The Biological Basis Attachment

pp • 23-40
The biological basis of parent-infant

attachment: Foundations and implications
for further development2
Carolina Blair-Gómez
Magíster en Psicología, Washburn University, Kansas, USA
Psicologá de la Universidad Pontifica Bolivariana Medellín
Correo electonico: [email protected]
Recibido: 16/10/2012
Washburn University, Kansas, USA Aceptado: 24/04/2013
Abstract
Attachment is one of the most important theories that has ever been produced in the field
of Psychology. It explains not only the relationship that a child has with its mother, but also how
a child is structured and developed into a psychic being. Understanding the Attachment Theory
helps elucidate how the interactions that take place in the parent-infant relationship impact the
rest of the child’s life by predicting the its neural, emotional, and social development. For this
reason, it is important to explain the foundation of this important relationship. This article reviews
some of the literature that, based on research from the fields of psychology, biology, and genetics,
shows evidence on how this special tie is founded on genetic and endocrine substrates that, in
interaction with the environment, function to create the expression of an individual.
Keywords
Attachment, parent-infant, responsiveness, biological, evolutionary
explanation, genetic, endocrine, oxitocin, cortisol
2 Blair-Gómez, C. (2013). The biological basis of parent-infant attachment: Foundations and implications for further
development. Informes Psicológicos, 13(1), 23-40.
Informes Psicológicos
Vol. 13 No. 1 • Enero-Junio • 2013
ISSN: 2145-3535 23
pp • 23-40 Carolina Blair-Gómez
Bases biológicas del apego paterno-infantil:

Fundaciones e implicaciones
para el desarrollo futuro.
Resumen
La Teoría del Apego es una de las teorías más importantes que se ha producido en el campo de
la Psicología. Ésta explica no sólo la relación que un niño o niña tiene con su madre, pero también
cómo un niño o niña se estructura y desarrolla en un ser psíquico. Entender la Teoría del Apego ayuda
a elucidar cómo las interacciones que se dan en la relación padre-infante impactan el resto de la vida
del niño o niña al predecir su desarrollo neural, emocional y social, y por esta razón, es importante
explicar la fundación de esta importante relación. Este artículo revisa algo de la literatura que, basada
en investigaciones desde los campos de la psicología, biología y genética, muestra evidencia de cómo
esta unión especial está fundada en sustratos genéticos y endocrinos que, en interacción con el
ambiente, funcionan para crear la expresión de un individuo.
Palabras clave
Apego, padre-infante, responsividad, biológica, evolutiona
explicación, genética, endocrina, oxitocina, cortisol.
A base biológica do apego pais-filhos:

Fundamentos e implicações para um maior
desenvolvimento
Resumo
O apego é uma das teorias mais importantes que já foram produzidas no campo da Psicologia.
Ele explica não só a relação que a criança tem com a mãe, mas também como uma criança é
estruturada e desenvolvida em um ser psíquico. Entendendo a Teoria do Apego ajuda a elucidar
como as interações que ocorrem na relação pais-bebê impactam o resto da vida da criança,
prevendo o suo desenvolvimento neural, emocional e social. Por esta razão, é importante explicar a
base desta relação importante. Este artigo analisa parte da literatura que, com base em pesquisas
das áreas de psicologia, biologia e genética, mostra evidência de como este laço especial baseia-
se em substratos genéticos e endócrinos que, em interação com o meio ambiente, a função para
criar a expressão de um indivíduo.
Palavras chave
Apego, pais-filhos, capacidade de resposta, explicação biológica, evolutiva, genética,
endócrina, oxitocina, cortisol.
24 ISSN: 2145-3535
The biological basis of parent-infant attachment: Foundations and implications for further development pp • 23-40
attachment as this parent-infant tie and,
I ntroduction
Attachment, as has previously been

by studying the theoretical developments
of researchers like Konrad Lorenz with
the imprinting in geese, and Harry Harlow
with the emotional deprivation of orphan
rhesus monkeys (Bretherton, 1992)
defined (Bretherton, 1992) refers to a spe- viewed the evolutionary basis of attach-
cial human need to form close affectional ment, pointing to the similarities of hu-
ties, which bond parents and infants in mans and animals, in their need for con-
a way that the parent not only functions tact and physical connection that went
as a caregiver, but also as a secure base beyond the need for food. Ainsworth, in
that the child can use as a safe way to her own unique way, studied its develop-
explore the world around him, and as he ment in Uganda, establishing that attach-
or she grows older, the inner world as ment is universal and that it is observed
well. Although it has always been said throughout many different cultures.
that the ultimate function of attachment is
the protection of the infant or child from Ainsworth and Bell (1970) described a la-
any potential danger, research shows boratory procedure developed by the for-
that the objective of the attachment re- mer author, called the Strange Situation,
lationship goes way beyond, showing its to evaluate the attachment pattern that
potential to explain the child’s posterior was present between an infant and the
functioning: the development of sche- mother, by observing them interact in a
mas or perceptions about the world, the series of eight steps and especially during
child’s emotional well-being (Volling, McE- moments of separation and encounter.
lwain, Notaro, & Herrera, 2002; Waters The steps of the procedure included: a)
et al., 2010) psychological health (Anglin, the experimenter introduces the mother
Cohen, & Chen, 2008; Brumariu & Kerns, and infant to the room and leaves; (b) the
2008) and the determination of the quality mother and child are in the room, while
of posterior relationships with others (Levy the child explores without any participa-
& Kelly, 2010) including the way he or she tion from the mother; (c) the experimenter
will act as a parent in the future (Van Ij- discretely enters the room, at first he re-
zendoorn, 1995; Grienenberger, Kelly, & mains in silence, then talks to the mother,
Slade, 2005). and finally approaches the child; (d) first
episode of separation: the mother discre-
History of attachment tely exits the room and the child is left for
some minutes with the experimenter; (e)
theory: the concept, first encounter episode: the mother en-
different types, ters the room, and comforts the child; the
experimenter exits the room, the mother
and antecedents of elicits play behavior in the child, and then,
attachment saying goodbye, leaves the room; (f) se-
cond separation episode: the child is left
Both Bowlby and Ainsworth, consi- alone in the room for no more than three
dered to be the founders of Attachment minutes; (g) the experimenter enters the
Theory, recognized the importance of room trying to interact with the infant, and
ISSN: 2145-3535 25
finally; (h) second encounter episode: the with the mother, not letting her hug them,
mother enters the room, lifting and holding being rigid, or pushing away from her to
the infant while the experimenter discre- be let down again. Because of this mani-
tely exits the room. These eight steps of festation of ambivalence or inconsistency,
interaction between a mother and a child, these children were classified as Insecu-
and especially, the way in which the baby re-Ambivalent (sometimes also referred to
behaved in the moments of separation as Resistant). Eventually, another type of
and of reencounter helped Mary Ainswor- attachment was described (Main & Solo-
th come up with a classification of diffe- mon, 1990), given that some children in
rent patterns of attachment. She labeled the Strange Situation would behave di-
as Secure those infants who explored fferently. Children who did not use any of
the environment in the presence of the the other three strategies in a consistent
mother, and seemed somewhat anxious manner, but showed behaviors that did
in the presence of the stranger. These not have a clear objective, an observa-
also appeared upset after the separation ble goal or intention, or even manifested
from the mother, and in the moment of re- headbanging, freezing and other bizarre
union stopped crying and felt reassured behaviors, were defined as Disorganized/
by the mother’s presence. Secure infants Disoriented. These infants had equally
generally returned to their usual behavior disorganized, distorted or atypical paren-
of playing and exploring after separation ting, which represented for them, both a
and encounter. Other infants would ex- source of comfort and distress (Benoit,
plore without noticing the presence of the 2004).
mother or did not use her as a base for
exploration; they found no preference for The manner in which infants react in
her over the stranger, and after separation situations of separation is a representa-
would seem to not notice her absence or tion of the way in which they are learning
if they did, they would look for the mother to regulate their emotions; a process that
although in a less anxious or distressed is learned through the interactions with
state, and on reunion would just avoid her. the caregiver. It has been shown (Volling,
These children were referred to as Inse- McElwain, Notaro, & Herrera, 2002) that
cure-Avoidant. And finally, the other type the quality of parental responsiveness
of children seemed to not want to explore (e.g., the way in which the parents attend
the environment around them, needing to to the children’s emotional and biological
be close to the mother at all times. They needs) impacts the regulation of emotions
seemed anxious and apprehensive, loo- in children by going through a process in
king at the mother constantly when trying which the parents serve the function of
to explore, as if needing to “keep an eye regulating the child’s emotions first, until
on her” to not abandon them, and appea- finally the child learns how to do it himself.
red exceedingly troubled after separation, Thus, a secure child has caregivers who
when they would cry and scream showing respond to his distress in sensitive, caring
a need for contact. Nevertheless, after and warm ways, giving the infant the fe-
the mother returned and were being held, eling that he can trust the caregivers to
although expected to feel comforted, they be ready, accessible, and sensible to his
would not calm down, but instead, they needs. In this sense, a secure child has
would even be seen as though angry more flexible emotion regulation skills. An
26 ISSN: 2145-3535
avoidant child has caregivers who res- protection and care. Given that in infan-
pond in cold, insensitive or even rejecting cy he cannot get up, start walking, feed
ways, showing the child that he cannot himself or run in order to protect his own
count on the caregivers to be ready, ac- life like many other animals do, his depen-
cessible, and sensible to meet his needs; dency is high, his vulnerability is higher,
therefore, expressing emotions does not and his need for a responsive and warm
serve any purpose. Thus, eventually the caregiver, is even greater. But, how does
child develops a strategy in which he the infant guarantee that he is going to be
learns to minimize emotional expression. cared for? What has shaped mothers to
An ambivalent child has inconsistent, be responsive and maternal?
contradictory parents who respond in
very different ways every time he or she The infant needs to display a number
feels distressed, and continuously threa- of behaviors or responses that, similar to
ten the child to abandon, or reject him, those of the other mammals, are instinc-
therefore showing the child that he has tual. Many of them are shared with other
to worry about his caregiver’s presence primates; are developed during a critical
or well-being, leaving the child with the period of time; and ensure that the mother
constant feeling of uncertainty and un- will direct her own responses to him.
controllability. In this way, the child learns When an infant has a need and cries, the
to maximize the display of emotions in the cry functions as a signal to the mother in
hopes that the caregiver will pay attention order to get her attention and turn towards
and meet his needs. Disorganized chil- the child to meet the need. As Bretherton
dren have inconsistent, contradictory pa- (1992) very clearly wrote after reading one
rents, many times neglectful and abusive, of Bowlby’s papers:
who respond in frightening, sexualized,
and atypical ways to the child, both in re- The attachment behavior is made
action to the child’s positive and negative up of a number of component
emotions, leaving the child with the feeling instinctual responses that have the
that he never knows how the parent will function of binding the infant to
react, thus showing bizarre behaviors that the mother and the mother to the
represent disorientation and high stress infant. These component responses
(Benoit, 2004; Volling, McElwain, Notaro, (among them sucking, clinging,
& Herrera, 2002). and following, as well as signaling
behaviors of smiling and crying)
Evolutionary basis of mature relatively independently
during the first year of life and
Attachment: Instincts become increasingly integrated and
and hormones focused on a mother figure during
the second 6 months (p. 762).
As many other behavioral systems, Other authors, like Sarah Blaffer Hrdy
attachment has its own and unique evo- (as cited by Cashdan, 2000) state that
lutionary explanation. The human infant, “selection has shaped infants … (to be)
being one of the most vulnerable among unusually fat at birth (because) it enhan-
all infant mammals, has a great need for ces its later chances of survival and at
ISSN: 2145-3535 27
the same time signals its mothers that it very intimate or close to their spouses, did
is in good condition and worth rearing” not show hormonal changes.
(p. 217). The same author states that in-
nate maternal responses lower a human Aside from prolactin, other hormones
mother’s threshold for responding to her are presumed to be involved, among
infant which makes mothers especially other important social behaviors, in
interested in babies, therefore displaying mother-infant pair bonding. Bartz and
attention and caring behaviors. Research Hollander (2006) after a vast literature
has shown that these expressions are review on the most recent studies done
mediated through hormonal changes, on neuroscience of affiliation, found that
both in the mothers and fathers (Sto- oxytocin is one of these neuropeptides in-
rey, Walsh, Quinton, & Wynne-Edwards, volved. The authors reviewed the findings
2000; Thompson & Trevathan, 2008) and of other studies where injections of oxyto-
also in other animals (Ahern & Young, cin in the cerebral ventricles of rats that
2009). Parental responsiveness in hu- never had pups before, facilitated mater-
mans has been traced to hormonal levels nal behavior, whereas injecting the anta-
as made known by Storey et al. (2000) gonist of the hormone inhibited the onset
who showed that men who reported ha- of the maternal behavior. Thompson and
ving more pregnancy symptoms (weight Trevathan (2008) recognize that cortisol,
gain, nausea, increase in appetite, fatigue, an adrenal hormone released in respon-
decrease in appetite, weight loss, and se to physical and emotional arousal, and
emotional changes) while their spouses sometimes referred to as the stress hor-
were pregnant, showed higher prolactin mone, is also implicated in the expression
levels and lower testosterone levels, which of attachment behaviors and parenting in
correlated with their partner’s hormonal the caregiver. The authors have followed
levels as well (in women, higher prolactin studies of other researchers, showing that
and cortisol). The research confirms that highly fearful, insecurely attached and di-
an inverse relationship between prolac- sorganized infants have higher cortisol
tin and testosterone in men is related to reactivity than others that are more secu-
higher paternal responsiveness and lower rely attached. Cortisol dysregulation has
tendencies to engage in behaviors that also been found to be present following
are contrary to behaviors representative early social deprivation. Wismer Fries,
of parental responsiveness, like aggres- Shirtcliff and Pollak (2008) found that
sion and competitiveness. A very interes- post-institutionalized children who expe-
ting finding of the study is that hormonal rienced severe neglect had higher basal
changes in women were dependent on cortisol levels. The study also found that
time/period (prenatal, perinatal, or post- children who experienced a lengthy stay
natal), while men’s changes were depen- at the orphanage did not show greater
dent on the level of intimacy they had with cortisol levels in comparison with children
their spouses. Therefore, men who were who had shorter stays, demonstrating the
more intimate in the relationship they had fact that the length of stay did not predict
with their spouses showed the hormonal the stress response, but the neglect and
changes along with their wives (mani- abuse experienced at the institution did.
festing pregnancy symptoms), and were This predicts inefficiency in regulating the
more responsive, but men who were not Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis
28 ISSN: 2145-3535
(which is an intricate set of direct influen- & Young did not show main effects for
ces and feedback exchanges between single-mother vs. bi-parental-reared pups
the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and regarding the neuropeptides involved in
the adrenal gland, controlling the reac- these behaviors (oxitocin, vasopressin
tions to stress and regulating other body and corticotropin-releasing factor), but
processes like digestion, immunity to viru- did confirm that the patterns of interaction
ses, mood and emotions). This inefficien- early in life not only affect the immediate
cy in the regulation of the HPA Axis sys- social life of the child but also show that
tem puts the children in a constant state there is an intergenerational transmission
of “alarm”, even though they are now living of attachment behaviors, as always de-
in a loving environment, as if to be pre- fended by van Ijzendoorn (1995).
pared to expect the worst. As stated by
Wismer Fries et al., these results show the From a different yet interesting pers-
effects of early deprivation on subsequent pective, also confirming the impact of the
behavioral and emotional functioning, at- neuroendocrine system in attachment
tributable to changes in the HPA Axis. processes, the study of Tyrka et al. (2008)
In animals, one study (Ahern & Young, on parental loss is found. This study re-
2009) has also shown the importance of sulted in the finding that early parental
parental behavior, quality (and quantity) loss can lead to alterations in the normal
of time invested in caring for infants, and functions of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-
the impact that it can have on posterior Adrenal (HPA) function as an adult. Adults
development as critical factors in infant who, as children, had experienced paren-
development. The research by Ahern and tal loss (e.g., death) evidenced higher le-
Young (2009) was done by studying the vels of HPA functioning, resulting in higher
monogamous prairie vole, which is said cortisol levels while the ones who had ex-
to be an animal that resembles the social perienced parental desertion or abandon-
interaction and social family formations of ment and institutionalization evidenced
humans. These rodents are small, geneti- lowered cortisol reactivity. The findings
cally diverse and generally monogamous, can be explained based on the duration
with a compound repertoire of social be- and intensity of the stressors. While chil-
haviors; virgins exhibit nurturing behavior dren who suffer the loss of a parent due to
towards unrelated pups, adults form se- death can suffer a great trauma, they hold
lective social attachments or pair bonds, the certainty that the parent is not coming
and breeding pairs show biparental care back, therefore experience this trauma
of offspring (Ahern & Young, 2009). This as an acute stressor, and develop later a
study showed that single-mother-reared heightened reactivity of the stress respon-
pups (in contrast to bi-parental-reared se. On the other hand, children who un-
pups) were less attended, received sig- dergo the disappearance of a parent, the
nificantly less care and less “licking and occurrence of abandonment, placement
grooming” behaviors from the mother, in institutions (generally, accompanied by
matured more slowly, and later on, other multiple stressors like maltreatment),
showed slower partner preference for- experience these multiple stressors over a
mation, and less alloparental behaviors long period of time. Not only they hold the
as adults, spending more time away from expectation of the parent(s)’ return, but
their own pups. The study made by Ahern the constant experience of diminished
ISSN: 2145-3535 29
parental care at an institution, are not un- that a male is more jealous of sexual infi-
dertaken as acute stressors but as chro- delity because he does not want to invest
nic stressors, consequently regulating the in an offspring that is not his, and that a
stress response, evidencing attenuated woman is more jealous of emotional infi-
cortisol activity. It is also essential to note delity, because this might mean that she
that males were the ones who showed the can lose the resources provided by her
greater alteration in neuroendocrine acti- partner; Levy and Kelly found that this is
vation which is explained by the resear- shaped by early attachment relations, in
chers based on the fact that, taken as a which people (from any gender) with a
whole, possibly on the same basis of evo- more avoidant style are much more likely
lutionary traits, fathers are generally the to be jealous of sexual infidelity, whereas
ones leaving the home, abandoning the people (men and women) with secure
spouse and offspring. Gender differences attachments report more jealousy elicited
in attachment behavior are also shown by by the possibility of emotional infidelity.
David and Lyons-Ruth (2005) who point The latter provides the idea that even with
to the fact that gender differences can be more biologically, instinctual-driven beha-
indicative of the possibility of higher risks viors, there is always the need to take into
of developing insecure attachments in account the power of the environment;
boys (more than girls) due to the innate, nonetheless, given that the environment
biological differences between the sexes. also acts by interacting with genes, this
The researchers designed an experiment topic will be referenced later, after discus-
in which the responses of infants were to sing the genetic basis of attachment.
be measured in reaction to the expression
of frightening behaviors in their mothers,
and discovered that female infants tend
Genetic basis of
to react with disorganized but secure ap- Attachment
proaching behaviors, while male infants
tend to react with “disorganized-insecure Advances in the field of Genetics have
behaviors characterized by combinations started to yield findings regarding some
of pronounced avoidance, resistance and of the genetic contributions to the un-
conflict”. The authors state that these fin- derstanding of attachment. Many genetic
dings corroborate previous theories that studies have found a specific allele that
affirm that females in general take a more can point to certain risks, but have no-
socially-directed strategy (e.g., reliance, ted the importance of the environment in
conformity, connection), whereas men, that special interaction, that can exacer-
take a more active strategy (e.g., hostility, bate or compensate for the genetic risk.
interference) in the face of fear. Geneticists and researchers like Fox,
Hane and Pine (2007) have pointed to
Evolution, nonetheless, explaining a the importance of the 5-HTTLPR, a se-
potent and instinctive factor of human be- rotonin (5-HT) transporter gene that regu-
havior, is also shaped by culture, and so- lates the destiny of this neurotransmitter,
cial relationships. This is seen in the study when it is released from the presynaptic
by Levy and Kelly (2010) who demonstra- neurons into the synaptic gap, therefore,
ted that, although a commonly sustained the transponder gene alters the activity
evolutionary perspective of jealousy is of serotonin in the system. Serotonin is a
30 ISSN: 2145-3535
neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, a short allele) and had a mother who was
dreaming, motivation, attention, and other not very responsive to their signals deve-
important states. This 5-HTTLPR has two loped insecure attachments, while on the
functional alleles: a long and a short; and other hand, babies also homozygous for
the evidence points to the fact that being the short allele, but with highly responsive
homozygous for the short allele or he- mothers, were more likely to be securely
terozygous poses a risk for maladaptive attached to them. Interestingly enough, all
behavior or psychopathology, including of the babies who were classified as ha-
depression, behavioral inhibition, and so- ving a disorganized attachment, carried
cial isolation, especially when the carrying the short allele for 5-HTTLPR. This notion
of this gene interacts with a maladaptive that babies at genetic risk can develop a
environment, like constant stressful life disorganized attachment or not depen-
events, and low social support. The re- ding on the responsiveness of the mother,
searchers cite other studies in which in- not only states that the gene is expressed
dividuals homozygous for the short allele when in interaction with a specific environ-
of 5-HTTLPR and exposed to a certain ment, but also that the environment can
number of stressful life events were more be shaped through the expression of the
likely to experience a major depressive gene, for instance, in the child’s tempera-
episode; children carrying the short allele ment. If a child carrying the gene is more
with a history of abuse were more likely to excitable, more sensible to environmental
experience depression; also, children with changes, and, therefore, more irritable,
lower activity variants of the gene whose more prone to tears, and difficult to reas-
mothers experienced low social support, sure or comfort, the mother can then start
were more likely to display behavioral in- to respond in insensitive ways, paying less
hibition in their middle childhood years, attention to his crying, or being more irri-
while children with high-activity forms of table herself, augmenting the risk of the
the gene were somehow protected from expression of the gene, in a vicious cycle
manifesting the behavioral inhibition. On that dooms the child to the display of ma-
the same gene transponder, Barry, Ko- ladaptive behaviors and psychopathology.
chanska and Philibert (2008) by taking A genetic study done on animals, like this
molecular genetic measures of 88 typi- of Barr and colleagues (2008) also show
cally developing infants focusing on the that certain gene polymorphisms that are
polymorphism in the serotonin transpon- shared between rhesus macaques and
der gene (5-HTTLPR, short and long) and humans, like the mu-opioid receptor gene
observing the mother’s responsiveness (OPRM1), moderate the expression of
to their infants at 7 months in lengthy na- attachment behaviors both in infants and
turalistic interactions, found that being mothers by altering the release of opioids
homozygous for the short allele altered or the blockage of opioid receptors. The
the development, and the quality of atta- study shows that during mother-infant in-
chment patterns in babies, but in a very teraction, rhesus macaques experience
close interaction with the maternal envi- rewarding effects because of the relea-
ronment, namely the mother’s quality of se of endogenous opioids. On the other
responding to the child’s signals of play, hand, after a separation from its mother,
social interaction and distress. Babies these opioids diminish resulting in the elici-
who were at high genetic risk (e.g., having tation of a distress vocalization response,
ISSN: 2145-3535 31
that serves the function of signaling the the quantity and quality of the interaction
location of the infant for the mother to find that the infant has with the mother is ge-
and protect from other predators. Infant nerally greater than with the father. Newer
rhesus monkeys that carried the OPRM1 studies have consistently shown the im-
77G allele exhibited stronger attachment portance of fathers in the development of
to their mothers even in the baseline con- psychologically healthy children. Infants
dition (without experiencing experimental interacting with a more emotionally avai-
separation), which shows a resemblance lable father (e.g., more sensitive and more
to the insecure-ambivalent infants descri- emotionally expressive) were more likely
bed in the Strange Situation procedure. to express positive affect. In the same
These human infants seemed anxious, way, the special emotional expressions
apprehensive and did not want to leave of emotionally available fathers involve
the mother’s side even before the mother the use of different and unique forms of
left or the stranger entered. Again, these play that the father initiates with the child;
studies underscore the fact that many ge- for instance, physically playful stimulation
netic markers are present, moderating the (generally the fathers’ preferred form of
display of certain attachment behaviors, play with the children) which is pleasu-
which can be exacerbated or compen- rable for the infant, and gives the child
sated by more immediate environmental the opportunity to experience a different
factors. These immediate environmental way of feeling that is not normally given
factors, at least when talking about in- by the mother. According to the study
fants, refer in general to the caregivers’ performed by Volling, McElwain, Notaro,
personality, reactions, and ways of res- and Herrera (2002) infants display more
ponding to the infants in regards to their positive emotional expressions (e.g., smi-
needs. ling, laughter) with their fathers than with
their mothers. The researchers state that,
Caregivers: The although in this study, fathers as a group
were not as emotionally available (e.g., as
closest environment sensitive and nonintrusive) as were the
mothers, infants exhibited higher levels of
Since the beginning of the develo- emotional competence (e.g., more positi-
pment of Attachment Theory, mothers ve and less negative affect, more focused
have been thought of being the primary attention during a teaching task) in the
caregiver, with the fathers “playing se- presence of more emotionally available
cond fiddle” to the mother in the rearing fathers than those with less emotionally
practices, being the provision of emotio- available fathers. Given that the regulation
nal support to their wives’ mothering, their of emotions in the first years of life is a pro-
most important role (Bretherton, 1992). gression from heteronomy to autonomy,
It is clearer now that children do deve- “of moving from a dyadic coregulation
lop an attachment relationship with their between the infant and the caregiver in
fathers, but the internal working models the first year, to an emergence in toddler-
of the father-infant relationship take lon- hood of autonomous self-regulation with
ger to develop than those of the mother- caregiver-guided assistance, to the even-
infant relationship (Braungart-Rieker, tual internalization of emotional control in
Garwood, Powers, & Wang, 2001), since the preschool years” (p. 447), then, having
32 ISSN: 2145-3535
an emotionally available parent, who can interesting conclusion from this study is
first show the infant how to effectively deal that it supports a systemic view of the
with emotion-eliciting situations, impacts family, in which each member is part of
the child’s developing capacity to mana- a subsystem (i.e., mother-father) that can
ge actions, thoughts, and feelings in an have an impact on the others (i.e., mother-
adaptive and flexible manner, and even- infant, father-infant).
tually impacts the child’s ability to expe-
rience, identify and regulate emotion in Aside from the influence of a good co-
a more autonomous way (Volling, McE- parenting relationship, some caregiver
lwain, Notaro, & Herrera, 2002). characteristics, like support, sensitivity,
and environmental resources, have been
As is possible to note, the infants’ re- found to predict the outcome of the de-
lationships to both mother and father are velopment of attachment relationships in
important in the child’s development, and several studies. A study conducted by
studies like that of Caldera and Lindsey Braungart-Rieker et al. (2001) revealed
(2006) state that more important than just that infants of mothers who were more
having a good interaction with the mother sensitive (e.g., able to perceive the infant’s
and the father independently, is for an in- signals accurately, and vary their behavior
fant to experience a well-functioning co- accordingly) showed more affect regula-
parenting system, “characterized by the tion (e.g., thumb-sucking, hair-rubbing,
parents’ mutual support of each others’ focused-gaze) at 4 months, and were
child-rearing behaviors, (which) may con- more likely to be classified as securely
tribute to (the) children’s concordant atta- attached at 12 months. Although the
chment to mother and father by providing study did find that affect regulation was
a consistent child-rearing environment” important to mediate the impact of sensi-
(p. 276). On the other hand, a negative tive parenting on attachment, it found that
o discordant coparenting relationship avoidant infants regulated affect as well as
could be a source of stress for the cou- secure infants, but had more insensitive
ple, leaving them less emotionally avai- parents, which led to the establishment of
lable and sensitive towards the needs of avoidant strategies (e.g., self-comforting
the children. This study found that mem- behaviors) to regulate their emotions. Re-
bers from more supportive coparenting sistant or ambivalent infants, had both in-
dyads displayed more responsive beha- sensitive parents and more difficulties in
vior towards their child, but when parents regulating affect, reflected in heightened
compete with each other for the child’s and dysregulated emotionality. Emotion
attention, trying to dominate the interac- regulation has also been shown to be
tion with their child, they may weaken their related to mother-child concordance in
child’s sense of security in his or her rela- regards to emotional expression. Waters
tionship with each parent, and the child et al. (2010) showed in their study of 73
is less likely to be congruent in his or her mothers and their 4-year-old children,
attachment to the mother and father; that a higher mother-child concordance
therefore, competitive coparenting was (e.g., how much mother’s attributions of
associated with the infant’s formation of the child’s emotion were concordant with
a secure attachment to one parent and the child’s own self-reports) was associa-
an insecure attachment to the other. An ted with more secure attachments and
ISSN: 2145-3535 33
also, to the mother’s beliefs that it was im- on, leaving the children the sensation of
portant to attend and validate the child’s uncertainty or abandonment; these cha-
emotions. In other words, emotionally racteristics could come from the parent’s
validating mothers (e.g, who accepted personality traits or unresolved issues, de-
the child’s perspective, expressed em- pression, anxiety, and stress, which could
pathy for the child’s feelings and placed have resulted from past perinatal losses
the child’s viewpoint at the focus of the (Armstrong, Hutti, & Myers, 2009), or from
conversation), form secure attachments multiple miscarriages (Stanton & Simp-
with their children, and are more guided son, 2001), have more difficulty with the
towards conversing about emotion-elici- development of emotional ties with their
ting situations and how to cope with them, new children, possibly resulting in decrea-
therefore are more likely to understand sed attachment, and in the low responsi-
their child’s emotions and coincide with veness in the caregiver. In more serious
their child’s labeling of their own feelings cases, the experiences of previous losses,
(i.e., mother-child concordance). When a like multiple miscarriages and the difficulty
mother shows her child that emotions are in taking care of an unhealthy infant, may
important and that it is good to talk about result in the decreased sense of self-care
them, then the child is able to converse while pregnant, or in the later diminished
and not avoid talking about both positive sense of care, compassion or connection
and negative emotions.Confirming the with posterior children, that could even
importance of the caregiver’s sensitivity result in infanticide (Stanton & Simpson,
and responsiveness, the research made 2001).
by Cole (2006) yielded interesting results
after studying the impact of the placement
of orphans, or separated infants, both with
Implications for
kin and unrelated foster caregivers. What development: Impact
is interesting about the study is that the on childhood and
results showed there was no statistically
significant difference for the development
adulthood
of secure attachments (e.g., attachment
bond characterized by the certainty that Although some of the implications of
the attachment figure is sensible and avai- attachment can be inferred from what was
lable to meet the infant’s needs whenever described in relation to its biological basis;
confronted with threat or danger) between a section of this paper must be dedicated
kin and unrelated foster caregivers (67% to the illustration of some of the different
of secure attachments in kin, and 68% of consequences that an attachment pat-
secure attachments in unrelated caregi- tern –any attachment pattern, be it secu-
vers) substantiating the fact that what is re, insecure or disorganized- has in the life
important is not being related by blood, of an individual. Since the establishment
but having a responsive, sensitive, and of Attachment Theory, the importance of
accessible attachment figure, who meets this affectional bond that ties a parent (or
the emotional and physical needs of the significant caregiver/attachment figure) to
infant. On the other hand, insensitive, una- an infant has been described, by showing
vailable and inaccessible parents, show that it not only determines the life of the
their children that they cannot be counted infant in the most biological sense, via
34 ISSN: 2145-3535
the provision of food, warmth, and sen- 2004). These will be children who will
sory-motor stimulation (Hofer, 2006) but it grow up to be adults who establish rela-
also determines the quality of the child’s tionships based on trust, respect and vali-
psychological world, his sense of self, the dation of the other; they are empathic and
perceptions of others, the development will recognize their own limitations and
of his personality, the features of his inter- strengths. When parents are rejecting, in-
personal relationships, in two words, his different, or cold, the child experiences it
mental health. as though it is a loss, developing a sense
of loneliness, a lack of emotional expres-
Attachment is a process, and not only sion (Volling, McElwain, Notaro, & Herre-
a system of behaviors that only has the ra, 2002) and self-sufficiency, a sense that
function of searching proximity for the he can only rely on himself to embrace the
sake of physical protection, but it is a world; this feature can even be found at a
self-referential process that allows the in- very young age, with infants at 4 months
dividual to build a consistent, stable and showing a “suppression of attachment-
continuous sense of self (Guidano, 1999). related emotions... heightened levels of
The parents are the closest environment self-regulation in the face of a less sensi-
for an individual during the first years of tive mother…an early sign of developing
life, years in which the greatest number an avoidant style” (Braungart-Rieker et al.,
of learning also occurs. Thus, when the 2001). Moreover, other studies (Pedrosa
parents interact with the child, by playing, Gil et al., 2008) have showed that pater-
teaching, talking, and other typical activi- nal indifference predicted more difficul-
ties, through the way the parent speaks, ty in identifying feelings, constituting the
looks at the child and touches the child, main element of Alexithymia, which has
they are providing information on who commonly been associated with psycho-
the child is, on what makes him who he somatic disturbances as Fibromialgia. As
is, and on what the world thinks and fe- adults, these avoidant children will grow
els about him. The information given by up to be seen as narcissistic due to the
the parent, both verbal and non-verbal, is sense of self-sufficiency, and thus will
experienced as the truth, and, therefore, have difficulties in establishing relations-
becomes a thread that binds the orga- hips. When parents are inconsistent, in-
nizational elements of the individual in a congruent, and ambivalent in their child-
whole, congruent, and coherent self. As rearing practices, in the way they educate,
the individual grows, more complex infor- communicate, and discipline, many times
mation and processes are lived, in a way with strategies that are based on threats
that is consistent with this self, in order to of abandonment, the child will develop a
maintain it as coherent and therefore con- sense of incontrollability, and due to the
tinuous in time. threats, will develop fear and heighte-
ned emotionality (Braungart-Rieker et al.,
When parents are loving, sensitive, 2001) to obtain the attention needed, and
validating, and warm, children are more clinginess, as a way of avoiding abandon-
likely to be open to experiences, and to ment by the primary caregiver. Studies
express emotions (Volling, McElwain, No- show (Brumariu & Kerns, 2008) that due
taro, & Herrera, 2002; Braungart-Rieker to this worry and preoccupation of being
et al., 2001; Waters et al., 2010; Benoit, abandoned, ambivalent children are more
ISSN: 2145-3535 35
at risk of developing social anxiety in also more significant for participants of

middle childhood. As adults, they will es- lower socio-economic status.
tablish relationships in which the partner
is more paternal or maternal to find pro-
tection, or relationships based on distrust
and insecurity, and constant fear of aban-
donment, being likely to set different ways
to test their partners for possible infidelity,
or constantly question their ulterior moti-
C onclusions
ves for leaving them. Attachment theory, since its earlier

days, has had a significant impression
The impact of attachment on an infant’s in the fields of psychology, psychiatry,
life is directly related to the parents’ cha- psychoanalysis, medicine, neurosciences,
racteristics, and their relationship to the nursing, social work, and most recently,
child, but also to the child’s experience of genetics. A great amount of research
parental loss or separation, with its impact confirms that attachment, as a bond that
on neuroendocrine regulation, and neuro- ties a parent to its child, is so biological
transmitter activity, which in turn, elevates in its basis that can be evidenced in the
the likelihood of developing a psychologi- behavior of certain animals, especially
cal disorder like depression, and chronic primates and some rodents, and has its
stress. If the events of parental loss and basis in certain genes, hormones like pro-
separation are experienced in the first lactin and oxitocin, and neurotransmitters
years of life (infancy and early childhood) like serotonin to help the infant survive by
and for longer periods of time, the likeli- seeking proximity to the attachment figu-
hood of developing schizotypal persona- re. The biological basis of attachment is
lity disorder (SPD) can increase. Anglin, said to interact with the closest environ-
Cohen and Chen (2008) showed in their ment of the infant which is represented
study of 766 youth followed up at mean in the quantity of time spent and quality
ages of 16, 22 and 33, who had histories of the relationship with the attachment fi-
of separations from the mother in the early gure to produce a profound impact in the
years, that participants who were separa- infant’s life and later social and emotional
ted from their mothers for at least a month development.
during the first five years of life exhibited
a significant increase in SPD symptoms In its immense and profound need to
(e.g., odd eccentric behavior and beliefs, survive, a child will always develop an
suspiciouness, unusual perceptual expe- attachment relationship with his or her
riences and inappropriate affect and be- caregiver(s), no matter what the caregiver’s
havior). Although the researchers found characteristics are. The outcome of the
a significant relationship for participants relationship and of the child’s socio-emo-
with histories of separation occurring in tional development will depend greatly on
the first 2 years of life, this relationship was the caregiver’s characteristics, basically,
less significant for those participants se- his or her emotional availability, emotio-
parated after 2 years of age. Also, this stu- nal sensitivity and responsiveness to the
dy showed that this relationship is more child’s needs and signs of distress. In si-
significant for males than for females, and tuations of parental separation, emotional
36 ISSN: 2145-3535
deprivation, institutionalization, abuse Barr, C. S., Schwandt, M. L., Lindell, S. G.,

or neglect, children will be more likely to Higley, J. D., Maestripieri, D., Goldman, D.,
develop symptoms or disorders that will Suomi, S. J., & Heilig, M. (2008). Variation
affect their coping skills, social interac- at the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1)
tions and even their own characteristics influences attachment behavior in infant
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The Biological Basis Attachment

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pp • 23-40

The biological basis of parent-infant

Bases biológicas del apego paterno-infantil:

A base biológica do apego pais-filhos:

attachment as this parent-infant tie and,

Attachment, as has previously been

at risk of developing social anxiety in also more significant for participants of

ves for leaving them. Attachment theory, since its earlier

deprivation, institutionalization, abuse Barr, C. S., Schwandt, M. L., Lindell, S. G.,

R eferences nization of attachment: Mothers’ respon-

loss and adult hypothalamic-pituitary- Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 447-

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