Research Proposal

Examination of stress–organizational commitment

relationship through perceived employee’s exploitation at

workplace; A study on educational institutions of Pakistan.

Introduction

1.1 Background of Study:

A sound educational system is considered as a backbone of a nation and economy specially for the

developing and struggling economy of our country, Pakistan. Teachers are considered as a pivot,

around which all educational systems move. The success of the educational system depends on the

efficiency and capability of the teacher who selflessly devoted his services for this system, which

not only originated a strong base but also contributed towards the development of society.

Unfortunately, this noble profession experiences a great deal of stress during the course of their

profession, since long teaching has been considered as a high stress occupation (Johnson et al.,

2005; Noor and Zainuddin, 2011; Liu and Cheung, 2015). Many researches conducted on stress at

work and its most common outcomes are low motivation and morale of employees, low

performance, low job satisfaction, high turnover or absentees, bad communication channels within

organization and work conflicts (Schabracq and Cooper, 2000; Murphy, 1995; McHugh, 1993).

Furthermore, another study argued that all the factors that initiated the stress at work subsequently

affected the organizational efficiency and effectiveness and that job stress is an adverse reaction

of the employee towards job stressors (Spector et al., 2000a), further this behavior is responsible

for low organizational commitment. Although organizational commitment is a multidimensional

construct that consists of multiple categories explained as employees’ identification, involvement

and emotional attachment with the organization develops the association of organizational

commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990, Chang, & Yang, 2010). Although a large number of studies

have been conducted with a negative impact of job stress on organizational commitment

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(Cropanzano et al., 2003; Jamal, 1990, 2005; Tourigny et al., 2013). Low committed employees

result in high turnover intentions such as study explained that the poor job security, outcomes in a

low organizational commitment and further insufficient support increased the turnover of

employees (Cheng and Chan, 2007; Rainayee et al., 2013). Yet another study also indicates the

positive relationship between the stress and turnover intention (Applebaum et al., 2010), especially

for the employees who worked in the service industry are more likely to be exposed to occupational

stress (Jogaratnam and Buchanan, 2004). In that situation the bond of organizational commitment

is difficult to retain and to attract well-qualified personnel. It is observed in recent years, the

phenomena of organizational commitment in schools has become a course of deep thought in many

societies and cultures. Many empirical studies have been conducted on different variables such as

organizational communication, organizational commitment, job stress, and job performance

because these organizational behavior variables have a significant impact on the overall

performance of a company, for instance, a study on poor organizational communication also

contribute towards the lower organizational commitment (Kramer, 1999; Rodwell et al., 1998)

resulting in the three basic components of organizational commitment i.e. Identification,

involvement, and loyalty were also affected and reduced. In addition, the level of organizational

commitment has positively influenced job performance (Yousef, 2000) and negatively influenced

job stress (Sager, 1990). Thus an unsatisfactory working environment along with the inadequate

pay scale of employees more contributed towards the perceived exploitation that the employee

believed that the employer is taking advantage of the employee by purposefully using him in the

favor of his organization. Besides the prominent research of Livne-Ofer, 2017, few researches had

been conducted on this unique concept of exploitation. A well known work of Bakker and

Schaufeli, 2008, Labrague et al., 2018, Yeh, 2013 on the enhancement of employees’ perception

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about the work which further increases the employees’ organizational commitment. A research on

endogenous and exogenous stressors revealed that both contribute to a negative relationship

between employee and organization resulting in high turnover intention. Furthermore, the

mediating role of perceived employee’s exploitation also positively accelerates the stress and

turnover intention relationship (Bhat et al., 2023).

3.2 Problem Identification:

By keeping in view the above mentioned studies stress is considered as a stigma for workers and

employees. It is obvious that stress has increased in our workplace since the last few decades makes

this issue difficult to ignore. It is as expected that stress has been influencing our workplace setup

and performance of employees in all sectors. Furthermore researchers must pay attention to stress

and its potential harmful impacts on work life such as mentioned in background studies that due

to stress at work the higher will be turnover intention (Bhat et al., 2023) low organizational

commitment (Wang et al., 2013). If this stress prevails for a longer period of time it shows serious

consequences in the end such as negative physiological issues (Burke et al., 1966) and some

negative psychological health outcomes (Griffith et al., 1999). The worthless position of the

present teachers, especially of the private sector, is rarely considered as a main problem by the

concerned authority (Kingdon, 2020; Gupta, 2019). Under this current prevailing economic

condition of the country where the high unemployment rate and low pay scale of highly qualified

teachers contributes more towards high stress in the society a study on economic condition and

employment indicates that current economic condition along with corruption and favoritism in

hiring process, mostly employer appoints highly educated and highly experienced teachers at a

low salary rate with high responsibilities and task duties to be performed (Ahmed, 2018). This

extra burden on the employee creates the sense of exploitation within the employee that

3
organization is unethically or immorally taking advantage of him for their own benefits, further

this perception of the employee contributes towards the turnover intention (Bhat et al., 2023). This

new concept of perceived employees' exploitation with stress and organizational commitment

model should be explored in our educational setup where teachers are struggling with low pay

scales and high responsibilities. Most of the studies mentioned in literature were on occupational

stress so the broader model of stress with endogenous and exogenous components should be

evaluated. How this model influences the commitment level of the employee and most importantly

the concept of perceived employees’ exploitation should also be assessed in this model for the

better understanding of the phenomena of stress in the teaching sector of Pakistan.

3.3 Problem Statement:

By keeping in view the about facts and studies the problem statement of this study is,

“To examine the stress - organizational commitment relationship through perceived employees’

exploitation: A study on educational institutions of Pakistan”

3.4 Objective of Study:

● To study the impact of stress on organizational commitment.

● To further explore the impact of stress on organizational commitment with a mediating role

of perceived employee’s exploitation.

● This research also aimed to evaluate the effect of endogenous and exogenous stressors

(constructs of stress) on organizational commitment and further the mediating role of

perceived employees’ exploitation will also be assessed.

● All the above mentioned study will be conducted on the teachers of elementary schools,

middle schools, high level schools and high level secondary schools of Rawalpindi &

Islamabad.

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3.5 Significance of Study:

Current study would have a significance for our educational institutions that shows how the

commitment of teachers with their organizations is affected by stress. Stress is not a single

dimension structure but it is a multidimensional construct, this study will also explore the impact

of all these attributes on the commitment of the employee. Secondly, the mediating variable

“perceived employees’ exploitation” in which an employee perceives that organization is

purposefully taking the advantage of his services without providing equal benefits in return, so

this research is also aimed to find that to which extend the stress and organizational commitment

relationship is affected by mediating role of perceived employees’ exploitation. Thirdly, a study

on educational institutions of Pakistan where unfortunately teachers not only face the work stress

but also financial stress, family conflict, lack of administrative support and many more, so this

study will contribute positively in existing literature that how can a healthy and stress free work

environment increases employee organizational commitment because we mostly observed high

turnover ratio in this profession.

3.6 Scope of Study:

Understanding the mediating variable "perceived employee's exploitation" in connection to the

stress-organizational commitment model becomes fascinating and prominent in the current

research. Unfortunately, since the topic was not covered by any research forum or any media at

all, research remained very limited in this area. To take initiative, steps to determine the factors

that stimulate stress must be investigated and identified. The present study will be carried out on

the types of stress connected with workers' organizational commitment and perceived employees’

exploitation in the educational institutions of Pakistan. Previous empirical studies on all above

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mentioned variables of this study will be discussed in the literature review chapter of this research

proposal.

Chapter 02

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1 Relationship of Organizational commitment and Stress

The topic of organizational commitment is considered one of the most researched topics to intrigue

the trait of employee behavior, the study in this concept explains how and why an individual

develops a sense of an attachment towards its organization. Porter et al., (1976) defines

organizational commitment as a relative involvement of an individual towards its organization and

further this involvement creates identification which later on becomes his relative strength. So the

commitment is a behavior that represents the nature and quality of association between an

organization and an employee (Mowday et al., 1984 b). Furthermore, many studies elaborate this

concept more specifically as, organizational commitment is an individual identification and its

association with an organization, which results in strong attachment to the objectives and goals of

an organization (Grego-planer, 2019, Ferreria et al., 2017). Alamri and Al-Duhaim (2017) interpret

that organizational commitment is an action that ties a knot between employee’s identity and

company, further ensuring that employees as well as company’s goals are coherent. Subsequently,

it can be interpreted that commitment with the goals of a particular organization results in creation

of membership which further assists towards the better achievement of goals. This commitment

usually establishes a causal relationship between individual and organization, employees attached

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and committed to organization further want incentive and rewards in return (Buchanan, 1974).

When an individual joins an organization with certain skills, knowledge, needs and expectations

moreover, look forward to utilizing its capabilities to satisfy his needs, in return when an

organization also provides desired work environment and opportunities, then commitment with

the organization automatically develops. Some prominent research is conducted to find the

determinants of organizational commitment further these three sets are explained; Job and role

features, individual characteristics, and organizational variables (Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007;

Suifan, 2015; Tsai et al., 2010). Above mentioned literature explained that commitment depends

on three factors; attachment with the organizational goals and objectives, willingness to exert effort

for the achievement of these objectives and to maintain the membership with the organization.

Meyer et al. (1993) proposed a theory that employees demonstrate three prominent levels of

commitment towards its organization, it means it is a multidimensional structure, consisting of

three types i.e, affective, continuance and normative commitments. Affective commitment is a

positive interaction between the individual and the organization and employees' anticipation about

the hiring company (Robinson et al., 2004; Wong and Wong, 2017). Further they want to retain

or continue their job not only because of their need but also they want it as an occupation (Meyer

et al., 1993, p. 539). In continuous commitment the employee analyzed the cost and benefits of his

job which further help to decide rather to continue or leave the job (Meyer and Parfyonova, 2010,

Chew and Chen, 2008). According to the Meyer continuous commitment related to employee’s

investment of time and effort which he has incorporated in his job and further this effort resist the

employee to give up his position in favor of an unseen opportunity additionally, the skills and

experience can not be easily transferred to another organization so need of the current job creates

continuous commitment between employee and current organization (Meyer et al., 1993, p.539).

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Normative commitment explains the devotion and duty of the employee to remain stuck with the

organization (Meyer et al., 2012; Norm et al., 2017). Another study elaborates that it is the strong

commitment of the employee with the organization with a belief that my job is right and according

to my moral values (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Normative commitment develops a psychological

relationship between employee and organization and it increases when an individual feels loyalty

with the organization. It further develops high commitment to work for the compensation received

against the job done (Meyer et al., 1993, p. 539; Roussenau, 1995). High commitment of the

employees creates aspects of devotion, professionalism and loyalty (Albrecht and Andreetta, 2011,

Bailey et al., 2017, Grobelna, 2019). Organizational commitment increases employee job

association, loyalty, levels of job involvement and reduces turnover intentions (Gagne and Deci,

2005; Habib et al., 2014; Nawaz and Pangil, 2016). Above mentioned studies positively argue

that when the employees committed to an organization results in high motivation, low turnover

and significant attachment to the objectives of an organization. A study conducted at global level

on the teachers of India and Iran and results revealed that Iranian teachers showed better

continuous commitment as compared to Indian teachers who had a better affective and normative

component of organizational commitment. In both countries age groups and subject areas of

teachers did not have any effect on their organizational commitment (Joolideh and Yeshodhara,

2009). On the other side of the picture, if the employee shows low performance, lack of

concentration and low commitment, to investigate it further a negative relationship between job

stress and performance was revealed although they thought that to some extend the job stress is

essential for the growth of both employees and organization (Westman and Eden, 1996). Teachers

of our educational sector unfortunately also face this unforeseen pressure during their job. Low

commitment to the organization and high turnover intentions are mostly observed in this

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profession. A study on stress and performance explained the negative relationship between job

stress and job performance and positive relationship between job stress and turnover intention.

Moreover, the moderating role of organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) significantly moderated

the relationship of job stress with turnover intention and job performance (Arshadi and Damiri,

2013). Further the definition of stress explained by Selye (1946, p.55) also supported its negative

impact on person’s life and work, he interpreted it as “the non-specific response of the body to any

demand made on it to adapt”, if we elaborate it in physiological aspect all the stress is not harmful

for our body, a positive stress called Eustress is important for the physical growth of the body and

subsequently this optimal level of stress initiate or motivate the person to perform at a better level

but value of this optimum level of stress is vary from person to person. On the other hand the

second category of stress is Distress, which is a bad stress and it has a negative and damaging

effect on the person. The word Stress is mostly associated with negative effects, a study on work

stress explains it as an adverse psychological condition brought on by a response to certain aspects

of the workplace that appear physically and emotionally dangerous (Jamal, 2005). If it is

specifically related it to teacher’s stress as studied by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978, p. 3) as “stress

is a response syndrome mediated by an appraisal of threat to the teacher’s self esteem or well–

being”. Kyriacou (1987, p. 146) further explained “Teacher’s stress may be defined as the

experience by a teacher of an unpleasant emotion, such as tension, frustration, anxiety, anger and

depression, resulting from aspects of his work as a teacher”. Many theories are developed on

stress since 1950 but one of the well known theory i.e., Person Environment Fit Theory perfectly

explain the arousal of stress that stress does not arise separately from person or environment but it

arises when the person tries to interact with its environment (work place), a good fit or interaction

of a person with its environment results in no stress but on the other hand the stress arises in case

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of a misfit or incompatibility of a person with his or her environment (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus and

Folkman, 1984). This incompatibility arises from different sources such as poor health, overload

of work, low experience, insufficient pay or job security which results in work stress. Selye (1946)

identifies the stimuli which develop stress is called stressor. The most commonly associated

stressors of our work life are occupational, endogenous and exogenous stress (Bhat at el., 2023).

Endogenous stress is generated on a negative psychological interaction between an employee and

an organization. Main causes of this stress are lack of appreciation, low professional support and

difficult interpersonal interaction (Burke et al., 1996). Collegial support can reduce the impact of

this stress (Greenglass et al., 1997). Hashim et al. (2019) postulate the two main causes of this

stress that are, overloaded work and insufficient financial support. Furthermore, the school

teachers even in the private sector have relatively inadequate salaries (Jack and Punch 2001) which

induces them to look for extra income as a second occupation (Olivier and Venter 2003). Another

research explained that the poor job security, outcomes in a low organizational commitment and

further insufficient support increased the turnover of employees (Cheng and Chan, 2008; Rainayee

et al., 2013). On the other hand, Exogenous Stresses are external to the company and have an

impact that does not end at the individual level, but may also harm organizational morale, which

also has a direct impact on employee attitudes. Furthermore, workers' concerns about how their

stressor-related difficulties would be seen at work are undoubtedly sources of further stress. Main

exogenous stressors are less job opportunities, family conflict and future financial worries and

many more. Mostly these types of stressors are difficult to identify. Stress at work is one of the

common features of the modern era and in recent years workplace stress has become a common

and usual problem for human resource managers (Avey et al., 2009). The term job stress can be

defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the

10
job do not match the capabilities, responses, or needs of the worker (National Institutes for

Occupational Safety and Health, 1999, p. 6). A research on endogenous and exogenous stressors

revealed that both contribute to a negative relationship between employee and organization

resulting in high turnover intention. Furthermore, the mediating role of perceived employee’s

exploitation also positively accelerates the stress and turnover intention relationship (Bhat et al.,

2023). Stress also has a negative relationship with organizational commitment (Wang, 2013), later

on more studies also revealed that stress and remuneration relationship in which employees are

forced to accept relatively low income as compared to the income of similarly qualified persons

at different positions or professions. This difference of remuneration leads to high frustration

specially for those who are struggling against financial crisis as well as family responsibilities

(Grayson and Alvarez, 2008). If the employee is not entitled to extra pay for overtime it would

also contribute towards low organizational commitment (Singh et al., 2011). Moreover with

respect to job satisfaction a study on banking sector reveals that tellers exhibit high job

dissatisfaction due to extra work stress in case of both gender, so stress is not gender determinant

both male and female have similar stress perception and experience (Dartey-Baah et al., 2020).

One of the study conducted on physical education teachers in Bahrain, also explained the major

causes of stress are working environment, insufficient salaries, poor school or administration

support, extra workload and career development choices (Khaleel, 1999), in continuation another

study on the teachers of Qatar evaluated the impact of stress at the start and end of the school year,

additionally its effect on gender, experience, diversity makes a significant difference and influence

on stress relationship, this significant difference arised due to different culture, social and

environmental factors (Al-Mohannadi and Capel, 2007).

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The study of some above mentioned literature explained the negative relation of stress with

turnover intention (Bhat et al., 2023), job satisfaction (Dartey-Baah et al., 2020), remuneration

(Singh et al., 2013), organizational commitment (Wang, 2013) and as well as on teacher’s

profession as explained by Khaleel (1999), and (Al-Mohannadi and Capel) 2007. The contribution

of Jack and Punch (2001), Olivier and Venter (2003), Cheng and Chan (2008) and Rainayee et al.

(2013) explained clearly the impact of low salaries, poor job security, extra burden of work in

teaching profession results in low performance and low commitment to the organization. In the

light of above studies the influence of stress on organizational commitment with respect to the

educational institution of Pakistan should be assessed to contribute more knowledge in existing

body of literature, so the first hypothesis of our research is,

H1: Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

By keeping in view the researches on both endogenous and exogenous stressors and this study

will also assessed the role of these stressors in teaching profession, then further two hypotheses of

this study are,

H1a: Endogenous Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

H1b: Exogenous Stress has a negative relationship with organizational commitment.

2.2 Role of Perceived employee’s exploitation in stress-organizational

commitment relationship:

Workplace exploitation is not a part of our history or only for the developing and underdeveloped

countries where the workforce is weakly protected by any law and regulations. It is a slavery and

forced labor concept and exists globally across many firms and industries (Crane, 2013). The term

exploitation is defined in the context of the labor market as “the extent to which the earnings of

12
various groups in the labor force are underpaid relative to the market values of their

productivities' (Sakamoto and Kim, 2010 p. 20). The researchers further derived that although the

importance and presence of exploitation in our workplace, this concept has not been properly

investigated by sociologists using statistical data since the time of Karl Marx ( Sakamoto and Kim,

2010). Due to the change in workplace environment and nature of the work the potential ways of

employee’s exploitation has been considerably changed such as decline in collective bargaining

agreement and trade unions (Cobb, 2016), exploitation is also increased due to short term

employment contract, freelance and remote work and outsourcing (Bidwell et al., 2013).

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, exploitation means “The action or fact of treating

someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work” and also defined as taking advantage of an

individual or situation for one’s benefit (Friedman, 1994). Friedman explained a vague concept

that exploitation is perceptual or actual and further the exploitation side rather than employee or

employer with the condition and state of exploitation is not interpreted clearly. Keeping in view

these deficiencies Linve-Ofer et al., 2017 explain the concept of perceived employee’s exploitation

as “employees’ perceptions that they have been purposefully taken advantage of in their

relationship with the organization, to the benefit of the organization itself”. In their extensive

research scholars explained that perception is an outward-focused emotion of anger and hostility

for the organization and inward-focused one of shame and guilt to be a part of an exploitative job.

They further explore that outward attributes of anger and hostility has a partial mediating effect

on perceived exploitation on employee engagement, organizational commitment, and turnover

intentions, on the other hand inward attributes of shame and guilt also partially mediating the

effects of perceived exploitation on employee burnout, silence, and psychological withdrawal

(Livne-Ofer et al, 2017). Moving forward towards the subjectivity of perceived employee’s

13
exploitation, Moore in 1972 explained that the existence or absence of exploitation, as evaluated

by some nominally neutral observer, makes little difference in human emotions and behavior. It is

always vital to find out how individuals themselves perceive their circumstances; there are too

many possible social and psychological processes that might prevent human beings from not only

expressing moral anger at their condition, but also from going through it. Moreover, a study on

employee’s exploitation explained that perceived employee's exploitation has a significant

negative impact on life satisfaction and also on an individual's perception (Winkelmann and

Winkelmann, 1988). On a positive note, some research has also been conducted to enhance the

employee’s perception of their work in order to increase their commitment towards their

organization (Bakker and Schaufeli, 2008, Labrague et al., 2018, Yeh, 2013). Another study on

employee’s exploitation anticipated that almost all factors influencing employee stress are linked

to intention to leave the company. Employee exploitation mostly involves suppressing legal

requests of the employees. Employers often use unfavorable labor market circumstances to

maximize profits by paying employees cheap wages. The present working environment, reinforced

by a recession and weak economic circumstances, has led to increasing stress in several

occupations (Leiter, 1997). A study on private school teachers to evaluate the impact of both

endogenous and exogenous stressors with employees turnover intentions revealed that both stress

have a significant negative relation with employee’s psychological state which further contribute

towards turnover intention of the employee. Further the mediating role of perceived employee’s

exploitation also intensified the turnover intention decision (Bhat et al., 2023). Another important

study conducted on stress and organizational commitment evaluated its negative relationship with

a dual partial mediating role of job satisfaction and the scholars conducted this study on the

longitudinal time frame model (Abdelmoteleb, 2018). Most of the studies conducted on teachers

14
indicated that organizational commitment is affected by teacher’s attitude of work (Imran et al.,

2017) more it is influenced by turnover intention (Imran et al., 2017; Bhat et al., 2023) work

performance (Zhang, 2014). A study on three categories of Chinese university teachers explained

that stress has an adverse impact on organizational commitment and the mediating effect of job

burnout is more significant than job satisfaction (Wang et al., 2020). Further it can be derived that

efficiency and effectiveness of the teachers are also dependent on their work (Louis, 1998) and

another study explained that teacher’s behavior i.e. job involvement and enthusiasm directly

related to organizational commitment (Emami et al., 2013).

Empirical study of above literature revealed that many studies are being conducted on stress with

turnover intention and employee engagement but only few studies evaluated the influence of

perceived employee’s exploitation with respect to turnover intention (Bhat et al., 2023, Leiter

1997), life satisfaction (Winkelmann & Winklemann 1988), work and organization commitment

(Bakker and Schaufeli, 2008). A comprehensive study on stress and perceived employee’s

exploitation and its impact on organizational commitment requires further attention. According to

Bhat et al, (2023) that many other variables such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment

and organizational citizenship behaviors are needed to be considered in future research. Further,

the variable perceived employee’s exploitation should be analytically evaluated especially in terms

of statistical data and tools (Sakamoto and Kim, 2010). Secondly, study especially on the

educational sector of Pakistan with respect to private school teachers, where the teachers are facing

job stress and how this job stress affects organizational commitment with the mediating role of

perceived employee’s exploitation should be assessed to provide more knowledge to the existing

literature. Thirdly, the endogenous and exogenous stressor also broaden the understanding of

teacher’s stress by examining their unique and broad attributes such as work-life conflict,

15
economic crisis, workload, lack of administration support developed by Cox (1987), Srivastava

and Singh (1984), Cartwright and Cooper (2002) and Giorgi et al. (2015) will discuss in detail in

the methodology of this research work. Keeping in view the literature of all empirical studies, this

research aimed to evaluate the effect of stress on organizational commitment with respect to

endogenous and exogenous stressors. Then the mediating effect of perceived employee’s

exploitation on stress and organizational commitment will be observed. This relationship of each

stressor (endogenous and exogenous) on organizational commitment with mediating the effect of

perceived employee’s exploitation will also be observed. In the light of the above discussion the

further hypothesis of our research is as;

H2: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of stress on organizational

commitment

For the more elaboration of effect of each category of stressor i.e., endogenous and exogenous the

next two hypotheses of the study are,

H2a: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of endogenous stress on

organizational commitment

H2b: Perceived employee’s exploitation mediates the impact of exogenous stress on

organizational commitment

2.3 Conceptual Model:

On the basis of the above theoretical framework the conceptual model of this research study to

examine the effect of independent variable “stress” with the dimensions of endogenous and

exogenous stressors on dependent variable “organizational commitment” will be evaluated.

Secondly, the impact of mediating variable “perceived employee’s exploitation” will also be

16
assessed between stress and organizational commitment relationship on collective as well as

separately for each stressor. Further elaboration of stressors and organizational commitment will

be discussed in methodology.

Chapter 03

Research Methodology

3.1 Population of the Study:

The target population for this study are educational institutions of Pakistan. Thus, mainly the

teachers working in the different private sector schools in Rawalpindi and Islamabad are the main

focused population of research. The proposed respondents can be teachers of elementary schools,

middle schools, high level schools and high level secondary schools. Since the proposed sample

17
is drawn on the population of a homogeneous group, the random sampling technique will be

employed for this study.

3.2 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size:

In order to reduce biases and more generalizability of our research work the random sampling

technique will be used for this work and preferred one is simple random sampling because in this

procedure every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in this way fair

data can also be collected and more generalizability of this research work will be observed.

The proposed sample size for this study should be greater than 200 participants according to the

Hoe (2008) explained that sample size exceeding 200 participants may be considered sufficient

and adequate to achieve the desired statistical level result.

3.3 Research Scale:

Instruments for stress variables and perceived employee exploitation are adapted from the research

article of Bhat et al., 2023. According to Bhat et al., 2023 after the in depth discussion with the

respondents about the stress they faced in their workplace and further these problems converted

into statements. After matching these statements with the existing literature, these statements were

supported with the research studies of Cox (1987), Kopelman et al. (1983), Srivastava and Singh

(1984), Williams and Cooper (1998), Cartwright and Cooper (2000), Lingard et al. (2007), Nixon

et al. (2011) and Giorgi et al. (2015) for endogenous and exogenous stressors of occupational

stress.

The second construct, perceived employees’ exploitation variable, was generated from the research

study of Livne-Ofer et al. (2019).

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The third variable, organizational commitment’s scale is adapted from Meyer and Allen, 1991.

The further dimension of each variable with question statements are as follows;

Questionnaire

Endogenous stressor

Poor administrative support

School authorities are not willing to accept my opinions.

Task distribution is not uniform and reasonable.

I lack recognition for the extra classes/good teaching I do.

There is a lack of communication between teacher and school management.

Professional distress

School management demands much more from its faculty, irrespective of facilities provided by

the school.

It is quite difficult to complete the syllabus within the stipulated time.

Given the vulnerable behavior of students in class it is difficult for me to deliver my best.

School related issues are to be completed at home.

Job Insecurity

I feel uncertain about the future of my job in the school.

My job is insecure in this school.

The school I work for does not provide me with a lot of job security.

Work Overload

I have to work consecutively for longer working classes.

I have to deliver the classes of other teachers in their absence.

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There is excessive workload on the one hand and insufficient number of resources on the other.

Being too busy with official work I am not able to devote sufficient time to my domestic and

personal problems.

Inadequate financial security

My salary does not commensurate with the number of classes I conduct.

I earn less than the people working on similar jobs like the government.

My salary does not meet my requirements/needs

My salary is not paid in time.

Strenuous working environment

Higher surveillance/monitoring at school frustrates me.

Unreasonable management interruption during class lectures irritates me.

I have been provided with ideal and favorable teaching environment

Exogenous stressors

Perceived external opportunity

I am getting better offers from other institutions to work at a higher salary.

If I leave this job, I will have another job as good as this one within a short period of time.

Given the flow of candidates having qualifications equal to mine, indicate your chance of getting

a suitable position in a government organization.

Given the economic condition and job policies of my country, it would not be easy to find

acceptable alternatives employment.

Given the nepotism and corruption in my country, I doubtful of getting a job matching my desired

qualification.

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Perceived economic crisis

I am scared that my school is affected by the economic crisis.

I am afraid that my school, due to the economic crisis may get closed.

The school’s future is unstable (unknown) because of the economic crisis.

My school is solid, although there is an economic crisis.

The economic crisis won’t influence the school.

Work-Family Conflict

My schoolwork schedule often conflicts with my family life.

My family dislikes how often I am preoccupied with my school while at home.

Because my work school is so demanding, at times I am irritable at home.

The amount of time my school works takes up makes it difficult to fulfill family responsibilities.

My school job produces strain that makes it difficult to fulfill my personal obligations.

Perceived Employees Exploitation

My present job is compulsion rather than my desire.

Given the amount of salary, I feel sense of exploitation due to unemployment.

I cannot demand high pay, for the reason of threat of losing my job.

My job restrains me to meet my desired goals.

Organizational Commitment

Affective Commitment

I do not feel a “strong” sense of belonging to my organization

This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me

21
I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this organization

I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization

I think that I could easily attach myself to another organization as I am to this one

I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own

I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it

I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization

Continuous Commitment

One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization is that leaving would require

considerable personal sacrifice and besides this, another organization may not match the overall

benefits I have here

One of few serious consequences of leaving this organization would be scarcity of available

alternatives

I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this organization

Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire

It would not be too costly for me to leave my organization now

Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my organization now

It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if I wanted to

I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having another one lined up

Normative Commitment

I think that people these days move from company to company too often

I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her organization.

Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all unethical to me

22
One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization is that I believe loyalty is important

and therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain

If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere, I would not feel it was right to leave my

organization

I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one organization

Things were better in the days when people stayed in one organization for most of their careers

I do not think that to be a “company man” or “company woman” is sensible anymore

Demographic Variables

The detail of demographic variables is taken from Bhat et al., 2023.

Gender Male Female

Marital status Married Unmarried

Experience 1–3 year , 4–6 year , 7–9 year , 10–12 year , 13–15 year , Above 15 year

Educational qualification Under graduation - Graduation - Graduation with B.ed - Post

graduation - Post graduation with B.ed - Post graduation with M.ed

3.4 Data Collection Procedure:

The convenient way to collect the data is through an online questionnaire. The google forms can

be used to generate online questionnaire and for Demographic variables the nominal scale will be

used and further for stress, perceived employees’ exploitation and organizational commitment a 5

point Likert Scale from 1 Strongly Disagree to 5 Strongly Agree will be used to collect the data

from the respondents as used by Bhat et al., 2023, Meyer and Allen, 1991 and Livne-Ofer et al.

(2019). Online collection through email and whats’ app is a convenient method to collect data.

23
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