ME 326 Lab Sheet (Jan 2024)

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional
Level - 3 Term - 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET)
Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
Credit Hour: 0.75 Cr. Hr.

Contact Hour: 1.5 Hrs.
Name of the Experiments:
Exp. 1 (a) Study of flow through a circular pipe
(b) Study of pipe friction
Exp. 2 (a) Study of flow meters
(b) Study of minor losses
Exp. 3 (a) Study of flow over a circular cylinder
(b) Study of dynamic pressure and velocity measurement by pitot tube
Exp. 4 (a) Study of flow through a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle
(b) Study of flow induced noise
ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 2 / 41

Experiment No. 1
(a) Study of flow through a circular pipe
(b) Study of pipe friction
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Experiment Outcomes
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the viscous fluid flow through a circular pipe, study the
flow regimes and determine the friction factor. On completion of the experiment, the students should be
able to
1. recognize the velocity profile at a particular section of a circular pipe
2. distinguish between laminar and turbulent flows
3. determine the friction factors using the Moody diagram
4. estimate the head loss in a pipe flow
Flow through a circular pipe
Fig. 1.1 Developing velocity profiles and pressure changes in the entrance of a duct flow.

Fig. 1.2 Comparison of laminar and turbulent pipe flow velocity profiles for the same volume flow:
(a) laminar flow; (b) turbulent flow.
The nature of the flow (laminar/turbulent) can be characterized based on the “Reynolds number, Re”. As a
general criterion, for flow through smooth pipes,
Re < 2300; flow is laminar
Re > 4000; flow is turbulent
The streamlines of the flow field are well-behaved in laminar flows. However, this well-behavior does no longer
exist in turbulent flow. The fundamental difference between laminar and turbulent flow lies in the chaotic,
random behavior of the various flow properties such as components of velocity, the pressure, the shear stress,
the temperature, and any other variable that has a field description.
Friction factors
In fluid dynamics, head is a concept that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid to the height of an
equivalent static column of that fluid. In case of flow over or through a solid surface (for example: pipe flow),
head loss is obvious. This is due to the viscous action (friction) in between the fluid and solid surfaces. The
viscosity of fluid (μ) is responsible for head loss. This loss is known as major loss. Although the head loss
represents a loss of energy, it does not represent a loss of total energy of the fluid. The total energy of the fluid
is conserved. The part of energy which is lost is utilized by the flow to overcome the skin friction drag. In a
fully developed laminar pipe flow, the head loss is given by:
32𝜇𝐿𝑉 64𝜇 𝐿 𝑉 2 𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = =( ) . =𝑓 . (1)
𝜌𝑔𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
where, hf = the head loss (m), f = Darcy friction factor, L = the pipe length (m), D = the hydraulic diameter of
the pipe (m), g = the constant for gravitational acceleration (m/s2) and V = the mean

flow velocity (m/s). In this equation, f is the Darcy-Weishbach friction factor (or commonly known as
“friction factor”) which is given by:
64𝜇 64
𝑓= =
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑅𝑒
where, Re is the Reynolds number giving the ratio of inertia force to viscous force in a flow and frequently
defined by:
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
where, ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3) and μ is the molecular (laminar) viscosity of fluid (Pa.s)
Equation (1) may also rearranged as

32𝜇𝐿𝑉 16𝜇 𝐿 𝑉 2 ′
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = = 4 ( ) . = 4𝑓 . (2)
𝜌𝑔𝐷 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
In equation (2), 𝑓 ′ is the Fanning friction factor given by
16𝜇 16 1
𝑓′ = = = 𝑓
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑅𝑒 4
Both Darcy-Weisbach (f) and Fanning friction factors (𝑓 ′ ) are either read from Moody diagram
or calculated using various correlations such as Colebrook equation.

EXPERIMENT 1(a)
Study of flow through a circular pipe
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the experiment are to
1. To measure the velocity of the flowing fluid

• At the throat of the inlet nozzle
• At various radii of the circular pipe.
2. To find the flow rate of flowing fluid.
3. To compare the discharge obtained graphically (V vs r2) with that obtained through the parabolic
nozzle.
APPARATUS
Apparatus used in this experiment are
1. A smooth long pipe

2. A parabolic nozzle at the inlet of the pipe
3. A suction fan at the outlet of the pipe
4. Three (air-water) manometers one at nozzle and other at pitot tube
5. Pitot tube with traverse mechanism
6. Static pressure tube at various distances
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

DATA COLLECTION
Given Data:
Nozzle throat diameter = 2 inch = 5.08×10-2 m
Pipe diameter = 3.1 inch = 7.87×10-2 m
Pitot tube diameter = 1.2×10-2 m
Linear distance travelled by the traverser after one full revolution = 0.1 inch = 2.54 mm = 0.00254 m
Co-efficient of discharge of the nozzle, Cd = 0.98
Universal gas constant, R = 287 J/KgK
Barometric pressure, P (Pa) =
Room temperature, T (K) =
Density of air, 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 (kg/m3) =
Viscosity of air, µair (N.s/m2) =
Specific weight of water, 𝛾𝑤 (N/m2) =
Experimental Data:
Table1. Data for Velocity of Flowing Fluid at the Throat of the Parabolic Nozzle
(For the constant operating speed of 3800 rpm)
Observation Position Manometric Deflection, Hw Velocity of Air, Vth
(m of water) (m/s)
Throat

Table2. Data for Velocity Profile in Circular Pipe (Measuring with pivot tube)
Radial Location r2 Manometric Velocity of Air

No. of No. of
r Deflection Vr (r)
Observations Revolutions (mm2)
(mm) (m of water) (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS
Sample Calculation:
Observation no.
Manometric defection, Hw (m of water) =
2∆𝑃 2𝐻𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Throat velocity, 𝑉𝑡ℎ = √𝜌 =√ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
=
𝑎𝑖𝑟
(𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎.)2
Nozzle throat cross sectional area, 𝐴𝑡ℎ = 𝜋 =
4
Flow rate of Nozzle, 𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑡ℎ × 𝑉𝑡ℎ =
2𝐻𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Velocity at a radial location, 𝑉𝑟 = √ =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
Discharge obtained graphically, 𝑄𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 𝜋 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 (𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑟 2 )
= (using trapezoidal rule)
(𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎.)2
Cross sectional area of the pipe, 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋 4
=
𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
Average velocity, 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = =
𝐴𝑝
𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝐷
Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇
=
𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 −𝑄𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
% error in the flow rate = | 𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
| × 100% =
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Plot the velocity profile along the radius of the circular pipe (Vr vs r).
Also plot Vr vs r2
DISCUSSION

EXPERIMENT 1(b)
Study of pipe friction
OBJECTIVES

i. measure head loss in a pipe flow at various Reynolds number, Re
ii. find Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and Fanning friction factor from Moody diagrams and
estimate the corresponding head loss
iii. calculate the hydraulic gradient (hf/L)
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
L
D
(1) (2)
h2
h1 B
ρ
A
ρm
Figure 1.1: Experimental setup for study of pipe friction
DATA COLLECTION
Given data:
Length of the pipe, L =
Diameter of the pipe, D =
Room Temperature, T =
Sp. weight of the flowing fluid, γ =
Sp. weight of the manometric fluid, γm =
Density of the flowing fluid, ρ =
Viscosity of the flowing fluid, µ =

Experimental Data:
Table 1. Data for determination of head loss
Mass of Manometer reading for head loss
Time of Mass flow Measured
No. of Water Left Right Net
Collection rate head loss, hf
Obs. Collected Column Column deflection,
(s) (kg/s) (m of Water)
(kg) (m) (m) Hm (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Table 2. Data for variation estimating head loss using Moody diagrams
Volume Friction factor from
No. Mean Reynolds Estimated Hydraulic
flow rate, Moody diagram
of velocity, Number, head loss, hf gradient
Q 
Obs. V (m/s) Re Darcy, f Fanning, f (m of Water) hf/L
(m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Sample calculations:
Observation no.:
 
1. Measured head loss, h f = H m  m − 1 =
  
VD
2. Reynolds number, Re = =

Darcy friction factor, f =
Fanning friction factor, f  =
L V2
3. Estimated head loss using Darcy friction factor, h f = f =
D 2g
L V2
4. Estimated head loss using Fanning friction factor, h f = 4 f  =
D 2g
5. Hydraulic gradient, i = hf/L =

i) Plot experimentally determined head loss against estimated head loss.
ii) Plot hydraulic gradient (hf/L) versus velocity (V) in a log-log graph and hence find the value of
exponent n to velocity V.
DISCUSSION

Experiment No. 2
(a) Study of flow meters
(b) Study of minor losses
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experiment Outcomes
The objective of this experiment is to make students familiar with different types of flow meters and
understand the minor losses in a fluid flow. On completion of the experiment, the students should be
able to
1. understand the principle of flow measurement in a pipe flow
2. calibrate flow meters such as orifice meter and Venturi meter
3. determine the K factor for sudden contraction and expansion
Principles of flow measurement:

There are many types of flow meters: turbine-type flow meter, rotameter, orifice meter, and venturi
meter, etc. In turbine flow meters, a rotor is placed in a flow. The rpm of the rotor varies with flow rate
and by measuring the rpm, the flow rate is determined. Rotameters are suitable for measuring flow rate
through a vertical pipe. The location of the float in a rotameter depends on the flow rate. Thus the flow
rate is determined by measuring the vertical displacement of the float. The orifice meter and Venturi
meter are known as pressure based flow meters (obstruction type). These meters reduce the flow area
and creates pressure differential which depends on flow rate. Thus flow rate is determined by measuring
the pressure drop.
Minor loss:
Minor losses in a pipe flow come from the change in flow area and (or) direction by different types of
fittings. Pipe fittings are always required to complete a hydraulic piping system; for example - sudden
contraction, sudden expansion, valves, reducers, bends, elbows, crosses, T-joints, etc. Some of them are
shown in figure below:

Minor losses are different from the major losses because these come from the viscous (friction) action
between the fluid and the pipe wall. If the pipe is long and the number of pipe fittings is small, the minor
loss is small compared to the major loss and may, therefore, be neglected. Even though they are termed
“minor”, the losses can be greater than the major losses. For example, when a valve is almost closed, the
loss can be almost infinite or in a short pipe with large number of fittings, the minor loss may dominate
over the major loss.
Minor losses are directly related to the velocity head in a flow, meaning that the higher the velocity head
the greater the losses will be. Unit for minor loss is feet or meters of a fluid column. For any fittings, the
minor losses (hL) are related to the velocity head (V2/2g) by introducing loss coefficients, K as shown
below:
V2
hL = K
2g

About the experiment
A venturi meter, a orifice meter and a rotameter are arranged in series in the test bench. A compressor is
used to flow air through the flow measuring devices. The flow rate is controlled by a gate valve located
at the discharge side of the compressor. Pressure drops in orifice meter as well as in the Venturi meter
are measured by water manometers and the theoretical flow rates are calculated from these pressure
drops. The orifice meter and venturi meter are calibrated comparing the measured flow rate (theoretical)
with the actual flow rate measured by the pre-calibrated rotameter.
The same test rig contains arrangement for measurement of pressure drop across a reducer (sudden
contraction) as well as across an enlarger (sudden expansion). Head losses across these fittings are
calculated from the measured pressure drops. The velocity head is calculated from the flow rate and flow
area. The K factors of these fittings are determined from the measured head losses and velocity heads.

EXPERIMENT 2(a)
Study of flow through an orifice meter and a venturi meter
OBJECTIVES
1. understand the working principle of orifice meter and venturi meter
2. calculate the mean Cd for orifice meter and venturi meter
3. verify the relation between flow rate and pressure drop in orifice meter and venturi meter by plotting
the flow rate against manometer reading (pressure drop) in log-log graph paper.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Figure 2.1: A typical test bench for flow measurement device
NECESSARY EQUATIONS
 
2 g  m − 1
Theoretical flow rate for orifice meter, Q = k H = A   Hm
T 1 m o 4
 Do 

1 − CC   
 D1 
 
2 g  m − 1
Theoretical flow rate for venturi meter, QT = k1 H m = A2    Hm
4
D 
1 −  2 
 D1 
Actual flow rate, Qa = kH n
Qa
Coefficient of discharge, Cd =
QT

DATA COLLECTION
Given data:
Pipe diameter, D1 =
Orifice diameter, Do =
Venturimeter throat diameter, D2 =
Room temperature, Tr =
Rotameter absolute pressure, pR = 1000 mm Aq G
Rotameter absolute temperature, TR = 303 K
Experimental Data:
Specific weight of mercury =
Specific weight of water =
Specific weight of air =
Table 1: Manometer and Rotameter readings

Manometer reading
Air temp, inside the pipe, Ta (oC)
Flow rate from rotameter, QR

flow pressure in the across the orifice across the venturi
pipe (Hg manometer) (water manometer) (water manometer)
No of Obs.
(m3/min)
Hm,O (mm of water)
Right column (mm)
Right column (mm)
Right column (mm)
Hm,V (mm of water)

Left column (mm)
Left column (mm)
Left column (mm)

Hm,Hg (mm of Hg)
Net deflection
Net deflection
Net deflection

CALCULATION AND RESULT
Table 2: Calculation of Cd for Orifice meter
deflection, Hm.O (m)
flowrate, QT (m3/s)
Actual flowrate,
From graph
Manometric
Theoretical
No of Obs.
Qa (m3/s)
Mean Cd
pa Ta Qa
k1 Cd =
(Pa) (K) QT
n Cd
Sample calculation for orifice meter:

Observation no:
1. Flow pressure, pa =  Hg gH m, Hg + patm =
 
2 g  m − 1
2. k = A    =
1 o 4
D 
1 − CC  o 
 D1 
(assume Cc = 1.0)
3. Theoretical flow rate, QT = k1 H m,O =

QR  p R Ta
4. Actual flow rate, Qa =   0 .8 =
60  TR Pa
where 0.8 is correction factor and pR = 1000 mm AqG +patm
Qa
5. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = =
QT

Table 3: Calculation of Cd for Venturi meter
deflection, Hm,V (m)
flowrate, QT (m3/s)
Actual flowrate,
From graph
Manometric
Theoretical
No of Obs.
Qa (m3/s)
Mean Cd
pa Ta Qa
k1 Cd =
(Pa) (K) QT
n Cd
Sample calculation for Venturi meter:

Observation no:
 
2 g  m − 1
2. k1 = A2    =
4
D 
1 −  2 
 D1 
3. Theoretical flow rate, QT = k1 H m,V =
QR  p R Ta
4. Actual flow rate, Qa =   0 .8 =
60  TR Pa
Qa
5. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = =
QT

Relation between flow rate and pressure drop across a flow meter:
Draw the Qa vs Hm curve in log-log graph paper for both orifice meter and venturi meter
Results:
Value of Cd for orifice meter =
Value of Cd for venturi meter =
DISCUSSIONS

EXPERIMENT 2(b)
Study of minor losses (local losses)
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this experiment are
1. to measure the minor loss in a sudden contraction and a sudden expansion fittings
2. to determine the loss coefficients or K factors for the sudden contraction and the sudden expansion
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
V1, p1, A1 V2, p2, A2 V3, p3, A3
Hm,C Hm,E
Figure 2.2: Sudden contraction and sudden expansion
Experimental data:
Pipe diameter at inlet, D1 = D3 =
Pipe diameter at contraction, D2 =
Room temperature, Tr =
Absolute pressure at Rotameter, pR = 1000 mm Aq G
Absolute temperature at Rotameter, TR = 303 K

5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
No of Obs. No of Obs.
pa
(Pa)
Air temp, inside the pipe, Ta (oC)
Ta
(K)
Left column (mm)
ρa
(Kg/m3)
Right column (mm)

Actual flowrate,
CALCULATION AND RESULT

Qa (m3/s) Net deflection
flow pressure in the
pipe (Hg manometer)
Hm,Hg (mm of Hg)

V12/2g
(m of water) Left column (mm)
V22/2g
(m of water) Right column (mm)
V32/2g Net deflection

(water manometer)
Manometer reading
across the contraction
(m of water) Hm,C (mm of water)
hL,contraction Left column (mm)
hL,expansion Right column (mm)

Table 4: Manometer and Rotameter readings for the pipe fittings
Contraction Net deflection

(water manometer)
across the expansion
Hm,E (mm of water)

Table 5: Determination of K factors for sudden contraction and sudden expansion
K factor
Flow rate from rotameter, QR
24 / 41
Expansion
(m3/min)
Sample calculation:
Observation No.
2. Density of air at Ta, ρa =
Q  p R Ta
3. Actual flow rate, Qa = R   0 .8 =
60  TR Pa
Qa
4. Velocity at section 1, V1 = =
 2
D1
4
Velocity head at section 1 = V12/2g =
5. Velocity at section 2, V2 = Qa =
 2
D2
4
6. Velocity at section 3, V3 = Qa =
 2
D3
4
  V 2 − V22
7. Head loss due to sudden contraction, hL,contraction = H m,C  w − 1 + 1 =
 a  2g
  V 2 − V32
8. Head loss due to sudden expansion, hL,expansion = H m, E  w − 1 + 2 =
 a  2g
9. K factor for contraction =
K factor for expansion =

(i) Determination of K factor from graph:
Plot on a log-log paper head loss against velocity head for both sudden contraction and
sudden expansion. Determine the K factors from the slopes of the curves.
(ii) Compare the K factors calculated in Table 5 with those obtained from the graphs.
DISCUSSIONS

Experiment No. 3
(a) Study of flow over a circular cylinder
(b) Study of dynamic pressure and velocity measurement by pitot tube
_____________________________________________________________________________
Experiment Outcomes
The objective of this experiment is to show how pressure and velocity varies on the surface of a circular
cylinder when air flows over it. The students will also learn the principle of dynamic pressure
measurement using a pitot tube. On completion of the experiment, the students should be able to
(i) Visualize the pressure distribution around a cylinder placed in air stream
(ii) the concept of stagnation point
(iii) the concept of drag coefficient and drag force
(iv) understand the principle of dynamic pressure and velocity measurement in a fluid flow.
Flow over a circular cylinder

This experiment involves the study of flow past a circular cylinder in a uniform stream. The flow pattern
and the drag on a cylinder are functions of the Reynolds number, Re = U  D /  based on the cylinder
diameter D and the undisturbed free-stream velocity, U∞. Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia
to viscous forces in the flow. At the leading edge of the cylinder, a stagnation point is formed where the
oncoming flow is brought to rest. The pressure here is equal to the stagnation pressure and the pressure
( )
coefficient, C p = ( p − p ) / 1 2 U 2 is, therefore, equal to unity. To either side of the stagnation point
the flow accelerates around the forward surface of the cylinder producing a drop in the static pressure.
Immediately adjacent to the cylinder surface a thin boundary layer is formed. The boundary layer is a
region where the velocity drops rapidly to zero to satisfy the no-slip condition at the cylinder surface.
The direct effects of viscosity are felt only within the boundary layer. The flow separates from the
cylinder surface at some point known as separation point. However, in potential flow theory, the flow is
considered as inviscid, irrotational and incompressible and there is no separation of flow.
If Re is less than about 4×105, the boundary layer remains laminar from the stagnation point at the front
of the cylinder to the point where it separates. The resulting flow pattern is associated with a high drag
on the cylinder Cd being about 1.2. The laminar boundary layer separates just upstream of the maximum
thickness. Downstream of the separation, the flow quickly becomes turbulent and a broad wake is
formed. The wake as a whole is unstable and rolls up into vortices that are shed antisymmetrically at
regular intervals from the cylinder. This type of wake is called a von Kármán vortex street.
At Reynolds numbers greater than 4×105, the boundary layer on the forward face of the cylinder
undergoes transition and becomes turbulent. The resulting flow pattern is associated with a much lower
drag, Cd being about 0.3. The precipitous drop in Cd that occurs as a result of transition to

Fig. 3.1 von Karman vortex street behind a circular cylinder at Re = 300
turbulence is usually referred to as the drag crisis. The turbulent boundary layer generated is much less
susceptible to adverse pressure gradients. It remains attached to the cylinder surface well past its
maximum thickness. As a result the wake is much narrower, the imbalance of pressure forces on the
cylinder surface is much smaller and the pressure drag is greatly reduced.
To study this case, a circular cylinder of diameter of 2 inch has been installed inside a low-speed wind
tunnel. The cylinder consists of a small hole mounted with a pitot tube (P5). This pitot tube measures the
pressure on the cylinder surface. The cylinder can be rotated at angular steps of 10º. The pressure
readings on the cylinder surface are recorded by rotating the cylinder.
Pitot tube and pitot static tube
A Pitot tube is an instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. It is widely used to determine the
airspeed of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas velocities in industrial
applications. The pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point in the flow stream and
not the average velocity in the pipe or conduit.
A basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, the
moving fluid is brought to rest as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is
the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot
pressure.
A pitot-static tube combines the features of a pitot tube and a static port by using two concentric tubes.
The inner tube with opening at the tip gives stagnation or total pressure. The outer tube with pressure
taps on its side wall gives the static pressure. The output of a pitot static tube is the difference between
2p
the two and is called the dynamic pressure, p = ½ U2. So, the flow velocity is given by, U = .

Figure 3.2: Pitot static tube

EXPERIMENT 3 (a)
Study of flow over a circular cylinder
OBJECTIVES
i. study the flow over a circular cylinder
ii. find the pressure distribution over the cylinder surface
iii. calculate the pressure coefficient, Cp and drag coefficient, Cd
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP/ APPARATUS

(i) Wind tunnel
(ii) Circular cylinder
(iii) Inclined manometer
(iv) Pitot tube
Figure 3.3: Experimental set up
DATA COLLECTION
Given data:
Diameter of the cylinder, D = 2 inch = 50.8 mm
Room Temperature (Troom) =
Density of air, air =
Density of water, water =
Initial reading of manometer (H) =
Free stream dynamic pressure head, (h2 − h1) =

Experimental Data and calculation:
Table 1. Table for calculation of coefficient of pressure, Cp
No. of Position, Manometer h5 − h1 = Experimental Theoretical Experimental
obs.  (deg) reading, M M−H Cp C p = 1− 4 sin 2  Cp cos
1 0 1
2 10 0.88
3 20 0.54
4 30 0
5 40 -0.65
6 50 -1.35
7 60 -2
8 70 -2.53
9 80 -2.88
10 90 -3
11 100 -2.88
12 110 -2.53
13 120 -2
14 130 -1.35
15 140 -0.65
16 150 0
17 160 0.54
18 170 0.88
19 180 1
20 190 0.88
21 200 0.54
22 210 0
23 220 -0.65
24 230 -1.35
25 240 -2
26 250 -2.53
27 260 -2.88
28 270 -3
29 280 -2.88
30 290 -2.53
31 300 -2
32 310 -1.35
33 320 -0.65
34 330 0
35 340 0.54
36 350 0.88
37 360 1

Sample calculation:
Observation no.:
1. Angular position:  (deg) =
2. Manometer reading: M =
3. h5 − h1 = M −H =
h5 − h1
4. Experimental coefficient of pressure, C p = =
h2 − h1
5. Theoretical (potential theory) coefficient of pressure, C p = 1− 4 sin 2  =
1
6. Experimental, Cd = 2 × (Area under the Cpcos θ vs. θrad curve)
1 2π 1 2π
7. Theoretical cd = 2 ×∫0 cp cos θ d θ = 2 × ∫0 (1 − 4sin2 θ) cos θ d θ =
(i) Plot theoretical and experimental pressure coefficient Cp against the angular position θ
(ii) Plot Cpcos θ against θrad and calculate the drag coefficient Cd from the plot.
DISCUSSIONS

EXPERIMENT 3(b)
Study of dynamic pressure and velocity measurement by pitot tube
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this experiment are
i. to study the construction and different connections of a pitot tube
ii. to measure the velocity at different locations in a wind tunnel
iii. to draw the inlet velocity profile in a wind tunnel
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
DATA SHEET
Room temp =
Density of air, ρair =
Density of water, ρwater =
Table 2. Table for determination of velocity profile

Position of pitot tube, Manometer reading, Velocity, v Average velocity,
No. of Obs.
(inch) h2 − h1 (m/s) V (m/s)
1 0 (Surface)
2 0.4
3 0.8
4 1.2
5 1.6
6 2
7 2.4
8 2.8
9 3.2
10 3.6
11 4
12 4.4
13 4.8
14 5.2
15 5.6
16 6 (Center)

Sample Calculation
Observation no.:
1
Free stream dynamic pressure,   air  v 2 = (h2 − h1 )  g   water
2
2  (h2 − h1 )  g  water
So, velocity, v = =
air
Plot velocity vectors at different measurement locations and draw the velocity profile.
DISCUSSIONS

Experiment No. 4
(a) Study of flow through a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle
(b) Study of flow induced noise
___________________________________________________________________________
Experiment Outcomes
The objective of this experiment is to make students familiar with the behavior of flow through a
Converging-Diverging (CD) nozzle. On completion of the experiment, the students should be able to
understand the
- nature of compressible flow through a CD nozzle and the condition of choked flow.
- level of the noise generated by air issuing from a pressurized reservoir.
Basic information on compressible flow

For low speed flows, density may be assumed constant, without significant loss of accuracy. At very
high speeds, however, compressibility effects become important, and in fact dominate the flow field.
The most important parameter in compressible flows is Mach number, M = V/a, where ‘V’ is the flow
velocity and ‘a’ is the speed of sound at local thermodynamic conditions. The speed of sound is
calculated as a = kRT for an ideal gas where k is the ratio of specific heats (1.4 for air), R is the gas
constant (287 J/KgK for air), and T is the local temperature (K)]. At M = 1.0, the flow is called sonic,
meaning that the flow velocity equals the speed of sound. The flow fields are classified based on Mach
number as follows:
M < 0.3: Incompressible flow and compressibility effects are negligible.

0.3 < M < 0.8 : Subsonic flow, where compressibility effects are important but no
appearance of shock waves
0.8 < M < 1.2: Transonic flow, where shock waves first appear in the flow field,
dividing the subsonic and supersonic flows.
1.2 < M < 3.0: Supersonic flow, where shock waves are present but there are no
subsonic regions
M > 3.0: Hypersonic flow, where shock waves and other physical changes
(surface chemistry, plasma dynamics) are especially very strong.
The commercial civil aircrafts (Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Boeing 777, Airbus A380, etc.) are flying in
transonic regime; while the military fighters (F-22, MIG-29, Sukhoi Su-57, etc.) are operating at
supersonic velocities. On the other hand, an example of hypersonic flow is encountered when the space
shuttle re-enters the earth’s atmosphere and descends to earth.

Flow Flow
λ-shock wave
(a) Shock waves around an airfoil (b) Shock waves inside a CD nozzle
Fig. 4.1 Schlieren images for high speed flows with formation of shock waves
About the experiment
In this experiment, high pressure air from a reservoir tank is passed through a converging diverging (CD)
nozzle to generate subsonic as well as supersonic flow at various exit pressures. The pressure distribution
along the axis of the CD nozzle and mass flow rate are measured. Choked flow condition and shock
wave phenomena are analyzed.
In the second part of the experiment, high pressure air is released from the reservoir to the ambient and
subsequently jet noise is induced. Sound pressure level (SPL) in dBA is measured at various reservoir
pressures. Sound pressure level in dBA indicates the intensity of sound pressure with respect to the sound
pressure at the hearing threshold. High level of sound pressure, if unwanted, is called noise and is
damaging to human ear. Prolonged exposure to high level of noise can cause permanent deafness.

EXPERIMENT 4(a)
Study of flow through a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the experiment are to study
1. the flow through a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle
2. the effect of delivery (back) pressure on pressure distribution along the nozzle axis
3. the effect of delivery (back) pressure on mass flow rate from the CD nozzle
4. the phenomena of choked flow and shock waves.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
T1 px
p1 p2
Inlet probe
Reservoir
CD nozzle
Ta p2
PR =
p1
Orifice meter
p2
Outlet Delivery
Pressure tappings
to manometer
Fig 4.2.: Experimental set up for studying the flow through a converging-diverging nozzle.
DATA COLLECTION
Given data:
For nozzle, throat diameter, dt = 0.1884 inch = 4.785 mm
Nozzle exit diameter, de = 0.2172 inch = 5.517 mm
d e2
Nozzle Expansion ratio,  = 2 =
dt
Pressure probe diameter, dp = 0.133 inch = 3.378 mm

Experimental Data:
Inlet pressure, p1 (psig) = 80 Temperature of reservoir, T1 (K) =
Table 1. Data for variation of local pressure (px) along the axis of the nozzle
Numeric Delivery pressure, p2 (psig)
probe
position, x 60 50 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Table 2. Data for Orifice meter

Delivery pressure, p2 (psig)
60 50 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
Hm(inch of H2O)
Hm (m of H2O)

CALCULATION AND RESULTS
p1= 80 psig = kPa (abs); Throat area, At (m2) =
Table 3. Flow rate through the nozzle at different pressure ratio
Max. mass
throat, ρt (kg/m3)
Air vel. at throat,
meter, 𝑚̇ (kg/s)
m
Throat pressure,
back pressure
Mass flow rate
Mass flow rate

Pressure Ratio
Inlet Pressure
Air density at
conditions, 𝑚̇
p1 (kPa abs)
throat Tt (K)
flow rate,
pt (kPa abs.)
from orifice
from throat
Air temp. at
PR = p2/p1
p2 m max
Vt (m/s)

m max (kg/s)
(kg/s)
pt/p1
from from from from
kPa throat orifice throat orifice
psig
abs. cond. meter cond. meter
60
50
40
35
30
25
20
15
10

Sample calculation
Observation no:
 k −1

 
RT1 1 −   

1. Velocity of air at throat of the nozzle, Vt = 2k pt
k
k −1   p1  
 
where, k = ratio of specific heats = 1.4 for air and R = gas constant = 287 J/kgK for air.
Subscript 1 indicates inlet/reservoir properties and t throat properties.
k −1
p  k
2. Temperature of air at the throat of the nozzle, Tt =  t  T1 =
 p1 
pt
3. Density of air at the throat of the nozzle, t = =
RTt

4. Area at the throat of the nozzle, At =
4
(d t
2
)
− d p2 =
5. Mass flow rate of air at throat (from throat condition), m = t AtVt =
6. Mass flow rate from orifice meter, m = 0.05 H m =
 max (throat conditions ) =

7. Maximum flow rate, m
 max (Orifice meter ) =
m
 max (throat conditions ) =

 m
8. Mass flow ratio, m
 max (Orifice meter ) =

 m
m

Axial pressure distribution:

local static pressure px vs. axial position (x) for different pressure ratio (p2/p1).
Effect of pressure ratio on mass flow rate:

m
Mass flow ratio vs pressure ratio (p2/p1) both from (a) throat conditions and (b) orifice meter.
m max
DISCUSSIONS

EXPERIMENT 4(b)
Study of flow induced noise
OBJECTIVES
To study the sound pressure level (noise level) during the issue of high pressure air from a reservoir
APPARATUS
1. Compressor with air reservoir
2. Sound Level Meter
3. Pressure gauge
4. Personal safety equipment (PSE) to protect ears from exposure to high level of noise
Figure 4.3: A typical air compressor with reservoir

DATA SHEET
Distance of the sound meter from the sound or noise source =
Observation Air pressure in the Air pressure in the Sound Pressure Level
No. reservoir reservoir (dBA)
(bar Gage) (bar Abs.)
1
2
3
4
DISCUSSION

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ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Credit Hour: 0.75 Cr. Hr.

Name of the Experiments:

Exp. 1 (a) Study of flow through a circular pipe

(b) Study of pipe friction

Exp. 2 (a) Study of flow meters

(b) Study of minor losses

Exp. 3 (a) Study of flow over a circular cylinder

(b) Study of dynamic pressure and velocity measurement by pitot tube

Exp. 4 (a) Study of flow through a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle

(b) Study of flow induced noise

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 2 / 41

Flow through a circular pipe

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 3 / 41

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 4 / 41

Equation (1) may also rearranged as

In equation (2), 𝑓 ′ is the Fanning friction factor given by

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 5 / 41

1. To measure the velocity of the flowing fluid

Apparatus used in this experiment are

1. A smooth long pipe

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 6 / 41

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 7 / 41

Radial Location r2 Manometric Velocity of Air

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 8 / 41

Manometric defection, Hw (m of water) =

Flow rate of Nozzle, 𝑄𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐴𝑡ℎ × 𝑉𝑡ℎ =

Discharge obtained graphically, 𝑄𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 𝜋 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 (𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑟 2 )

= (using trapezoidal rule)

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 9 / 41

The objectives of the experiment are to

Figure 1.1: Experimental setup for study of pipe friction

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 10 / 41

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 11 / 41

Darcy friction factor, f =

Fanning friction factor, f  =

5. Hydraulic gradient, i = hf/L =

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 12 / 41

Principles of flow measurement:

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 15 / 41

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 16 / 41

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 17 / 41

Figure 2.1: A typical test bench for flow measurement device

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 18 / 41

Table 1: Manometer and Rotameter readings

Flow rate from rotameter, QR

Right column (mm)

Hm,V (mm of water)

Left column (mm)

Left column (mm)

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 19 / 41

Table 2: Calculation of Cd for Orifice meter

deflection, Hm.O (m)

Sample calculation for orifice meter:

1. Flow pressure, pa =  Hg gH m, Hg + patm =

3. Theoretical flow rate, QT = k1 H m,O =

ME 326 Fluid Mechanics Sessional 20 / 41