Ecosystem :REFERENCE NATGEO

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other

organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together to form a
bubble of life.

GRADES
4 - 12+
SUBJECTS
Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Meteorology, Geography, Human
Geography, Physical Geography

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals and other

organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a
bubble of life. Ecosystems contain biotic (living) factors, as well as abiotic
(nonliving) factors. Biotic factors include plants, animals and other
organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature and humidity.

Every part of an ecosystem depends on every other part, directly or

indirectly. A change in the temperature of an ecosystem often affects what
plants grow there, for instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and
shelter have to adapt to the changes, move to another ecosystem or perish.

Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the ponds left by the
ocean as the tide goes out, are complete, tiny ecosystems. Tide pools
contain seaweed, a kind of algae that uses photosynthesis to create food.
Herbivores, such as abalone (Haliotis), eat the seaweed. Carnivores, such as
sea stars, eat other animals in the tide pool, such as clams or mussels. Tide
pools depend on the changing level of ocean water. Organisms in the tide
pool must be able to survive submersion in seawater and potentially
crushing ocean currents when the tide comes in. When the tide goes back
out, the organisms must survive sun exposure and hotter temperatures.
Plants and animals in the tidepool have adaptations that help them survive.
For example, seaweed has a protective coating to keep it from drying out in
the sun. In this way, the biotic parts of the ecosystem depend on abiotic
factors.

The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems

are often connected in a larger biome. Biomes are large sections of land, sea
or atmosphere. They are defined by climate, geography and the plants and
animals that live there. The five main types of biomes are desert, aquatic,
tundra, grassland and forest.

Within each biome, there are many different ecosystems. The desert biomes
of the world, for instance, include a wide variety of ecosystems. The Sahara
has a hot, arid climate and includes oasis ecosystems that have date palm
trees (Phoenix dactylifera), fresh water and animals, such as crocodiles. The
Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with winds constantly shifting the
landscape. Organisms in these ecosystems, such as monitor lizards
(Varanus) and fennec foxes (Vulpes zerda), must be able to survive on in
sand dunes for long periods of time. The Sahara even includes abiotic factors
carried by wind and fog from a marine environment. The Atlantic Ocean
creates cool fogs on the Northwest African coast that make their way over
the desert.

In contrast, the Gobi Desert, which stretches across Mongolia and China, is a
cold desert with freezing temperatures. Unlike the Sahara, the Gobi has
ecosystems based not in sand, but in bare rock. Some grasses are able to
grow in the cold, dry climate. As a result, these Gobi ecosystems have
grazing animals, such as the goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) and
even takhi (Equus ferus przewalskii), an endangered species of wild horse
that had gone extinct in the wild before being reintroduced in the 20th
century. Antarctica is also a cold desert biome. Its thick ice sheet allows only
a few mosses – which are nutrient poor – to grow, so animal life, like
penguin, whale and seal species, must rely on the ocean for food instead of
the land.

Threatened Ecosystems

Humans are a part of ecosystems too. Generally, Indigenous people have

lived as part of their local ecosystems for generations without overusing their
resources. For example, the Indigenous communities of North America’s
Great Plains developed a complex lifestyle centered on the bison (Bison
bison), a large grazing animal native to the ecosystem of the Great Plains.
The cultural centering of these animals largely occurred after the
introduction of horses and firearms by European colonizers. Bison were
referred to as “buffalo” by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous people for
many years, though their scientific name is bison. Many indigenous people of
the Great Plains use the word “buffalo” for the animals in cultural contexts.
These tribes used bison hides for their homes and clothing, bison meat for
food and bison horn for tools. Bison were also a major part of the Indigenous
peoples’ spiritual lives, where people honored the animal with ceremonies
and prayers. The ecosystem supported tens of millions of bison in the early
1800s as well as tribes, including the Lakota, Blackfeet, Cheyenne and others
who depended on the animal for survival.

However, in the mid-to-late 1800s, the U.S. government, knowing how

central bison were to Indigenous life, implemented “scorched earth” policies
that encouraged the military to kill as many bison as possible. This was
genocide, an effort to destroy Indigenous culture and take over tribal land in
the central and western parts of the present-day United States. By 1900,
there were fewer than 1,000 wild bison. This not only harmed Indigenous
livelihoods, but it also harmed the ecosystem. As a result of non-Indigenous
people settling on the land, much of the Great Plains is now largely farmland
and used for cattle. Iit is one of the most threatened ecosystems in the
world. Today, Indigenous people are working to conserve the Northern Great
Plains ecosystem, as they did in the past. For example, the Eastern Shoshone
Tribe has introduced bison back to the ecosystem and are monitoring and
caring for the growing herd, among other conservation efforts.

Tropical rainforest ecosystems surrounding the Amazon River in South

America are also under threat. Tropical rainforests have distinct layers that
are defined by the different levels of sunlight they receive, and each of these
layers has unique plants and animals. Because of this, each layer of the
rainforest can be considered its own smaller ecosystem within the larger
rainforest ecosystem.

The top layer of the rainforest is called the emergent layer. This is where the
tallest trees grow. This layer is exposed to high winds and harsh sun, but still
supports animals like birds of prey, monkeys and insects.

The canopy is the next layer. This layer also has tall trees, but they are more
densely packed together than in the emergent layer. Forest canopies also
include other plants, called epiphytes, which grow directly on branches.
Examples of epiphytes are mosses, ferns and orchids. Canopies are also
home to the majority of rainforest animals, including keel-billed toucans
(Ramphastos sulfuratus) and howler monkeys (Alouatta). Below the canopy
is the next layer, the understory. The understory is darker, so it supports
plants that thrive in the shade. It also supports many insects and some
larger animals like snakes. The forest floor layer is even darker. It is filled
with decomposing matter like leaves and branches from higher layers,
making it easy for animals who do not climb trees to find food. Giant
anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and other creatures that help break
down matter and aerate the soil make their homes there.

Indigenous people of the Amazon rainforest live off the land in ways that
allow the ecosystem thrive. For example, the Yanomami people that live in
the rainforests of Venezuela and Brazil do not live in permanent settlements
that might degrade the land. Instead, they farm and hunt in an area until the
resources are depleted but not completely used up. They then migrate to
another area. This allows the rainforest to replenish itself.
However, the rainforest is being destroyed and degraded by people not
indigenous to the forest for purposes like farming and mining. International
demand—from countries like China and the United State—for beef, rainforest
wood and other products has incentivized local farmers and sometimes even
South American governments to continue or ignore deforestation. The
opportunity to escape poverty incentivizes local people to mine or farm. This
is because many countries with rainforests were formerly colonized by
Europeans who built economies based on resource extraction. This often left
locals impoverished, because colonizing nations depleted the land, did not
share extracted resources and did not develop other industries in the
colonies. Now, for citizens of formerly colonized nations, it is a challenge to
balance the needs of protecting the ecosystem with economic needs and
survival.

Still, the destruction of the rainforest comes at a very high cost for the
ecosystem. Deforestation degrades the soil and creates and spreads deserts.
By cutting down trees, deforestation also contributes to greater greenhouse
gasses in the air, which warm the atmosphere and contribute to climate
change. Animal populations have shrunk, and some species have
disappeared altogether. This disrupts the cycle of life in the smaller
ecosystems within the rainforest, which can then affect ecosystems in other
parts of the rainforest.

Deforestation comes at a cost for Indigenous communities too. Indigenous

people not only lose their land, they may also lose parts of their culture and
knowledge. For example, the Yanomami of the Amazon have a strong history
and culture of traditional medicine. Many modern medicines have been
developed from rainforest plants, so the Yanomami’s knowledge and
stewardship of the forest help their people and may allow for new innovation.
They live communally and share goods that they produce themselves—all
traditions that would be lost without the rainforest ecosystem. Importantly,
the rainforest is also culturally significant to the Yanomami. But rainforest
loss goes beyond threatening culture for the Yanomami. They are also at risk
of dying out completely. The Yanomami have had little contact with other
humans, making them more susceptible to disease. Increased contact with
miners from outside of their community has resulted in an increased
mortality rate among the Yanomami population.

Restoring Ecosystems

Some ecosystems can be restored after damage or destruction, but it may

take considerable effort and many years for an ecosystem to fully recover. In
2022, the United Nations (UN) declared a Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
to push national, regional, and local governments and groups to work to
restore their local ecosystems.

One way to restore ecosystems is to remove the causes of destruction and

allow the ecosystem to recover on its own. This typically means cutting down
on human involvement and action in the ecosystem. One example of a
conservation program that works this way is the Cocos Island National Park,
a World Heritage site in Costa Rica. This park is an island that preserves the
unique ecosystem of plant and animal life by not allowing human habitation.
Because modern fishing boats were depleting marine life in the surrounding
waters, the protection of the island was extended to include areas of the
ocean as well.

Another way to restore ecosystems is for humans to take more action by

purposely changing the ecosystem in a way that would restore it. For
example, in the early 1900s, U.S. government programs exterminated
wolves (Canis lupus) from Yellowstone National Park, because they were
seen as a threat to livestock and big game. However, scientists noticed that
removing the wolves threw off the food web in the ecosystem. The elk
population ballooned and elk overgrazed. This degraded the vegetation and
land. To correct this, a government program reintroduced wolves back into
Yellowstone National Park in 1995. Decades later, researchers have noticed
positive changes to the ecosystem, such as a growing beaver population.
Beavers were able to rebound as the wolf pack grew, because beavers and
elk eat the same plants, and the wolves hunted the elk in the park.

People are also attempting to restore coral reefs that have died as a result of
rising sea temperatures caused by climate change. Scientists are trying to
grow corals that are more temperature resistant to restore some of the
damaged reefs. However, without larger efforts to stop climate change, it is
unclear how effective these measures will be.

Individual people, cultures and governments are working to preserve

ecosystems that are important to them. The government of Ecuador, for
instance, recognizes ecosystem rights in the country’s constitution. The so-
called Rights of Nature says that nature or Pachamama (Earth), where life is
reproduced and exists, has the right to exist, persist, maintain and
regenerate its vital cycles, structure, functions and its processes in evolution.
Ecuador is home not only to rainforest ecosystems but also mountain
ecosystems and the unique ecosystems on the Galapagos Islands.
There are many ways global citizens can help ecosystems thrive. The first
step is to learn about different ecosystems, both locally and internationally,
to determine the best way to help threatened ecosystems. People can
support local conservation groups and follow recommendations about how to
interact with local wildlife. On a global level, people can be mindful about the
source of products they buy and choose to buy more sustainably and support
international organizations that protect ecosystems. Additionally, people can
consider political action on a local, regional or international level and
pressure government officials to improve and preserve the environment.

SOURCE : BRITANICCA
https://www.britannica.com/science/ecosystem

ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment,

and all their interrelationships in a particular unit of space.
A brief treatment of ecosystems follows. For full treatment, see biosphere.

An ecosystem can be categorized into its abiotic constituents,

including minerals, climate, soil, water, sunlight, and all other nonliving
elements, and its biotic constituents, consisting of all its living members.
Linking these constituents together are two major forces: the flow
of energy through the ecosystem and the cycling of nutrients within the
ecosystem. Ecosystems vary in size: some are small enough to be contained
within single water droplets while others are large enough
to encompass entire landscapes and regions (see biome).
(Read E.O. Wilson’s Britannica essay on mass extinction.)
Energy flow

Examine the trophic levels of producers, herbivores, and carnivores in a

given ecosystemUnderstanding energy flow in ecosystems.(more)
See all videos for this article
The fundamental source of energy in almost all ecosystems is radiant
energyfrom the Sun. The energy of sunlight is used by the
ecosystem’s autotrophic, or self-sustaining, organisms (that is, those that
can make their own food). Consisting largely of green vegetation, these
organisms are capable of photosynthesis—i.e., they can use the energy
of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into simple, energy-
rich carbohydrates. The autotrophs use the energy stored within the simple
carbohydrates to produce the more complex organic compounds, such
as proteins, lipids, and starches, that maintain the organisms’ life processes.
The autotrophic segment of the ecosystem is commonly referred to as the
producer level.

Organic matter generated by autotrophs directly or

indirectly sustainsheterotrophic organisms. Heterotrophs are the consumers
of the ecosystem; they cannot make their own food. They use, rearrange,
and ultimately decompose the complex organic materials built up by the
autotrophs. All animals and fungi are heterotrophs, as are most bacteria and
many other microorganisms.

Trophic levels

1 of 4

marine food chainA food chain in the ocean begins with tiny one-celled
organisms called diatoms. They make their own food from sunlight.
Shrimplike creatures eat the diatoms. Small fish eat the shrimplike creatures,
and bigger fish eat the small fish. (more)

2 of 4

terrestrial food chainThe terrestrial food chain featuring producers,

consumers, and decomposers.
3 of 4

food webA partial food web illustrating the network of feeding relationships
in a North American grassland and forest.

4 of 4

energy pyramidAn energy pyramid is a model that shows the flow of energy
from one trophic level to the next along a food chain. The pyramid base
contains producers—organisms that make their own food from inorganic
substances. All other organisms in the pyramid are consumers. The
consumers at each level feed on organisms from the level below and are
themselves consumed by organisms at the level above. Most of the food
energy that enters a trophic level is “lost” as heat when it is used by
organisms to power the normal activities of life. Thus, the higher the trophic
level on the pyramid, the lower the amount of available energy.(more)
Together, the autotrophs and heterotrophs form various trophic (feeding)
levels in the ecosystem: the producer level (which is made up of autotrophs),
the primary consumer level (which is composed of those organisms that feed
on producers), the secondary consumer level (which is composed of those
organisms that feed on primary consumers), and so on. The movement of
organic matter and energy from the producer level through various
consumer levels makes up a food chain. For example, a typical food chain in
a grasslandmight be grass (producer) → mouse (primary consumer)
→ snake (secondary consumer) → hawk (tertiary consumer). Actually, in
many cases the food chains of the ecosystem’s biological community overlap
and interconnect, forming what ecologists call a food web. The final link in all
food chains is made up of decomposers, those heterotrophs (such
as scavenging birds and mammals, insects, fungi, and bacteria) that break
down dead organisms and organic wastes into smaller and smaller
components, which can later be used by producers as nutrients. A food chain
in which the primary consumer feeds on living plants is called a grazing
pathway, and a food chain in which the primary consumer feeds on
dead plant matter is known as a detritus pathway. Both pathways are
important in accounting for the energy budget of the ecosystem.

Nutrient cycling
Nutrients are chemical elements and compounds that organisms must obtain
from their surroundings for growth and the sustenance of life. Although
autotrophs obtain nutrients primarily from the soil while heterotrophs obtain
nutrients primarily from other organisms, the cells of each are made up
primarily of six major elements that occur in similar proportions in all life-
forms. These elements—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur—form the core protoplasm (that is, the semifluid substance that
makes up a cell’s cytoplasm and nucleus) of organisms. The first four of
these elements make up about 99 percent of the mass of most cells.
Additional elements, however, are also essential to the growth of
organisms. Calcium and other elements help to form cellular support
structures such as shells, internal or external skeletons, and cell
walls. Chlorophyll molecules, which allow photosynthetic plants to
convert solar energy into chemical energy, are chains of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen compounds built around a magnesium ion. Altogether, 16
elements are found in all organisms; another eight elements are found in
some organisms but not in others.
These bioelements combine with one another to form a wide variety of
chemical compounds. They occur in organisms in higher proportions than
they do in the environment because organisms capture them, concentrating
and combining them in various ways in their cells, and release them
during metabolism and death. As a result, these essential nutrients alternate
between inorganic and organic states as they rotate through their
respective biogeochemical cycles: the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle,
the nitrogen cycle, the sulfur cycle, the phosphorous cycle, and the water
cycle. These cycles can include all or part of the following environmental
spheres: the atmosphere, which is made up largely of gases including water
vapor; the lithosphere, which encompasses the soil and the entire
solid crust of Earth; the hydrosphere, which
includes lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater, frozen water, and (along with
the atmosphere) water vapor; and the biosphere, which includes all living
things and overlaps with each of the other environmental spheres.
A portion of the elements are bound up in limestone and in the minerals of
other rocks and are unavailable to organisms. The slow processes
of weathering and erosion eventually release these elements to enter the
cycle. For most of the major nutrients, however, organisms not only intercept
the elements moving through the biosphere, but they actually drive the
biogeochemical cycles. The movement of nutrients through the biosphere is
different from the transfer of energy because, whereas energy flows through
the biosphere and cannot be reused, elements are recycled. For example, the
same atoms of carbon or nitrogen may, over the course of eons, move
repeatedly between organisms, the atmosphere, the soil, and the oceans.
Carbon released as carbon dioxide by an animal may remain in the
atmosphere for 5 or 10 years before being taken up by another organism, or
it may cycle almost immediately back into a neighboring plant and be used
during photosynthesis.

food web, a complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food

chainsshowing feeding relationships within a community. A food chain shows
how matter and energy from food are transferred from one organism to
another, whereas a food web illustrates how food chains intertwine in
an ecosystem. Food webs also demonstrate that most organisms consume or
are consumed by more than one species, which food chains often do not
show.

Structure

pestLarvae of the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata)

feeding on leaves.
All food webs, except those centred deep within caves or near hydrothermal
vents on the ocean floor, are powered by the Sun. Organisms within food
webs are divided into two main categories: producers (also
called autotrophs), which make their own food, and consumers (also
called heterotrophs), which depend on producers or other consumers for
nourishment.
In general, food energy in an ecosystem can be thought of as being
structured like a pyramid, with energy moving upward, and each level in
this energy pyramid corresponds to a trophic level (or feeding level) within
the ecosystem. Producers form the pyramid’s base; plants are the most
recognizable producers, but algae, phytoplankton, and other organisms are
also included in this category. Most producers use photosynthesis to create
food for other organisms. An oak tree is an example of a producer: it
produces leaves that are eaten by insects and birds and acorns that
are consumed by squirrels and other mammals.

More From Britannica

community ecology: Food chains and food webs

juvenile tiger and preyA juvenile tiger approaching killed prey.

Primary consumers, which form the pyramid’s second level,
are herbivores (such as leaf-eating insects) that dine on producers;
however, omnivores (animals that can eat both plants and other animals),
such as opossums or raccoons, might also qualify as primary consumers if
they feed exclusively on plant material. Secondary consumers, which make
up the third level, are carnivores or omnivores (such as snakes, spiders, and
small predatory fishes) that prey on primary consumers, whereas tertiary
consumers are very often large carnivores (such as wolves,
large felines, birds of prey, and sharks and other large predatory fishes) that
prey on secondary consumers (see also apex predator).
Other important members of food webs include detritivores and
decomposers, whose activities remove dead material from the ecosystem,
converting it to basic materials that can be used by producers again.
Detritivores are scavengers(such as vultures or beetles) whose diet largely
consists of the remains of dead organisms. Decomposers (such
as fungiand bacteria) break down organic materials into
basic organic and inorganic compounds made up
of nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phosphorus, and other chemical elements,
which plants and other producers use for growth.

Food web interactions

Although depictions of food webs often show direct single-line paths
of consumption from producers to consumers on various trophic levels like
food chains do, they can also show the ways in which some organisms
diverge from these patterns. For example, larger carnivores and omnivores
whose diets are not limited to a few types of animals may also eat primary
consumers if given the opportunity. In addition, many organisms within a
food web may be part of several food chains within that ecosystem. For
example, squirrels eat a variety of foods, including nuts, fruits, seeds, fungi,
and insects. Similarly, squirrels are prey for not only foxes but
also hawks, owls, and other predators.

habitat, place where an organism or a community of organisms lives,

including all living and nonliving factors or conditions of the
surrounding environment. A host organism inhabited by parasites is as much
a habitat as a terrestrial place such as a grove of trees or an aquatic locality
such as a small pond. Microhabitatis a term for the conditions and organisms
in the immediate vicinity of a plant or animal.

invasive species, any nonnative species that significantly modifies or

disrupts the ecosystems it colonizes. Such species may arrive in new areas
through natural migration, but they are often introduced by the activities of
other species. Human activities, such as those involved in global commerce
and the pettrade, are considered to be the most common ways
invasive plants, animals, microbes, and other organisms are transported to
new habitats.
invasive species: Burmese python ( Python bivittatus)Burmese python
(Python bivittatus) captured in Everglades National Park, southern Florida.
(more)
Most introduced species do not survive extended periods in new habitats,
because they do not possess the evolutionary adaptations to adjust to the
challenges posed by their new surroundings. Some introduced species may
become invasive when they possess a built-in competitive advantage
over indigenous species in invaded areas. Under these circumstances, new
arrivals can establish breeding populations and thrive, especially if the
ecosystem lacks natural predators capable of keeping them in check. The
ecological disruption that tends to follow such invasions often reduces
the ecosystem’sbiodiversity and causes economic harm to people who
depend on the ecosystem’s biological resources. Invasive predators may be
so adept at capturing prey that prey populations decline over time, and
many prey species are eliminated from affected ecosystems. Other invasive
species, in contrast, may prevent native species from obtaining food, living
space, or other resources. Over time, invading species can effectively
replace native ones, often forcing the localized extinction of many native
species. Invasive plants and animals may also serve as disease vectors that
spread parasites and pathogens that may further disrupt invaded areas.
A global problem
brown ratBrown, or Norway, rat (Rattus norvegicus).
Since the dawn of life on Earth, species have migrated and colonized new
areas. In some cases, migrating species were unable to establish sustainable
populations in new habitats and quickly died out. In other cases, they either
were incorporated into the existing structure of the ecosystem or were
responsible for modifying native food chains by outcompeting native
competitors or decimating native prey. One of the most significant species
invasions in Earth’s history took place during the Pliocene Epoch (5.3 million
to 2.6 million years ago) after the formation of an isthmus connecting North
and South America. Numerous predator species migrating from North
America to South America are thought to have contributed to the extinction
of many of South America’s mammalian species.
Since their emergence, modern humans (Homo sapiens) have played an
ever-increasing role in species invasions. As a result of their colonization of
all but the most extreme of Earth’s ecosystems and their tendency to
transform natural environments into agricultural and urban landscapes,
modern humans are among the most successful invasive species. However,
humans also contribute substantially to the introduction of different species
to new areas. Tens of thousands of years ago, migratory bands of humans
were accompanied by parasites, pathogens, and domesticated animals. With
the rise of civilization, many exotic plants and animals were brought from
distant lands to broaden the palettes of consumers or serve as curiosities
in gardens and circuses.
Although the collection and transport of exotic species dates to ancient
times, written records of their ecological effects extend back only a few
centuries. One of the best-known historical examples of such species is the
Norway, or brown, rat (Rattus norvegicus). This rodent, which is believed to
have originated in northeastern China, spread throughout the islands of
the Pacific Ocean. Since the rat’s accidental introduction during
the voyages of exploration between the late 18th and 19th centuries,
populations have established themselves on numerous Pacific islands,
including Hawaii and New Zealand, where they prey on many native birds,
small reptiles, and amphibians. Some other introductions during this time,
however, were deliberate: dogs, cats, pigs, and other domesticated animals
were taken to new lands, and there they caused the extinction of many other
species, including the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) from Mauritius by 1681.

1 of 3

red foxRed fox (Vulpes vulpes), Potter's Marsh, Alaska, U.S.

2 of 3
cane toadThe cane toad (Rhinella marina) communicates with a slow low-
pitched call that is said to sound similar to a faraway tractor.(more)

3 of 3

Surinam cherrySurinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora).

Although invasive species occur on all
continents, Australia and Oceania have been particularly hard-hit. The first
wave of invasive species arrived in Australia and the islands of the Pacific
with European explorers in the form of feral cats and various rat
species. European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which originally
inhabited southern Europe and North Africa, were deliberately introduced
into Australia in 1827 to serve as a familiar elements for settlers in a new
land, and the rabbits multiplied significantly. Over time, they degraded
grazing lands by stripping the bark from native trees and shrubs and
consuming their seeds and leaves. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a small
predator found across much of the Northern Hemisphere, wreaked havoc
on marsupials and native rodents since its introduction in the 1850s.
Ironically, the red fox was brought to Australia to help control the
aforementioned European wild rabbits. The voracious cane toad (Bufo
marinus), whose native range spans from northern South America to
southern Texas, is a poisonous species with few natural predators. It was
introduced into Australia in the 1930s from Hawaii to reduce the effects of
beetles on sugarcane plantations. Cane toads are responsible for a variety of
ills, such as population declines in native prey species (bees and other small
animals), population drops in amphibian species that compete with them,
and the poisoning of species that consume them. A large number of invasive
plants have also been introduced to Australia. Giant sensitive tree (Mimosa
pigra) may have been introduced by the Darwin Botanic Garden sometime
before the 1890s; upalatable to most wildlife, it forms vast thickets and
disrupts native wetland ecosystems. Cherry guava (Psidium
cattleianum), Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora), Arabian coffee (Coffea
arabica), lantana (Lantana camara), and the ice cream bean (Inga edulis) are
all invasive species that were brought as food or ornamental plants and
escaped cultivation.

brown tree snakeBrown tree snake (Boiga irregularis).

On Guam, Saipan, and several other Pacific islands, the brown tree
snake (Boiga irregularis), a native of Australia and Indonesia, has caused the
extinction of several birds, reptiles, and amphibians and two of Guam’s three
native batspecies since its accidental introduction to these islands in the
1950s. Although the snake may have been brought to the islands to control
native rodent populations, it is more likely that the original invaders
were stowaways aboard military aircraft and cargo ships.

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sea lamprey: mouthThe mouth of the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

North American ecosystems have been greatly affected by invasive species
over the last two centuries. During the 19th and 20th centuries the Great
Lakes region was altered by the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), a
primitive fishindigenous to the coastal waters of the North Atlantic and
western Mediterranean Sea. The sea lamprey uses a specially modified
sucker to latch onto a game fish and drain its blood. It is thought that the
development of the Erie, Welland, and St. Lawrence canal systems allowed
the fish to migrate into the Great Lakes. In the 1980s the introduction of
the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), a filter-feeding mollusk, created
further ecological and economic disruption. This species is native to
the watersheds supplying the Black, Aral, and Caspian seas. Many traveled in
the ballast water in oceangoing ships, and they were subsequently released
when this water was dumped into the Great Lakes. Large numbers of zebra
mussels have been shown to clog water-intake pipes and remove much of
the algae from the aquatic ecosystems they inhabit.

bighead carp and silver carpPoster depicting invasive bighead carp

(Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix). (more)
Introduced into the United States from Eurasia in the 1970s to help control
algae on catfish farms in the Deep South, Asian carp—most notably bighead
carp(Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix)—escaped into
the Mississippi River system during flooding episodes in the early 1990s.
After establishing self-sustaining populations in the lower Mississippi River,
they began to move northward. Although breeding populations have been
restricted to the Mississippi River watershed, they could, if they enter the
Great Lakes ecosystem, seriously disrupt the food chains of the major lakes
and adjoining rivers. Compared with other species of Asian carp, these two
pose the greatest danger. They consume large amounts of algae
and zooplankton, eating as much as 40 percent of their body weight per day.
They are fierce competitors that often push aside native fish to obtain food,
and their populations grow rapidly, accounting for 90 percent of
the biomass in some stretches of the Mississippi and Illinois rivers.
By 2010 the Burmese python (Python bivittatus), a native of Southeast Asia,
was challenging the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) for
dominance in the wetlands of southern Florida. Released into the Florida
landscape after Hurricane Andrew damaged pet stores in 1992, as well as by
change-of-heart pet owners, Burmese pythons soon established breeding
populations in the state. Growing to nearly 6 metres (20 feet) long, these
giant constrictor snakes became significant predators in the area. The
python’s penchant for consuming the Key Largo wood rat (Neotoma
floridana) and the wood stork (Mycteria americana) have caused both
species to decline locally.

See the disruption wrought by the kudzu vine, which was introduced to the
southeastern United StatesLearn about the impact invasive kudzu vine
(Pueraria montana) has had on the ecosystems of the southeastern United
States.(more)
See all videos for this article
Parts of the United States are covered by kudzu (Pueraria montana,
variety lobata), a fast-growing vine native to southern and eastern Asia.
Kudzu was introduced into North America for erosion control and decorative
purposes in the late 19th century; however, it deprives native plants
of sunlight. Similarly, Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) has proven
extremely difficult to eradicate in eastern North America and can form dense
monocultures that crowd out native plants. In addition, a large section of the
United States is plagued by the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), an
aggressive swarming and biting species native to South America. The species
may have arrived in the United States in shipments of soil and other
landscaping materials.
Some introduced species have a global distribution. Most notable examples
in this category are disease-causing microbes. Early European colonists of
the New World and the Pacific introduced organisms that cause the common
cold, smallpox, sexually transmitted diseases, and other illnesses to lands
whose people had no resistance to them. Beginning in the late 1960s, a
strain of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, was first
carried by infected humans from Africa to Haiti. Later AIDS would spread to
populations across the globe. Global trade and pet trafficking are often
blamed for accidental disease outbreaks among other species, such as
the worldwide spread of amphibian chytridiomycosis in frogs and other
amphibians and possibly even avian influenza (bird flu) and West Nile
virus among various organisms.
invasive species
Table of Contents
 Introduction
 A global problem
 Solutions
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kudzu Kudzu (Pueraria montana) along a roadside in southern Virginia, U.S.

invasive species
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Written by
John P. Rafferty
Fact-checked by

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated: Nov 14, 2024 • Article History
Also called:

introduced species, alien species, or exotic species

Related Topics:

weed

species
dispersion

introduced species
See all related content
Mexican fruit flyMexican fruit flies (Anastrepha ludens), an invasive species,
feeding on a citrus fruit.
invasive species, any nonnative species that significantly modifies or
disrupts the ecosystems it colonizes. Such species may arrive in new areas
through natural migration, but they are often introduced by the activities of
other species. Human activities, such as those involved in global commerce
and the pettrade, are considered to be the most common ways
invasive plants, animals, microbes, and other organisms are transported to
new habitats.
invasive species: Burmese python ( Python bivittatus)Burmese python
(Python bivittatus) captured in Everglades National Park, southern Florida.
(more)
Most introduced species do not survive extended periods in new habitats,
because they do not possess the evolutionary adaptations to adjust to the
challenges posed by their new surroundings. Some introduced species may
become invasive when they possess a built-in competitive advantage
over indigenous species in invaded areas. Under these circumstances, new
arrivals can establish breeding populations and thrive, especially if the
ecosystem lacks natural predators capable of keeping them in check. The
ecological disruption that tends to follow such invasions often reduces
the ecosystem’sbiodiversity and causes economic harm to people who
depend on the ecosystem’s biological resources. Invasive predators may be
so adept at capturing prey that prey populations decline over time, and
many prey species are eliminated from affected ecosystems. Other invasive
species, in contrast, may prevent native species from obtaining food, living
space, or other resources. Over time, invading species can effectively
replace native ones, often forcing the localized extinction of many native
species. Invasive plants and animals may also serve as disease vectors that
spread parasites and pathogens that may further disrupt invaded areas.
A global problem
brown ratBrown, or Norway, rat (Rattus norvegicus).
Since the dawn of life on Earth, species have migrated and colonized new
areas. In some cases, migrating species were unable to establish sustainable
populations in new habitats and quickly died out. In other cases, they either
were incorporated into the existing structure of the ecosystem or were
responsible for modifying native food chains by outcompeting native
competitors or decimating native prey. One of the most significant species
invasions in Earth’s history took place during the Pliocene Epoch (5.3 million
to 2.6 million years ago) after the formation of an isthmus connecting North
and South America. Numerous predator species migrating from North
America to South America are thought to have contributed to the extinction
of many of South America’s mammalian species.
Since their emergence, modern humans (Homo sapiens) have played an
ever-increasing role in species invasions. As a result of their colonization of
all but the most extreme of Earth’s ecosystems and their tendency to
transform natural environments into agricultural and urban landscapes,
modern humans are among the most successful invasive species. However,
humans also contribute substantially to the introduction of different species
to new areas. Tens of thousands of years ago, migratory bands of humans
were accompanied by parasites, pathogens, and domesticated animals. With
the rise of civilization, many exotic plants and animals were brought from
distant lands to broaden the palettes of consumers or serve as curiosities
in gardens and circuses.
Although the collection and transport of exotic species dates to ancient
times, written records of their ecological effects extend back only a few
centuries. One of the best-known historical examples of such species is the
Norway, or brown, rat (Rattus norvegicus). This rodent, which is believed to
have originated in northeastern China, spread throughout the islands of
the Pacific Ocean. Since the rat’s accidental introduction during
the voyages of exploration between the late 18th and 19th centuries,
populations have established themselves on numerous Pacific islands,
including Hawaii and New Zealand, where they prey on many native birds,
small reptiles, and amphibians. Some other introductions during this time,
however, were deliberate: dogs, cats, pigs, and other domesticated animals
were taken to new lands, and there they caused the extinction of many other
species, including the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) from Mauritius by 1681.

1 of 3

red foxRed fox (Vulpes vulpes), Potter's Marsh, Alaska, U.S.

2 of 3
cane toadThe cane toad (Rhinella marina) communicates with a slow low-
pitched call that is said to sound similar to a faraway tractor.(more)

3 of 3

Surinam cherrySurinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora).

Although invasive species occur on all
continents, Australia and Oceania have been particularly hard-hit. The first
wave of invasive species arrived in Australia and the islands of the Pacific
with European explorers in the form of feral cats and various rat
species. European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which originally
inhabited southern Europe and North Africa, were deliberately introduced
into Australia in 1827 to serve as a familiar elements for settlers in a new
land, and the rabbits multiplied significantly. Over time, they degraded
grazing lands by stripping the bark from native trees and shrubs and
consuming their seeds and leaves. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a small
predator found across much of the Northern Hemisphere, wreaked havoc
on marsupials and native rodents since its introduction in the 1850s.
Ironically, the red fox was brought to Australia to help control the
aforementioned European wild rabbits. The voracious cane toad (Bufo
marinus), whose native range spans from northern South America to
southern Texas, is a poisonous species with few natural predators. It was
introduced into Australia in the 1930s from Hawaii to reduce the effects of
beetles on sugarcane plantations. Cane toads are responsible for a variety of
ills, such as population declines in native prey species (bees and other small
animals), population drops in amphibian species that compete with them,
and the poisoning of species that consume them. A large number of invasive
plants have also been introduced to Australia. Giant sensitive tree (Mimosa
pigra) may have been introduced by the Darwin Botanic Garden sometime
before the 1890s; upalatable to most wildlife, it forms vast thickets and
disrupts native wetland ecosystems. Cherry guava (Psidium
cattleianum), Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora), Arabian coffee (Coffea
arabica), lantana (Lantana camara), and the ice cream bean (Inga edulis) are
all invasive species that were brought as food or ornamental plants and
escaped cultivation.

brown tree snakeBrown tree snake (Boiga irregularis).

On Guam, Saipan, and several other Pacific islands, the brown tree
snake (Boiga irregularis), a native of Australia and Indonesia, has caused the
extinction of several birds, reptiles, and amphibians and two of Guam’s three
native batspecies since its accidental introduction to these islands in the
1950s. Although the snake may have been brought to the islands to control
native rodent populations, it is more likely that the original invaders
were stowaways aboard military aircraft and cargo ships.

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sea lamprey: mouthThe mouth of the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

North American ecosystems have been greatly affected by invasive species
over the last two centuries. During the 19th and 20th centuries the Great
Lakes region was altered by the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), a
primitive fishindigenous to the coastal waters of the North Atlantic and
western Mediterranean Sea. The sea lamprey uses a specially modified
sucker to latch onto a game fish and drain its blood. It is thought that the
development of the Erie, Welland, and St. Lawrence canal systems allowed
the fish to migrate into the Great Lakes. In the 1980s the introduction of
the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), a filter-feeding mollusk, created
further ecological and economic disruption. This species is native to
the watersheds supplying the Black, Aral, and Caspian seas. Many traveled in
the ballast water in oceangoing ships, and they were subsequently released
when this water was dumped into the Great Lakes. Large numbers of zebra
mussels have been shown to clog water-intake pipes and remove much of
the algae from the aquatic ecosystems they inhabit.

bighead carp and silver carpPoster depicting invasive bighead carp

(Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix). (more)
Introduced into the United States from Eurasia in the 1970s to help control
algae on catfish farms in the Deep South, Asian carp—most notably bighead
carp(Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix)—escaped into
the Mississippi River system during flooding episodes in the early 1990s.
After establishing self-sustaining populations in the lower Mississippi River,
they began to move northward. Although breeding populations have been
restricted to the Mississippi River watershed, they could, if they enter the
Great Lakes ecosystem, seriously disrupt the food chains of the major lakes
and adjoining rivers. Compared with other species of Asian carp, these two
pose the greatest danger. They consume large amounts of algae
and zooplankton, eating as much as 40 percent of their body weight per day.
They are fierce competitors that often push aside native fish to obtain food,
and their populations grow rapidly, accounting for 90 percent of
the biomass in some stretches of the Mississippi and Illinois rivers.
By 2010 the Burmese python (Python bivittatus), a native of Southeast Asia,
was challenging the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) for
dominance in the wetlands of southern Florida. Released into the Florida
landscape after Hurricane Andrew damaged pet stores in 1992, as well as by
change-of-heart pet owners, Burmese pythons soon established breeding
populations in the state. Growing to nearly 6 metres (20 feet) long, these
giant constrictor snakes became significant predators in the area. The
python’s penchant for consuming the Key Largo wood rat (Neotoma
floridana) and the wood stork (Mycteria americana) have caused both
species to decline locally.

See the disruption wrought by the kudzu vine, which was introduced to the
southeastern United StatesLearn about the impact invasive kudzu vine
(Pueraria montana) has had on the ecosystems of the southeastern United
States.(more)
See all videos for this article
Parts of the United States are covered by kudzu (Pueraria montana,
variety lobata), a fast-growing vine native to southern and eastern Asia.
Kudzu was introduced into North America for erosion control and decorative
purposes in the late 19th century; however, it deprives native plants
of sunlight. Similarly, Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) has proven
extremely difficult to eradicate in eastern North America and can form dense
monocultures that crowd out native plants. In addition, a large section of the
United States is plagued by the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), an
aggressive swarming and biting species native to South America. The species
may have arrived in the United States in shipments of soil and other
landscaping materials.
Some introduced species have a global distribution. Most notable examples
in this category are disease-causing microbes. Early European colonists of
the New World and the Pacific introduced organisms that cause the common
cold, smallpox, sexually transmitted diseases, and other illnesses to lands
whose people had no resistance to them. Beginning in the late 1960s, a
strain of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, was first
carried by infected humans from Africa to Haiti. Later AIDS would spread to
populations across the globe. Global trade and pet trafficking are often
blamed for accidental disease outbreaks among other species, such as
the worldwide spread of amphibian chytridiomycosis in frogs and other
amphibians and possibly even avian influenza (bird flu) and West Nile
virus among various organisms.