages (1955)
4.Caste in Modern India and other essays (1962)
5.Social Change in Modern India (1966)
SANSKRITIZATION
The term 'Sanskritization' was first used by M.N.Sriniwas in the
course of his study of the Coorgs of Mysore. lt has emerged as the
most influential concept to explain cultural and social changes in
India.
According to Sriniwas, "Sanskritization is a process by which a Low
Hindu Caste ,or Tribal or other group changes its customs, ritual,
ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently
'twice-born' castes.
Sriniwas found that lower-castes in order to raise their position in
caste hierarchy, adopted some of the practices of the Brahmins. At
the same time, these Castes gave-up some of their own customs
which were considered Impure such as meat-eating, consumption of
alcohol and animal sacrifice to their deities. They also emulated life-
styles of the High-Caste Brahmans in terms of dress, food and
rituals. By imitating these practices the Lower castes claimed higher
position in the local hierarchy of castes. This process of mobility was
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SOCIAL STRUCTURE:-CONCEPT
DEFINITIONS:
1) Redcliff Brown defines social structure as " an arrangement of persons
in institutionally controlled and defined relationships".
2) Ogburn and Nimkoff, "in society the organisation of group of persons is
the social structure"
3) Morris Ginsberg, "the complex of principal groups and institutions which
constitute societies is known as social structure".
4) Talcott Parsons, “Social Structure is the term applied to the particular
arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns,
as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the
group”.
Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact,
adjust and readjust, establish relationships and pattern of behaviour
which are again modified through social interactions. Interaction is the
essence of social life and goes on continuously in the society as an
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DEFINITIONS:
There are two principle forms of Social processes found in a society viz.
Associative Social Processes and Dissociative Social Processes.
a) Associative Social Processes:-These Social Processes work for the
Unity, Solidarity and benefit of society. They link and connect the
individuals with one another in a social group. This category of Social
processes include Cooperation, Accommodation, Adjustment, Adaptation,
Integration and Assimilation etc.
b) Dissociative Social Processes:- These Social Processes result in
disunity and disintegration of society. They put individuals in opposition to
each other in a social group This form includes Competition, Conflict and
Contradiction etc.
COOPERATION
Cooperation is one of the most fundamental Associative
Social process of social life. It is a form of Social process in
which two or more individuals or groups work together to
achieve common goals. The term 'Cooperation' has been
derived from two Latin words 'co' meaning 'together' and
'operari' means 'to work'. Hence, Cooperation means working
together for the achievement of a common goal or goals. It
has two elements—Common End and Organized Effort.
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TYPES OF COOPERATION
Cooperation may be of the following different types:-
i) Direct Cooperation:- Under Direct Cooperation individuals
involved do like things together.They do the identical function, e.g.
carrying a load together, playing together etc.
ii) Indirect Cooperation:- In this case, people do unlike tasks
together towards a common end. People work individually for the
attainment of a common end e.g. Carpenters, Plumbers and
masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on
the principle of division of labour and specialisation.
iii) Primary Cooperation:- Primary Cooperation is found in primary
groups such as family. In this form, there is an identity of ends
between the individuals and the group.
iv) Secondary Cooperation:-Secondary Cooperation is found in
secondary groups such as government, industry etc. It is the
characteristic feature of modern civilised societies. There is
disparity of interests between the individuals, attitudes of people are
more likely to be individualistic and calculating and the welfare of
the group is not their first consideration.
V) Tertiary Cooperation:- This type of cooperation may be found
in the interaction between various big and small groups to meet a
particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating parties are
purely opportunistic, the organisation of their cooperation is both
loose and fragile .e.g. Two political parties with different ideologies
may get united to defeat their rival party in an election.
DIVISION OF LABOUR
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CONFLICT:
Conflict is one of the dissociative social processes. It is a Universal
and fundamental process in human relations. Whenever persons or
groups seek to gain reward not by surpassing other competitors but
by preventing them from effective competition, conflict takes place.
In other words, conflict is the competition in its more hostile and
personal forms .It is a process of seeking to obtain rewards by
eliminating or weakening the competitors. Conflict makes an
individual or group try to frustrate the effort of another individual or
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TYPES OF CONFLICT
Conflict expresses itself in thousands of ways and degrees. Maclver and
Page have distinguished two fundamental types of conflict. These are:
i)DIRECT CONFLICT: In this type of conflict the conflicting
individuals or groups try to harm each other directly to obtain the
goal or reward at the expense or their opponents even by going
to the extent of injuring or destroying their rivals. Direct conflict
may be of two types:-Less violent ( e.g. litigation, propagandistic
activities) and More violent (e.g. wars, riots, revolutions) etc.
COMPETITION
Competition is one of the Dissociative Social Processes. It is the most
fundamental form of social struggle. It is the natural result of the
universal struggle for existence. Competition takes place whenever
there is an insufficient supply of things that human beings commonly
desire. Horton and Hunt define Competition as "The process of seeking
to obtain a reward by surpassing all rivals" .The means of fulfilling
desires are always limited by cultural norms. To gratify their desires
individuals or groups interact according to a set of rules. This interaction
is called Competition. In Competition, they try to obstruct each other's
attainment of goal. But they do not use force, coercion or fear nor try to
eliminate one another.
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FORMS OF COMPETION
Mercer and Wanderer (1970) have classified Competition into following
forms:-
1. Pure and Limited Competition:- Pure competition is the competition
which is pursued without any cultural restrictions. Pure competition is
an abstraction. When competition involves cooperation and individuals
compete according to rules, it is a case of Limited cooperation.
2. Absolute and Relative Competition:-When individuals or groups
compete for a goal which is scarce, only the successful candidate
attains it exclusively and the looser cannot share in the attainment of
the goal. This is known as Absolute competition.e.g. There can be only
one winner in an election to the post of president of India.
When sometimes people compete for power, prestige, wealth etc. in
the society and also succeed in their efforts, they do not expect that
their competitors will have none of these acquisitions, even though the
proportion in which the competitors have these may be smaller. This is
called Relative competition.
3. Personal and Impersonal Competition:-Sometimes, Competition
takes place between two persons. They directly interact with each
other. One of them becomes successful in achieving the desired goal.
This is Personal competition e.g. When a number of persons compete
for a job. Impersonal competition is found among the large business
houses when they compete which each other for marketing of the
products. They compete as firms, but not by way of a personal
interaction among the employees of these companies.
4.Creative and Non-Creative Competition:- Some competitions are
creative in nature. These may produce positive output and desired
social values with one another for attainment of a goal, e.g. The
companies in attracting the customers and expanding the market,
produce new products with better qualities.
Some competitions are non-creative in as much as they destroy natural
resources for gaining immediate advantage. It is common among the
oil and mining industries which often waste scarce natural resources.
COMPETITION CONFLICT
1. Competition is a process of seeking to
1.Conflict is a process of seeking to possess a
monopolize a reward by overtaking all
reward by eliminating all rivals.
rivals.
2. Competition may be conscious or
2. Conflict is always a conscious activity.
unconscious.
3. Conflict is Universal but not continuous. It is
3.It is Universal as well as continuous.
intermittent.
4.It is mostly Impersonal in nature. 4. Conflict is mostly personal in nature.
5.Competition is non-violent. 5. Conflict may involve violence.
6.Competition does care for the norms. 6. Conflict disregard social norms
7.Competition when becomes rigorous results 7. Competition when becomes personalised, leads
in conflict. to conflict.
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DEFINITIONS
1. Ogburn and Nimkoff—"Order in society consists of the groupings of
persons and the arrangements of their behaviour."
CONFORMITY
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DEVIANCE
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It was proposed that two million willow trees will be cut down to restore
Wular lake under the National Lake Conservation Programme. TULBUL
project was launched at the mouth of the Wular lake to conserve the water
and use it at the time of shortages. Many NGOs like SAVE (South Asia
Voluntary Association of Environmentalists) aim to protect the ecology of
the lake. Public participation, conducting Environmental Education
Programmes and creating awareness among the local people is very
crucial for the preservation of the lake.
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