Yr3 B2 PBSet1

Third-Year Symmetry and Relativity Michaelmas Term 2024
Caroline Terquem
Problem set 1
Symmetries
Problem 1: Conserved quantity under a Galilean transformation
Consider the infinitesimal Galilean transformation t′ = t and r′ = r + ϵvt, between two

reference frames (F) and (F’), where (F’) moves with a constant velocity −ϵv relative to
(F).
a) Show that the action for a free particle is not conserved under this transformation.
However, show that the variation δL of the Lagrangian under this transformation is
a total time derivative, which ensures the transformation is a symmetry.
b) The version of Noether’s theorem derived in the lectures applies when the action
is conserved. For t′ = t, this requires δL = const. Now, consider an infinitesimal
transformation qi (t) → qi′ (t′ ) = qi (t) + ϵηi (qk , t) and t′ = t, such that δL is not
constant but equals ϵdf /dt, where L (qi , q̇i , t) and f (qi , t). Show that this leads to
another form of Noether’s theorem:
X ∂L
ηi − f = const.
∂ q̇i
i
c) Apply this result to the case of a Galilean transformation for a system of N particles.
Problem 2: Conservation of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector
Consider a non-relativistic particle of mass m and position r, moving in a central potential

of the form V (r) = −k/r, with k > 0. Let L denote its angular momentum.
a) Consider an infinitesimal transformation of the form r → r′ = r + ϵ×L, where ϵ

represents an infinitesimal vector. Show that the change in the Lagrangian due to
this transformation can be written as:
mk 2
δL = − r (ϵ · ṙ) − (ϵ · r) (r · ṙ) .
r3
Further, prove that:
d r
δL = −mkϵ ·
dt r
1
b) Use Noether’s theorem, as established in Problem 2, to show that the following
vector, known as the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector, is a constant of motion:
A = p×L − kmr̂,
where p is the momentum and r̂ is the unit vector in the radial direction. This is a
useful result, as the equation of planetary motion can be derived directly from the
fact that A is constant.
Problem 3: Conservation of energy for fields
Consider a Lagrangian density L that depends on a field ϕ(r, t), its time derivative ∂t ϕ
and its spatial derivatives ∂i ϕ, but not explicitly on r or t. The action over an arbitrary
spatial domain Ω and between arbitrary times tA and tB is given by:
ˆ tB ˆ
S= dt dv L (ϕ, ∂t ϕ, ∂i ϕ) ,
tA Ω
where dv = dxdydz is a small volume element.
a) Derivation of Noether’s theorem for fields: Consider a time translation t → t′ = t + ϵ

by an infinitesimal amount ϵ. Since the Lagrangian density L does not explicitly
depend on time, this transformation leaves the action invariant. By following the
derivation from section 1.3.2 of the lecture notes (or otherwise), derive Noether’s
theorem for the field, which takes the form:

∂L ∂L
∂t ∂t ϕ − L + ∂i ∂t ϕ = 0. (1)
∂ (∂t ϕ) ∂ (∂i ϕ)
Here, ∂i denotes a spatial derivative, where i = 1, 2, 2, and repeated indices imply
summation over i.
b) Conservation of energy and the Hamiltonian: Integrate equation (1) over the entire
volume V of the system. Assuming that the field vanishes at the boundaries, show
that: ˆ
∂L
H≡ dv ∂t ϕ − L = const. (2)
V ∂ (∂t ϕ)
Here, H is the Hamiltonian and represents the total energy of the system, so the
expression within the integrand is an energy density. In light of this result, provide
a physical interpretation of equation (1).
c) Hamiltonian for a one-dimensional crystal: Calculate the Hamiltonian for a one-

dimensional crystal, where the Lagrangian density was derived in the lecture notes:
1 1
L = ρ (∂t ϕ)2 − T (∂x ϕ)2 − V(ϕ). (3)
2 2
2
Here, ϕ(x, t) represents the displacement of the atom located at x from its equilibrium
position, ρ is the mass density, T is the tension, and V(ϕ) is the potential energy
density.
Problem 4: Lagrangian for the electromagnetic field
Consider the following Lagrangian density for the electromagnetic field:

ϵ0 2 1 2
L= E − B .
2 2µ0
The electric field E and magnetic field B are related to the scalar potential ϕ and vector
potential A as follows:
∂A
E = −∇ϕ − , (4)
∂t
B = ∇ × A. (5)
The Lagrangian density can be viewed as a function of the fields ϕ, Ax , Ay and Az .
a) Apply the Euler-Lagrange equations for fields to show that this Lagrangian yields
two of Maxwell’s equations in vacuum. How can the other two Maxwell’s equations
be derived?
b) The results from problem 3 can be generalised to a Lagrangian density that depends
on multiple fields ψk and their derivatives. Invariance under time translation then
yields Noether’s theorem in the form ∂t E + ∂i Si = 0, where:
∂L ∂L
E= ∂t ψk − L, Si = ∂t ψk , (6)
∂ (∂t ψk ) ∂ (∂i ψk )
with summation over k implied. Show that:
ϵ0 1 2
E= E+ B − ϵ0 ∇ · (ϕE) .
2 2µ0
The last term is a divergence, representing a flux of energy through a surface when
a volume integral is carried out, and therefore should belong to the flux ∂i Si rather
than the energy density E. Recall that E was derived from the definition of H,
which is an integral over the entire space, under the assumption that divergence
terms do not contribute, as the fields were assumed to vanish at the boundaries.
To remove this term from the energy density, we can apply a gauge transformation
ϕ → ϕ̃ = ϕ − ∂t Γ and A → Ã = A + ∇Γ, where we choose the function Γ such that
∂t Γ = ϕ, i.e. ϕ̃ = 0 (this is called the Weyl, or temporal, gauge). Show that E and
B are invariant under this gauge transformation.
Using the fields ϕ̃ and Ã as variables for the Lagrangian density, show that:
ϵ0 1 2 1
E= E+ B and S = E×B.
2 2µ0 µ0
3
Problem 5: Lagrangian for the Schrödinger equation
Show that, if ψ and ψ ⋆ are treated as two independent field variables, the Lagrangian
density:
h2 ih ⋆
L = 2 ∇ψ · ∇ψ ⋆ + V ψψ ⋆ − (ψ ∂t ψ − ψ∂t ψ ⋆ ) ,
8π m 4π
leads to the Schrödinger equation:
−h2 2 ih
2
∇ ψ+Vψ = ∂t ψ.
8π m 2π
Calculate the energy density.

Yr3 B2 PBSet1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yr3 B2 PBSet1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Yr3 B2 PBSet1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Third-Year Symmetry and Relativity Michaelmas Term 2024

Problem 1: Conserved quantity under a Galilean transformation

Consider the infinitesimal Galilean transformation t′ = t and r′ = r + ϵvt, between two

Problem 2: Conservation of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector

Consider a non-relativistic particle of mass m and position r, moving in a central potential

a) Consider an infinitesimal transformation of the form r → r′ = r + ϵ×L, where ϵ

Problem 3: Conservation of energy for fields

where dv = dxdydz is a small volume element.

a) Derivation of Noether’s theorem for fields: Consider a time translation t → t′ = t + ϵ

c) Hamiltonian for a one-dimensional crystal: Calculate the Hamiltonian for a one-

Problem 4: Lagrangian for the electromagnetic field

Consider the following Lagrangian density for the electromagnetic field:

The Lagrangian density can be viewed as a function of the fields ϕ, Ax , Ay and Az .

You might also like