Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167

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Molecular Genetics and Metabolism

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymgme

Diagnosis of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2 disease): Expert

recommendations for early detection and laboratory diagnosis
Michael Fietz a, Moeenaldeen AlSayed b, Derek Burke c, Jessica Cohen-Pfeffer d, Jonathan D. Cooper e,
Lenka Dvořáková f, Roberto Giugliani g, Emanuela Izzo d, Helena Jahnová f, Zoltan Lukacs h, Sara E. Mole i,
Ines Noher de Halac j, David A. Pearce k, Helena Poupetova f, Angela Schulz l, Nicola Specchio m,
Winnie Xin n, Nicole Miller d,⁎
a
Department of Diagnostic Genomics, PathWest Laboratory Medicine WA, Nedlands, Australia
b
Department of Medical Genetics, Alfaisal University, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
c
Chemical Pathology, Camelia Botnar Laboratories, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, UK
d
BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc., Novato, CA, USA
e
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
f
Institute of Inherited Metabolic Disorders, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
g
Medical Genetics Service, HCPA, Department of Genetics, UFRGS, INAGEMP, Porto Alegre, Brazil
h
Newborn Screening and Metabolic Diagnostics Unit, Hamburg University Medical Center, Hamburg, Germany
i
MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, UCL Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK
j
Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba and National Research Council-CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina
k
Sanford Children's Health Research Center, Sioux Falls, SD, USA
l
Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
m
Department of Neuroscience, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Rome, Italy
n
Neurogenetics DNA Diagnostic Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are a heterogeneous group of lysosomal storage disorders. NCLs include
Received 26 May 2016 the rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2) disease,
Received in revised form 23 July 2016 caused by mutations in the tripeptidyl peptidase 1 (TPP1)/CLN2 gene and the resulting TPP1 enzyme deficiency.
Accepted 24 July 2016
CLN2 disease most commonly presents with seizures and/or ataxia in the late-infantile period (ages 2–4), often in
Available online 25 July 2016
combination with a history of language delay, followed by progressive childhood dementia, motor and visual de-
Keywords:
terioration, and early death. Atypical phenotypes are characterized by later onset and, in some instances, longer
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis life expectancies. Early diagnosis is important to optimize clinical care and improve outcomes; however, current-
Laboratory diagnosis ly, delays in diagnosis are common due to low disease awareness, nonspecific clinical presentation, and limited
Lysosomal storage disorder access to diagnostic testing in some regions. In May 2015, international experts met to recommend best labora-
Expert recommendations tory practices for early diagnosis of CLN2 disease. When clinical signs suggest an NCL, TPP1 enzyme activity
Neurodegeneration should be among the first tests performed (together with the palmitoyl-protein thioesterase enzyme activity
Genetic cause of epilepsy assay to rule out CLN1 disease). However, reaching an initial suspicion of an NCL or CLN2 disease can be challeng-
ing; thus, use of an epilepsy gene panel for investigation of unexplained seizures in the late-infantile/childhood
ages is encouraged. To confirm clinical suspicion of CLN2 disease, the recommended gold standard for laboratory
diagnosis is demonstration of deficient TPP1 enzyme activity (in leukocytes, fibroblasts, or dried blood spots) and
the identification of causative mutations in each allele of the TPP1/CLN2 gene. When it is not possible to perform
both analyses, either demonstration of a) deficient TPP1 enzyme activity in leukocytes or fibroblasts, or b) detec-
tion of two pathogenic mutations in trans is diagnostic for CLN2 disease.
© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2) disease (OMIM

204500) is a rare autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder that
⁎ Corresponding author. results from deficient activity of the lysosomal exopeptidase tripeptidyl
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Miller). peptidase 1 (TPP1) enzyme (EC 3.4.14.9) caused by mutations in the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymgme.2016.07.011
1096-7192/© 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167 161

TPP1/CLN2 gene (GenBank accession no. NM_000391.3) [1]. As in other 2. Clinical suspicion and paths to diagnosis of CLN2 disease
neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) disorders (Table 1), CLN2 disease
leads to intralysosomal accumulation of autofluorescent storage mate- Developing a specific suspicion of CLN2 disease through differential
rials and neuronal loss. diagnosis is often a protracted process, due in part to lack of pathogno-
The in vivo substrate(s) of TPP1 are not known, and the molecular monic signs at onset. Based on the expert meeting discussions, three
pathology of TPP1 enzyme deficiency is poorly understood [2]. CLN2 general paths lead to a laboratory diagnosis of CLN2 disease, depending
disease incidence estimates range from 0.22 to 9.0 per 100,000 live on degree of CLN2 disease suspicion (Fig. 1).
births, but it is possible that it is under-recognized [2–4].
The classic phenotype of CLN2 disease is the most common form 2.1. High suspicion of CLN2 disease
of NCL with late-infantile onset (roughly defined as ages 2–4 years)
and generally manifests with new-onset seizures and/or ataxia, typ- CLN2 disease is rarely suspected or diagnosed at initial presentation
ically in combination with a history of early language delay [5]. Clas- to the clinic unless there is already a known, affected family member.
sic phenotype disease progression is rapid, leading to the loss of Because CLN2 disease is one of the most common of NCL disorders
acquired developmental milestones, new or worsening ataxia, [13], children who ultimately present to an NCL specialist with ataxia,
movement disorders (myoclonus, dystonia, and chorea), progressive worsening unprovoked seizures, history of language delay, and/or are
dementia, and eventual loss of vision [3,5–9]. A majority of those di- at a developmental stand-still will follow a clear, direct path specific
agnosed with CLN2 disease die prematurely after becoming bedrid- for a high suspicion of classic CLN2 disease (Fig. 1, center) [5]. Typically,
den and blind. The more rare atypical phenotypes are characterized diagnosis only occurs after a series of misdiagnoses, as the early disease
by varied ages of initial presentation and/or longer life expectancy course is clinically similar to many other seizure and/or metabolic
[5,10–12]. An example of atypical CLN2 disease is spinocerebellar disorders.
ataxia autosomal recessive 7 (SCAR7; OMIM 609270), which was An EEG is often the first clinical test performed irrespective of the
initially described as a distinct disorder but is in fact caused by level of specific clinical suspicion (Fig. 1). In cases of CLN2 disease, elec-
deficient TPP1 enzyme activity; individuals with SCAR7 develop troencephalograms (EEGs) may detect irregular activity, a slowing of
ataxia and cerebellar atrophy but do not develop seizures or loss of background activity, and epileptiform abnormalities in posterior re-
vision [12]. gions. Visual evoked potentials reveal an increase of latency; optical co-
In May 2015, 13 international laboratory and clinical NCL experts herence tomography may detect ocular abnormalities; and
met both to develop a CLN2 disease–specific diagnostic algorithm electroretinograms may be diminished [3,5,8,14,15]. Ocular abnormali-
(Fig. 1) and to define the gold standard diagnostic laboratory tests to ties and vision defects can be subtle initially but increase in prominence
support an early and accurate diagnosis of CLN2 disease. with disease progression [5,8,15].

Table 1
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis disorders.
Adapted from the DEM-CHILD algorithm, http://www.dem-child.eu/index.php/ncl-diagnostic-algorithm.html, and Schulz et al. 2013 [14].

Age and clinical presentation Genes Protein products, in bold if enzyme assay widely available Classical clinical presentation by
age group

Newborns (through infantile)

• Epilepsy CLN1 PPT1 (lysosomal lipid hydrolase) Classical
• Microcephaly CLN10 CtsD (lysosomal peptidase) Classical
CLN14 KCTD7 (unknown function; homology to potassium channel Classical
tetramerization domain)
Young children (late infantile)
• Developmental delay or regression CLN1 PPT1 (lysosomal lipid hydrolase)
• Newly occurring epilepsy of unknown CLN2 TPP1 (lysosomal exopeptidase) Classical
cause CLN5 (Soluble lysosomal protein) Classical
CLN6 (Transmembrane protein) Classical
CLN7 MFSD8 (transmembrane protein) Classical
CLN8 (Transmembrane protein) Classical
CLN10 CtsD (lysosomal peptidase)
School-aged children (juvenile)
• Vision loss CLN1 PPT1 (lysosomal lipid hydrolase)
• Dementia CLN2 TPP1 (lysosomal exopeptidase)
• Epilepsy CLN3 (Transmembrane protein) Classical
CLN5 (Soluble lysosomal protein)
CLN6 (Transmembrane protein)
CLN7 MFSD8 (transmembrane protein)
CLN8 (Transmembrane protein)
CLN10 CtsD (lysosomal peptidase)
CLN12 ATP13A2 (ATPase) Classical
Young adults
• Nonspecific mental, motor, or behavioral CLN1 PPT1 (lysosomal lipid hydrolase)
abnormalities CLN2 TPP1 (lysosomal exopeptidase)
CLN4 DNAJC5 (HSP40/DNAJ protein) Classical
(autosomal dominant)
CLN5 (Soluble lysosomal protein)
CLN6 (Transmembrane protein)
CLN10 CtsD (lysosomal peptidase)
CLN11 GRN (progranulin) Classical
CLN13 CtsF (lysosomal proteinase) Classical

CLN, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis; Cts, cathepsin; GRN, granulin; HSP40, heat shock protein 40; KCTD7, potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 7; MFSD8, major facilitator
superfamily domain containing 8; PPT1, palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1; TPP1, tripeptidyl peptidase 1.
162 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167

Fig. 1. Diagnostic algorithm in support of early suspicion and diagnosis of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2) disease. CLN2 disease is diagnosed by biochemical and molecular
laboratory tests. Unexplained seizures, particularly when associated with a history of unexplained language delay and/or developmental milestone regression, may be caused by a
neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) disorder; another common possible early symptom is ataxia. Electroencephalography (EEG) analysis under specific intermittent photic
stimulation (IPS; 1–2 Hz) may assist with differential diagnoses. The recommended approach once CLN2 disease is specifically suspected (center) is demonstration of deficient
tripeptidyl peptidase 1 (TPP1) enzyme activity in leukocytes together with the identification of 2 pathogenic mutations in the TPP1/CLN2 gene. When an NCL disorder is suspected
(right), an NCL gene panel and/or TPP1 enzyme screening along with palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1 (PPT1) enzyme screening is recommended. When the main suspicion is broadly
of a genetic basis of epilepsy (left), a gene panel to investigate genetic causes of childhood-onset epilepsy is recommended. CLN2 disease diagnosis is achieved upon demonstration of
deficient TPP1 enzyme activity in leukocytes together with normal activity of ≥1 appropriate control enzyme (such as PPT1 and/or β-galactosidase) and identification of 2 pathogenic
mutations in trans in the TPP1/CLN2 gene. EM, electron microscopy; ERG, electroretinography; FA, fluorescein angiography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; OCT, optical coherence
tomography; VEP, visually evoked potential.

Findings of brain imaging techniques (such as magnetic resonance im- specialist, or a pediatric neurologist with experience diagnosing NCL
aging) include progressive cerebellar and cerebral atrophy, reductions in disorders. Upon a general suspicion of an NCL disorder (Fig. 1, right),
grey matter volume, and periventricular white matter hyperintensities use of an NCL gene panel is endorsed to rapidly assess all known NCL
[8,16–19]. It is important to recognize that although CLN2 is a grey matter genes, as most NCL gene products cannot readily be assessed in a bio-
disease, periventricular white matter hyperintensities may be seen and chemical assay. Equally highly recommended is assessment of enzyme
should not deviate the diagnosis path towards a leukodystrophy. These activity of TPP1 and palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1 (PPT1; EC
findings may provide clues for diagnosis. 3.1.2.22) as a screening approach, because the associated diseases
EEG with intermittent photic stimulation (IPS) performed at a fre- (CLN2 and CLN1 [OMIM 256730], respectively) are the most prevalent
quency of 1 to 2 Hz is a particularly informative test (Table 2). In infantile and late-infantile NCL disorders [13], and reliable enzyme ac-
many EEGs of those ultimately diagnosed with CLN2 disease a charac- tivity assays exist for both. Other investigations may include sequential
teristic flash-per-flash response has been reported at low frequency of sequencing of commonly mutated NCL genes and/or use of electron mi-
stimulation. A classical epileptiform photoparoxysmal response is usu- croscopy (EM) to assess the accumulation of intracellular storage mate-
ally evident at higher frequencies of stimulation [3,5,20–22]. Although rials, which is a general hallmark of the NCL disorders [13,23–28]
IPS is often part of routine assessment performed in response to new- (Table 2).
onset seizures, if performed only at frequencies of N 2 Hz, the character-
istic response (at 1–2 Hz) that is present in many individuals with CLN2 2.3. High suspicion of genetic basis for epilepsy/neurological symptoms
disease will be missed. Lack of a characteristic response cannot rule out
CLN2 disease, however. Most commonly, initial presentation of ataxia and/or unprovoked
seizures and a history of a language delay to a pediatrician or even to
2.2. High suspicion of an NCL disorder a pediatric neurologist results in no specific suspicion of CLN2 disease
or NCL. Seizures are a relatively common symptom that prompts medi-
More commonly, a history of ataxia, worsening unprovoked sei- cal consultation in young children ranging from 1% to 14% of children
zures, and presence of early language delay may not specifically be rec- under 5 years globally depending on region [29–31]. As part of the in-
ognized as CLN2 disease but may be generally suggestive of an NCL vestigation into the etiology of epileptic seizures, there is increasing ev-
disorder upon presentation to a metabolic specialist/geneticist, an NCL idence to support use of a gene panel to disclose a genetic basis of
 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167 163

Table 2
Roles of recommended investigations in the diagnosis of CLN2 disease.

Nature Test Sample type(s) Considerations Role in diagnosis

Clinical test EEG with IPS at 1 N/A Individuals with CLN2 disease have characteristic Not a diagnostic test
to 2 Hz EEG posterior spikes in response to each light flash
(at 1–2 Hz) [5]

NCL disorders other than CLN2 disease may

present with these characteristic responses

Note that IPS is often routinely performed at N2

Hz, which will not elicit these characteristic
responses
Electron Detection of Typically skin, rectal, or Accurate assessment and interpretation require Not sufficient for diagnosis of a specific NCL disorder
microscopy intracellular blood samples experience and specialized skills that are not
storage bodies widely available

Findings may not be unique to a specific NCL

Enzyme TPP1 enzyme DBS or saliva Always assess activity of ≥1 enzyme in addition to Deficient TPP1 activity in DBS or saliva is diagnostic if
assay activity assay TPP1 (PPT1 and/or β-galactosidase confirmed by molecular analysis
recommended)
Enzyme TPP1 enzyme Leukocytes or fibroblasts Always assess activity of ≥1 enzyme in addition to Deficient TPP1 activity in leukocytes or fibroblasts is
assay activity assay TPP1 (PPT1 and/or β-galactosidase diagnostic if consistent with clinical presentation
recommended)
To confirm a diagnosis, molecular analysis is
recommended

Molecular Gene panels Typically blood, buccal Does not require specific suspicion of CLN2 Findings not diagnostic unless test is validated for
analysis containing the swabs, or saliva; other disease, potentially speeding path to diagnosis diagnosis
TPP1/CLN2 gene samples possible
Sanger sequencing is recommended to confirm If validated: a finding of 2 pathogenic mutations consistent
identified mutations with clinical presentation in trans is diagnostic

Access and reimbursement can vary regionally To confirm a diagnosis, enzyme analysis is necessary if
only 1 pathogenic variant is found, no variant is found, or if
1 or more VUS is identified
Analysis of parental DNA samples may clarify
whether detected alterations are in trans or in cis

Not all detected alterations may be readily

interpretable, and in rare cases, both causative
mutations may not be identified
Molecular TPP1/CLN2 gene Typically blood, buccal Sequencing of all exons and associated A finding of 2 pathogenic mutations consistent with
analysis sequencing swabs, or saliva; other intron-exon junctions recommended clinical presentation in trans is diagnostic
samples possible
Analysis of parental DNA samples may clarify To confirm a diagnosis, enzyme analysis is necessary if
whether detected alterations are in trans or in cis only 1 pathogenic variant is found, no variant is found, or if
1 or more VUS is identified
Not all detected alterations may be readily
interpretable, and in rare cases, both causative
mutations may not be identified

CLN2, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 2; DBS, dried blood spot; EEG, electroencephalogram; IPS, intermittent photic stimulation; N/A, not applicable; PPT1, palmitoyl-protein thioesterase 1;
TPP1, tripeptidyl peptidase 1; VUS, variant of unknown/uncertain significance.

epilepsy for childhood, late-infantile, or particularly infantile epileptic mucolipidoses, Niemann-Pick type C disease, peroxisomal disorders,
seizures. Therefore, at this stage, the clinician (Fig. 1, left) may order a mitochondrial disorders, Gaucher disease type III, and leukodystrophies.
gene panel directed to epilepsy and seizure disorders [32–35]. Whole While many of these disorders and syndromes are in fact dis-
exome and whole genome sequencing may also be considered to un- tinguishable from the classic presentation of CLN2 disease, natural
cover a previously uncharacterized genetic basis of epilepsy. variation in clinical presentation of these disorders and syndromes
often conceals an early and direct path to diagnosis of CLN2 dis-
2.4. Differential diagnosis of CLN2 disease ease. Distinguishing between these disorders and syndromes is
difficult as many lack biochemical diagnostic tests, such as enzyme
Different epilepsy syndromes may be considered in young children activity tests and/or biomarker tests, slowing the time to diagnosis.
with new-onset seizures, including: Ohtahara, West, Dravet, and Fortunately, there is a biochemical test for diagnosis of CLN2
Lennox-Gastaut, myoclonic-astatic epilepsy/MAE (Doose syndrome), disease.
and Landau-Kleffner syndromes. GLUT1 deficiency, benign myoclonic
epilepsies, progressive myoclonic epilepsies (Lafora disease, 3. Laboratory diagnostic tests for CLN2 disease
Unverricht-Lundborg disease, myoclonic epilepsy with ragged-red fi-
bers), along with other channelopathies and metabolic syndromes 3.1. TPP1 enzyme activity analysis
that are associated with myoclonic epilepsy (including sialidoses and
galactosialidosis) also may be considered. CLN2 disease is diagnosable by a biochemical test of TPP1. TPP1 en-
Epilepsy and progressive neurodegeneration in children should raise zyme is a pepstatin-insensitive lysosomal serine exopeptidase with op-
suspicion of not only NCL, but also gangliosidoses, mucopolysaccharidoses, timal in vitro activity at acidic pH [1,36–38]. Although a tandem mass
164 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167

spectrometry (MS) compatible substrate was recently developed [39], CLN1 disease, another NCL disorder that can initially present with seizures
most diagnostic laboratories assess TPP1 enzyme activity using the at similar ages as those with CLN2 disease. An additional appropriate con-
fluorogenic substrate, Ala-Ala-Phe-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin [37,38, trol enzyme is β-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23), a lysosomal enzyme not as-
40]. Several variations on the fluorogenic methodology have been pub- sociated with an NCL disorder. Currently, the only other lysosomal
lished [41–43], each of which can differentiate affected individuals from enzyme defect associated with NCL disease, and for which a specific clin-
healthy controls; however, the absolute activities differ. Therefore, it is ical test is available, is cathepsin D (CLN10 disease). Whereas, the remain-
essential that laboratories carefully establish unaffected reference der of the NCL disorders are not due to an enzyme deficiency.
ranges for their implementation of the TPP1 enzyme assay (Fig. 2).
Leukocytes isolated from whole blood are the recommended sample 3.2. Electron microscopy (EM) analysis
type for analysis of TPP1 enzyme activity, enabling accurate and rapid
diagnostic analysis. Multiple laboratories report TPP1 enzyme activity Accumulation of intracellular storage materials in neuronal and non-
levels measured in affected individuals to be distinct from carriers and neuronal cells is a morphological hallmark of the NCL disorders. Histor-
unaffected individuals (although the absolute activities differ; Fig. 2). ically, detection of intracellular storage materials by EM has been an im-
However, whole blood samples are particularly sensitive to exposure portant technique for the classification and diagnosis of NCL disorders
to temperature extremes or to delays in shipping and receipt, potential- [46]. The recent increase in availability of molecular testing has limited
ly reducing assay reliability. the use of EM studies in the diagnosis and differentiation of NCL disor-
In addition to leukocytes, several other sample types may be used for ders [23]. In addition, few laboratories now have the required expertise
analysis of TPP1 enzyme activity, such as fibroblasts, dried blood spots for the accurate interpretation of electron micrographs.
(DBS), and saliva. The TPP1 enzyme assay should be separately validat- Clinical EM investigation of those suspected of having an NCL disor-
ed for each sample type in which it is performed. Although analysis of der typically requires collection of skin biopsies or blood samples; rectal,
TPP1 enzyme activity in fibroblasts requires culture of a skin punch bi- skeletal muscle, and conjunctival biopsies can also be used [23]. EM ex-
opsy, leading to delays in diagnostic testing, skin punch biopsies are amination shows accumulation of storage materials, typically with cur-
more robust in suboptimal shipment conditions than whole-blood sam- vilinear profiles in CLN2 disease. Some CLN2 disease biopsies show a
ples. DBS samples are of great use in regions where the timely and ap- mixed pattern of both curvilinear and fingerprint profiles, a pattern
propriate shipment of blood and/or tissue samples is problematic and that may be associated with atypical CLN2 phenotypes [10,23,28].
is the likely sample of choice for any screening approaches to detect
CLN2 disease [39], although appropriate DBS sample collection, drying, 3.3. Molecular analysis of TPP1/CLN2
and timely shipment remain important for DBS samples. Evaluation of
TPP1 enzyme activity in saliva samples [44] is a component of an inte- A diagnosis of CLN2 disease can be confirmed by identification of
grated strategy for diagnosis of NCL disorders in Latin America [10,26]. two pathogenic variants/mutations (associated with a TPP1 enzyme de-
Appropriate control enzymes are essential to accurately interpret ficiency) in trans in the TPP1/CLN2 gene. The TPP1/CLN2 gene is located
TPP1 enzyme activity findings. PPT1 is a suitable control enzyme because on chromosome 11p15 [47], contains 13 exons, and is 6.7 kb in length.
it has broadly similar stability as the TPP1 enzyme in DBS [45], and the ex- As of March 2016, 140 changes in the TPP1/CLN2 gene have been report-
perience of most investigators is that the stabilities are comparable in leu- ed, of which 116 are reported to be pathogenic [13,28,48]. Globally, the
kocytes, fibroblasts, and saliva. Additionally, evaluation of PPT1 enzyme two most commonly reported mutations associated with CLN2 disease
activity serves a dual function to both assess sample quality and exclude are c.509-1G NC, a splicing mutation, and c.622C N T (p.Arg208Ter),

Min-Max, Individuals,
nmol/h/mg protein n
173-370 56

Laboratory 1 103-203 32
0.7-9 12

62-368 100
Laboratory 2 8-166 49
0-16 24

42-339 > 5000

Laboratory 3 71-158 16
0-26 120

70-130 300
Laboratory 4 30-50 4
0-15 20
WT
Carrier 48-120 857
Laboratory 5 CLN2 25-67 54
0-3 44

0 100 200 300 400

TPP1 Enzyme Activity,
nmol/h/mg protein

Fig. 2. Enzyme activity ranges of tripeptidyl peptidase 1 (TPP1) in leukocytes observed in 5 independent laboratories. Activity ranges for healthy individuals (wild type [WT]), carriers, and
affected individuals (with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 [CLN2] disease) are reported. Although the absolute enzyme activities differ among the laboratories (likely due to
methodological differences, such as the protease inhibitors used and the assay pH), each individual laboratory clearly differentiates the TPP1 enzyme activity of individuals with CLN2
disease from that of unaffected controls.
 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167 165

c.509-1G>C 156 • 57% of reported mutationsa

• Present in 69% to 89%
of patients
c.622C>T (p.Arg208Ter) 149

c.851G>T (p.Gly284Val) 35

c.1525C>T (p.Gln509Ter) 18
Splice site
Nonsense/stop
c.1266C>C (p.Gln422His) 10
Missense

84 mutations reported
176
< 10 times

0 50 100 150 200

Mutation Reports in Kousi et al, 2012

a
as reported in Kousi et al, 2012

Fig. 3. Mutations associated with classic neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2) disease. Five mutations in the tripeptidyl peptidase 1 (TPP1)/CLN2 gene have been reported N10 times
[28]. The mutations c.509-1GNC and c.622CNT (p.Arg208Ter) together represent 57% of all reported mutations (reported by Kousi et al. [28]), and ≥1 of these 2 alleles is present in 69% to
89% of those diagnosed with CLN2 disease [28,49,50].

which results in the introduction of a premature termination codon [13, disorder gene panels—may speed the diagnostic process when CLN2
28,49,50] (Fig. 3). However, in one laboratory's experience, these two al- disease is not specifically suspected. Key strengths of gene panels in-
leles have not been identified during diagnosis of individuals of Southeast clude relatively rapid turnaround time, the assessment of many genetic
Asian or Middle Eastern origin (M. Fietz, written communication, April conditions in one analysis, and the investigation of genetic conditions
2016), indicating that c.509-1GNC and c.622CN T (p.Arg208Ter) are not that are not diagnosed through enzyme activity assays as mentioned.
common in all populations. Further, different mutation profiles have An informal survey of US laboratories offering gene panels suggests
been reported in some locations, such as Argentina [10,25,26] and Cana- that the TPP1/CLN2 gene is present on many gene panels, including
da/Newfoundland, where a founder effect mutation has been well charac- those targeting NCL disorders, epilepsy, neurology, lysosomal storage
terized [28,51,52]. Consequently, global allele frequencies are not disorders, inherited metabolic disorders, and eye disorders. The authors
necessarily relevant for some local diagnostic purposes. recommend the use of gene panels given the support they can provide
Given the broad range of mutations that have been associated with clinicians in moving rapidly from clinical presentation to a laboratory
CLN2 disease [13,28], sequencing of the TPP1/CLN2 gene should ideally diagnosis.
evaluate the entire coding region and associated intron-exon splice Whole exome/genome sequencing (WEGS) approaches share many
junctions. If DNA sequencing fails to identify mutations, other ap- of the strengths of gene panels and have the advantage of examining far
proaches such as mRNA analysis, array comparative genome hybridiza- more of the genome, albeit with an accompanying increase in data com-
tion (aCGH), deletion/duplication analyses, and whole genome/exome plexity and analysis requirements. WEGS approaches may be of partic-
sequencing may be of use. If two pathogenic mutations in the TPP1/ ular use for identification of novel diseases or if the clinical
CLN2 gene are identified, it is important to confirm that they are on sep- manifestation of a given mutation is outside of a gene's known disease
arate parental alleles (i.e., in trans); analysis of parental DNA samples spectrum, as was the case for the TPP1/CLN2 mutations found to cause
can clarify the phase of the detected mutations. Analysis of parental SCAR7 disease [12]. However, not all regions will have access or support
DNA can also detect possible allele dropout and subsequent false assess- for WEGS approaches, and the cost and turnaround time relative to a
ments of homozygosity. De novo mutations that arise in germ cells are gene panel is typically higher and longer.
also possible, although this has not been reported to date. It has been
the experience of the authors that both TPP1/CLN2 mutations are gener- 4. Conclusions
ally identified by DNA sequencing and, to date, few large deletions have
been identified in individuals with CLN2 disease. In cases where one In early stages, CLN2 disease is challenging to recognize, and diagno-
TPP1/CLN2 gene pathogenic variant/mutation is uncovered in molecular sis is often delayed until after the disease has progressed significantly. In
testing, enzyme activity testing is warranted as detection of only one the majority of cases, key initial symptoms are new-onset epileptic sei-
pathogenic variant cannot rule out CLN2 disease. zures in combination with a history of early language delay and/or atax-
As with other recessive genetic disorders, molecular analysis may ia, although alternative presentations are possible [5]. Differential
identify variants of unknown significance (VUS). At present, the number diagnosis of a genetic basis of epilepsy by use of symptom- or disease-
of reported VUS and likely non-pathogenic sequence changes in the based gene panels offer great promise for supporting an early and time-
TPP1/CLN2 gene is relatively low: of 140 reported sequence alterations, ly diagnosis of not only CLN2 disease but many other causes of late-in-
24 alterations (17%) are not believed to be pathogenic [13,48]. However, fantile epilepsy as well. In the absence of newborn screening for CLN2
it is likely that not all detected VUS have been reported. The increasing disease, gene panels are the broadest symptom-based, multiple-disease
use of molecular testing in suspected cases of CLN2 disease may increase screening approach with a reasonable diagnostic yield. Laboratory tests
the number of VUS. Again, if two pathogenic mutations in trans are not to diagnose CLN2 disease are well established (Table 2). TPP1 enzyme
identified, diagnostic testing of TPP1 enzyme activity is required. activity can be assessed in several sample types: leukocytes, DBS, fibro-
blasts, and saliva. The gold standard for laboratory diagnosis is demon-
3.4. Gene panels and whole exome/genome sequencing stration of deficient TPP1 enzyme activity (in conjunction with normal
activity of a control enzyme such as PPT1 and/or β-galactosidase)
Relevant gene panels—such as symptom-based (epilepsy) gene followed by molecular analysis that detects one pathogenic mutation
panels, NCL gene panels, lysosomal disorder or inherited metabolic on each parental allele of TPP1/CLN2. Given the availability of reliable
166 M. Fietz et al. / Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 119 (2016) 160–167

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newborn screening. Disease-specific management, genetic counseling,
Kosofsky, M.G. Kaplitt, M.M. Souweidane, D. Sondhi, N.R. Hackett, C. Hollmann,
and new therapies in development for CLN2 disease make early and ac- R.G. Crystal, Neurological deterioration in late infantile neuronal ceroid
curate diagnosis of this severe neurodegenerative disease essential. lipofuscinosis, Neurology 69 (2007) 521–535.
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Conflicts of interest (updated 2013).
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Becerra, K. Sims, W. Xin, I.A. Cismondi, I. Noher de Halac, The neuronal ceroid
M. Fietz has received honoraria and travel support from BioMarin lipofuscinoses program: a translational research experience in Argentina, Biochim.
and Genzyme. M. AlSayed, D. Burke, L. Dvořáková, H. Jahnová, and W. Biophys. Acta 1852 (2015) 2301–2311.
Xin have received honoraria and travel support from BioMarin. J. [11] R. Di Giacopo, L. Cianetti, V. Caputo, I. La Torraca, F. Piemonte, A. Ciolfi, S. Petrucci, C.
Carta, P. Mariotti, V. Leuzzi, E.M. Valente, A. D'Amico, A. Bentivoglio, E. Bertini, M.
Cohen-Pfeffer, E. Izzo, and N. Miller are employees and shareholders of Tartaglia, G. Zampino, Protracted late infantile ceroid lipofuscinosis due to TPP1 mu-
BioMarin. J. D. Cooper has received honoraria, travel support, and con- tations: clinical, molecular and biochemical characterization in three sibs, J. Neurol.
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[12] Y. Sun, R. Almomani, G.J. Breedveld, G.W. Santen, E. Aten, D.J. Lefeber, J.I. Hoff, E.
Cell Inc.; and receives research funding from BioMarin. R. Giugliani has Brusse, F.W. Verheijen, R.M. Verdijk, M. Kriek, B. Oostra, M.H. Breuning, M.
received travel support, speaker honoraria, and investigator support Losekoot, J.T. den Dunnen, B.P. van de Warrenburg, A.J. Maat-Kievit, Autosomal re-
from BioMarin. Z. Lukacs has received honoraria, travel support, and re- cessive spinocerebellar ataxia 7 (SCAR7) is caused by variants in TPP1, the gene in-
volved in classic late-infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 2 disease (CLN2
search funding from BioMarin. S. E. Mole has received honoraria from disease), Hum. Mutat. 34 (2013) 706–713.
BioMarin and serves without compensation as a scientific advisor for [13] S.E. Mole, S.L. Cotman, Genetics of the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (Batten dis-
the Batten Disease Family Association UK. I. Noher de Halac has received ease), Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1852 (2015) 2237–2241.
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honoraria and travel support from BioMarin, has received research
perspectives, Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA) - Mol. Basis Dis. 1832 (2013)
funding from the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y 1801–1806.
Tecnicas (CONICET) and the Secretaria de Ciencia y Tecnica (SeCyT) of [15] A. Orlin, D. Sondhi, M.T. Witmer, M.M. Wessel, J.G. Mezey, S.M. Kaminsky, N.R.
the Universidad Nacional de Cordoba, and receives research funding Hackett, K. Yohay, B. Kosofsky, M.M. Souweidane, M.G. Kaplitt, D.J. D'Amico, R.G.
Crystal, S. Kiss, Spectrum of ocular manifestations in CLN2-associated batten
from the Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Innovacion Productiva (Jansky-Bielschowsky) disease correlate with advancing age and deteriorating neu-
Fondo para la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica. D. A. Pearce and rological function, PLoS One 8 (2013), e73128.
H. Poupetova declare that they have no conflict of interest. A. Schulz is [16] J.P. Dyke, H.U. Voss, D. Sondhi, N.R. Hackett, S. Worgall, L.A. Heier, B.E. Kosofsky, A.M.
Ulug, D.C. Shungu, X. Mao, R.G. Crystal, D. Ballon, Assessing disease severity in late
a consultant for and has received a research grant from BioMarin. N. infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis using quantitative MR diffusion-weighted
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Hackett, C. Hollmann, M.E. Yeotsas, A.L. Jeong, B. Van de Graaf, I. Cao, S.M.
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Crystal, D. Ballon, Assessment of disease severity in late infantile neuronal ceroid
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