15ME342E-ENERGY SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS

UNIT-2. Passive solar heating and cooling

Passive Heating:

One way to increase energy efficiency in a home or building is to use passive heating and
cooling techniques. These take advantage of such things as the heat from sunlight, shade
from trees, air currents within a building and breezes on the outside, and the ability of
solid materials (including the ground) to retain heat from direct sunlight or stay cool when
shaded. Passive techniques were used throughout history. But as we developed ways to
heat rooms, through fireplaces and, later, central heating and cooling, passive techniques
were ignored. However, increased concerns about carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions from
fossil fuel-based heat or electricity have brought a resurgence of interest in methods of
heating and cooling that have a minimal impact on the environment and global warming.

Passive heating uses the Sun for maximum effect. A successful passive house starts with
building orientation. The longest wall of the building should face the equator, to get the
most sunlight; in the Southern Hemisphere that wall faces north, while the orientation is
reversed in the Northern Hemisphere. The side of the building facing the equator needs
windows that are about 15% to 20% of floor area, to allow light to reach the interior
walls.

The walls of the building need to have thermal mass. This means the walls are able to
absorb the Sun’s heat during the day and release later, at night when the temperature
cools. Materials that will do this include stone, concrete, and masonry. This is called
direct gain of heat, because the sunlight hitting the walls creates immediate heat.

A special type of exterior wall

Image courtesy of U.S. called a trombe wall also

helps

Department of Energy store heat from the Sun. A

trombe wall is a thick, dark This diagram shows how

masonry wall with a single or an overhang protects
a double layer of glass over it, but trombe wall from
the high not directly on top. The glass summer Sun, but allows traps the Sun’s heat, and
the the lower angle Sun of the masonry distributes it winter to reach the wall throughout
the room. This and thus absorb heat that process is called indirect gain of can be released
into the heat. The trombe wall design room. was patented in 1881 by Edward Morse but
was popularized by

French engineer Felix Trombe in the early 1960s.

The exterior walls are not the only ones that require thermal mass. Floors and interior
walls of materials such as adobe, stone, or concrete can absorb heat that enters through
windows. Bare floors of medium to dark colors absorb heat the best.

A sunroom or greenhouse room inside the house can trap a lot of Sun energy. Circulation
loops distribute the heat throughout the house. The greenhouse can also be used to grow
plants for food. The heat from a sunroom is called an isolated gain of heat, because its
use is limited to one or a few rooms.

Clerestory windows are a row of windows high along the roof line. They have a
number of purposes. They can be used to add daylighting, reducing the amount of
electricity needed to light up the room. On the sunny side of a building, they can add heat
as well.

Other aspects of the house design can help passive heating. More commonly used rooms
should be located on the warmer equator side of the building, with lesser-used spaces
located on the cooler side. An open floor plan allows heat to circulate throughout the
rooms.

A passive house should be well insulated. This keeps the warm air in during the winter
and the cool air in during the summer. There are other ways to keep buildings cool in
warm weather. Some of these depend on local climate. However, what works in a dry
climate does not work as well in a wet climate.

Passive cooling:

Passive cooling refers to technologies or design features used to cool buildings

without power consumption, such as those technologies discussed in the Passive house
project.

The term "passive" implies that energy-consuming mechanical components like

pumps and fans are not used.

Passive cooling building design attempts to integrate principles of physics into the
building exterior envelope to:
 1. Slow heat transfer into a building. This involves an understanding of the
mechanisms of heat transfer: heat conduction, convective heat transfer, and
thermal radiation (primarily from thesun).
2. Remove unwanted heat from a building. In mild climates with cool dry nights
this can be done with ventilating. In hot humid climates with uncomfortable warm
/ humid nights, ventilation is counterproductive, and some type of solar air
conditioning may be cost effective.

The keys to passive cooling of a house are keeping the Sun out and moving cool air in.
Stone, masonry, and concrete, the building materials best able to warm a building in the
cold weather, can also keep cool air inside in hot weather. However, this means
preventing as much direct sunlight as possible from reaching those walls and floors with
thermal mass, so they do not retain heat. The way to do this is with shade, in the form of
overhangs over the windows, to keep sunlight off the walls and windows during warm
weather when the Sun is at a high angle. Shade can come from other sources as well. A
line of deciduous trees—ones that lose their leaves in the winter—can provide shade to
the equator side of the house during the hottest months.

Ventilation provides air circulation, and it moves the cool air in at night. Casement or
awning windows, which open on side or top hinges, can be installed to take advantage of
the prevailing direction of the
breezes of the location.
Clerestory windows can be
opened to let out the hot air at the
top of the building.

If there is little steady direction to

the wind, wing walls can be built
to control airflow in and out of
windows. Solid wall panels built
between the windows and
perpendicular to the main wall
can steer air coming in and out of
a room.

A thermal chimney or a similar effect created with venting windows can also help to
move out hot daytime air. The key is creating convective cooling. Cool air is pulled in
from the ground and hot air is pushed out from a high point of the building. A vented
sunroom, thermal chimney, or high windows on open
stairwells can all accomplish this.
Image courtesy of Bill Christensen, Greenbuilder.com

A builder can make use of the appropriate The thermal chimney is used to create updrafts
and passive cooling and heating techniques remove heated air. It is built on the sunny
side of the to construct a house that uses very little building. A black metal heat absorbing
panel is used energy. to create even more heated air that will naturally rise.

This pulls the air up and out.

Shading:

Shading a building from solar radiation can be achieved in many ways.

Buildings can be orientated to take advantage of winter sun (longer in the East / West
dimension), while shading walls and windows from direct hot summer sun. This can be
achieved by designing location-specific wide eaves or overhangs above the Equator-side
vertical windows (South side in the Northern hemisphere, North side in the Southern
hemisphere).

Passive solar buildings should not allow direct sunlight through, use large glass areas
directly into the living space in the summer. A greenhouse / solarium is usually integrated
into the equator side of the building. It captures low winter sun, and blocks direct sunlight
in the summer, when the sun's altitude is 47 degrees higher. The outer glass of the
solarium, plus interior glass between the solarium and the interior living quarters acts like
a Thermal Buffer Zone[1] - Two smaller temperature differentials produce much lower
heat transfer than one large temperature differential.

The quality of window-and-door fenestration can have a significant impact on heat

transfer rate (and therefore on heating and cooling requirement). A solid wood door with
no windows conducts heat about twelve times faster than a foam-filled Energy Star door.
Older fenestration, and lower-quality doors and windows can leak a lot of outside air
infiltration, conduct and radiate a lot of undesirable heat transfer through the exterior
envelope of a building, which can account for a major portion of heating and cooling
energy bills.

For many good thermal reasons, roof-angled glass is not a great option in any building in
any climate. In the summer, it creates a solar furnace, with the sun nearly perpendicular
to it. On cold winter days, the low angle of the sun mostly reflects off of roof-angled
glass. Warm air rises by natural convection, touches the roof angled glass, and then
conducts and radiates heat outside. Vertical equator-facing glass is far superior for solar
gain, blocking summer heat, and daylighting throughout a well-designed passive solar
building.
Awnings, shade screen, trellises or climbing plants can be fitted to existing buildings for
a similar effect. West-facing rooms are especially prone to overheating because the low
afternoon sun penetrates deeper into rooms during the hottest part of the day. Methods of
shading against low East and West sun are deciduous planting and vertical shutters or
blinds. West-facing windows should be minimized or eliminated in passive solar design.

Solar heat also enters a building through its walls and roof. In temperate climates, a poorly
insulated building can overheat in summer and will require more heating in winter.

One sign of poor thermal design is an attic that gets hotter than the peak outside summer
air temperature. This can be significantly reduced or eliminated with a cool roof or a
green roof, which can reduce the roof surface temperature by 70 degrees F (21 degrees
C) in the summer. Below the roof there should be a radiant barrier and an air gap, which
blocks 97% of downward radiation from the sun.

Of the three mechanisms of heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation),

radiation is one of the most significant in most climates, and is the least easy to model.
There is a linear relationship between temperature differential and conductive /
convective heat transfer rate. But, radiation is an exponential relationship, which is much
more significant when the temperature differential is large (summer or winter).

The rate of heat transfer (which is related to heating-and-cooling requirement) is

determined in part by the surface area of the building. Decorative corners can double or
triple the exterior envelope surface area, and also create more opportunities for air
infiltration leaks.

In mild arid climates with comfortable cool dry nights, two types of natural ventilation
can be achieved through careful design: cross ventilation and passive-stack ventilation.

Cross ventilation requires openings on two sides of a room.

Passive-stack ventilation uses a vertical space, like a tower, that creates a vacuum as air
rises by natural convection. An inlet for cool air at the bottom of this space creates an
upward-moving air current.

Allergens such as pollen can be an issue when windows are used for fresh air ventilation.
Anything that creates an air pressure difference (like an externally vented clothes dryer,
fireplace, kitchen and bathroom vents) will draw unfiltered outside air in through every
small air leak in a building. As an alternative, air can be filtered through a Minimum
Efficiency Reporting Value MERV 8+ air filter to remove allergens.
An energy audit uses a calibrated exhaust fan to measure and locate poor-weatherization
airinfiltration leaks cause by careless conventional construction.

In hot humid climates with uncomfortable nights, fresh air ventilation can be controlled,
filtered, dehumidified, and cooled (possibly using an air exchanger). A solar air
conditioner can be used to cool and dehumidify hot humid air. ASHRAE, an international
society of HVAC engineers, recommends a minimum 0.35 air changes / hour AND 15
CFM of fresh air for each person in a room (year round regardless of outside conditions).
Carbon dioxide monitors can be used to increase fresh air intake in high-occupancy
rooms when the air becomes unhealthy.

In a climate that is cool at night and too warm in the day, thermal mass can be strategically
placed and insulated to slow the heating of the building when the sun is hot. Phase change
materialscan be designed to extract unwanted heat during the day, and release it at night.

DAY LIGHT INTEGRATED BUILDING:

The Illuminating Engineering Society advocates the use of Integrated Building Design
because, inComparison to other more compartmentalized models of building design, it
has the greatest potential to lead to buildings that are cost‐effective, resource‐efficient,
and comfortable for the end users. Integrated Building Design is a holistic approach to
the design of the built environment. It is driven by collaboration between specialized
professionals in fields such as architecture, lighting, HVAC, power distribution, interior
design, acoustics, landscape design, structures, and construction. Integrated Building
Design projects may be large or small, new construction or renovation, and of any
architectural style.

As an example, consider daylight in buildings. Successful day lighting balances many

considerations, Including: the shape of the building; orientation on the building site; the
size, placement, and materials used for skylights, windows, and shading devices;
furniture layouts; both interior and exterior surface reflectance’s; and electric lighting
integration. Decisions related to each of these items affect multiple building systems and,
in the best case, inform the design decisions made by professionals that are specialized
in different disciplines. For example, the massing and shape of the building is central to
the building’s aesthetic appeal. But it is also responsible for the thermal loading and the
design of the building mechanical systems, and it is central to the availability of daylight
within the building interior.When integration is a foremost goal, available daylight will
influence the design of the electric lightingsystem, the sizing of mechanical equipment,
the occupants’ access to views, and the design of thebuilding controlsystems.
Daylight considerations might also affect the landscape design. For example, the use and
placement of deciduous and coniferous trees may be employed to alter the direct sunlight
striking the building, and the choice and placement of roof materials, paving materials,
ground plantings, water features, walls,rellises and other landscape elements will
influence the daylight that is reflected onto (and into) a building.

Likewise, interior design decisions such as furniture choice and placement, as well as
surfacereflectances, influence the way that daylight is reflected within the interior and
resulting occupant comfort. For example, the occupant could suffer from visual fatigue
caused by frequent transient adaptation if there is excessive contrast between surfaces
within their field of view. Furthermore, the sources and distribution of daylight and
electric light will affect the colour, appearance and maintenance of interior materials.
Thus, the design of an appropriate luminous environment—which includes comfortable
balance of luminance between windows and walls, and between visual tasks and
surrounding areas—demands collaboration between the interior and lighting design
professionals.

Integrated Building Design is a process of structured decision making that begins with
Programming. It is not a specific outcome, nor is it a rigidly prescribed methodology. An
effective way of initiating the processes with a charrette, which is an intense collaborative
session that brings together the owner, all expertise within the design team, and other
stakeholders to collectively set goals and identify strategies for achieving the desired
outcomes. Integrated Building Design is rarely successful if it does not begin with project
conceptualization. The inclusion of each specialty within the design team early in the
design process ensures that integration issues can be coordinated and prioritized. It is
unrealistic to expect a building to exhibit exceptional systems integration if the team
members do not design the building using collaborative methods and focus on shared
goals.

CONVECTIVE HEAT LOSS:

Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is the transfer of heat
from one place to another by the movement of fluids. Convection is usually the dominant
form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method
of heat transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of conduction
(heat diffusion) and advection (heat transfer by bulk fluid flow).

The term convection can refer to transfer of heat with any fluid movement, but advection
is the more precise term for the transfer due only to bulk fluid flow. The process of
transfer of heat from a solid to a fluid, or the reverse, requires not only transfer of heat
by bulk motion of the fluid, but also diffusion/conduction of heat through the still
boundary layer next to the solid. Thus, this process with a moving fluid requires both
diffusion and advection of heat, a summed process that is generally called convection.
Convection that occurs in the earth's mantle causes tectonic plates to move.

Convection can be "forced" by movement of a fluid by means other than buoyancy forces
(for example, a water pump in an automobile engine). In some cases, natural buoyancy
forces alone are entirely responsible for fluid motion when the fluid is heated, and this
process is called "natural convection." An example is the draft in a chimney or around
any fire. In natural convection, an increase in temperature produces a reduction in
density, which causes fluid motion due to pressures and forces when fluids of different
densities are affected by gravity (or any g-force). For example, when water is heated on
a stove, hot water from the bottom of the pan rises, displacing the colder denser liquid
which falls. After heating has stopped, mixing and conduction from this natural
convection eventually result in a nearly homogeneous density, and even temperature.

The convection heat transfer mode is comprised to two mechanisms. In addition to energy
transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion), energy is also transferred by bulk,
or macroscopic, motion of the fluid. This motion is associated with the fact that, at any
instant, large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates. Such
motion, in the presence of a temperature gradient, contributes to heat transfer. Because
the molecules in aggregate retain their random motion, the total heat transfer is then due
to the superposition of energy transport by random motion of the molecules and by the
bulk motion of the fluid. It is customary to use the term convection when referring to this
cumulative transport and the term advection when referring to the transport due to bulk
fluid motion.[1]

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by the movement
of fluids or gases. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer,
convection describes the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow or mass
exchange.

Two types of convective heat transfer may be distinguished:

• Free or natural convection: when fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result
from the density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. In the absence
of an external source, when the fluid is in contact with a hot surface, its molecules
separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense. As a consequence, the fluid is
displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter
volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.[2] Familiar examples
are the upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a
pot that is heated from below.
• Forced convection: when a fluid is forced to flow over the surface by an external
source such as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating an artificially induced
convection current.[3]

Internal and external flow can also classify convection. Internal flow occurs when a fluid
is enclosed by a solid boundary such when flowing through a pipe. An external flow
occurs when a fluid extends indefinitely without encountering a solid surface. Both of
these types of convection, either natural or forced, can be internal or external because
they are independent of each other.[citation needed] The bulk temperature, or the average fluid
temperature, is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to
convective heat transfer, particularly in applications related to flow in pipes and ducts.

For a visual experience of natural convection, a glass filled with hot water and some red
food dye may be placed inside a fish tank with cold, clear water. The convection currents
of the red liquid may be seen to rise and fall in different regions, then eventually settle,
illustrating the process as heat gradients are dissipated.

Two types of convective heat transfer may be distinguished:

• Free or natural convection: when fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result
from the density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. In the absence
of an external source, when the fluid is in contact with a hot surface, its molecules
separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense. As a consequence, the fluid is
displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter
volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid.[2] Familiar examples
are the upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a
pot that is heated from below.
• Forced convection: when a fluid is forced to flow over the surface by an external
source such as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating an artificially induced
convection current.[3]

Heat Loss by Convection:

The other mechanism of heat loss is convection, or heat loss by air movement. In
homes, this is principally heat loss by exfiltration and infiltration. Exfiltration is the
loss of heated air through building cracks and other openings. Infiltration is the
introduction of outside cold air into the building. This air movement also causes
discomfort (drafts) to occupants in addition to the heat loss itself.

The driving force for this exchange of air is the difference between indoor and outdoor
air pressures. Air pressure differences are principally caused by wind pressures and the
"stack" effect of warm inside air that tends to rise. Mechanically induced air pressure
differences can also occur due to such things as exhaust fans and furnace venting.

To calculate the heat loss by convection, we go back to the general heat loss calculation
and modify it to:

Heat Loss = Heat Capacity of Air * Air Volume Exchanged/hour * Temp.

Difference The volume exchanged can be determined by measuring or judging
how many air changes that a building goes through in an hour. You can assume a
rate between .25 and .50 air changes per hour (ACH), usually with a lower rate
for basements with little outside air exposure, and higher rates for living areas or
exposed basements.

The heat capacity of air is product of ρair * Cp and is equivalent to 0.018 Btu per (°F)
(cu.ft.)

Where

Ρ air is the density of the air in (Ibm/ft³)

Cp = specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure in (Btu/lbm -F)

HEATING LOSS ESTIMATION:

The heat loss is divided into two groups:

1) The conductive heat losses through the building walls, floor, ceiling, glass,
or other surfaces, and
2) The convective infiltration losses through cracks and openings, or heat
required

to warm outdoor air used for ventilation. Normally, the heating load is estimated for
winter design temperature usually occurring at night; therefore, in determining the
heating load, credit for heat generation from internal heat sources such as lights,
machinery, appliances, and people is usually ignored. Also in determining the heating
load, credit for solar heat gain is usually NOT included and is generally ignored. Credit
for solar heat gain is a plus factor in winter heating.

CONDUCTIVE HEAT LOSS:

HEAT LOSS FROM BUILDING ENVELOPE (Wall, Roof, Glass) :

Heat loss occurs from a building structure primarily due to conduction. Because heat
moves in all directions, when calculating the heat loss of a building, we much
consider all surfaces (external walls, roof, ceiling, floor, and glass) that divide the
inside, heated space from the outside. We refer to that dividing line as the Building
Envelope. The heat loss is determined by equation: Q = A * U * (Ti – To)

Where

Q = Total hourly rate of heat loss through walls, roof, glass, etc in Btu/hr oU
= Overall heat-transfer coefficient of walls, roof, ceiling, floor, or glass in
Btu/hr ft2 °F

A = Net area of walls, roof, ceiling, floor, or glass in ft2

Ti = Inside design temperature in °F

To = Outside design temperature in °F

Let's examine each one of these terms, starting at the bottom with the outside design
temperature.

Outside Design Temperature (To):

Look up for location Since the inside of the building is controlled to a fixed temperature
by the thermostat, themaximum rate of heat loss will occur during the record cold
temperature. When designing the heating system for a structure, the first step is to obtain
data on the local micro climate of the region. This information is available from a variety
of sources, but HVAC designers normally use the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
for ready reference. As a basis for design, the most unfavorable but economical
combination of temperature and wind speed is chosen.

The winter month heating load conditions are based on annual percentiles of 99.6 and
99%, which suggests that the outdoor temperature is equal to or lower than design data
0.4% and 1% of the time respectively. For example, the Pittsburgh, PA, 99% design
temperature is 4°F. Only one percent of the hours in a typical heating season (about 35
hour’s total) fall at or below that temperature. Since most of these hours are during the
night-time when mostpeople are sleeping, and because these extremes are buffered by
the large storage mass of the building, these cooler periods usually go unnoticed.

Inside Design Temperature (Ti)

Always use 65°F

The inside design temperature is traditionally taken as 65°F, because in most buildings
there is enough heat internally generated from people, lighting, and appliances. Today
people are keeping thermostats set lower, so load predictions based on this method are
usually conservative, and will result in furnace size recommendations that are slightly
larger than actually needed. Note that the temperature difference between the inside and
outside of the building is the primary cause of heat loss in the winter months. The greater
this difference, the higher therate of heat loss. Since most buildings are controlled to a
constant inside temperature by theoccupants, higher heat loss occurs when it is colder
outside.

Net Area (A)

Measured on the drawing/building the net area of each building section is determined
from either the drawings (in new construction) or from field measurements (in retrofit
situations). In addition to the areas of the four walls, floor, and ceiling, we must also
consider heat loss from doors and windows. We will also need to determine the volume
of the building to estimate the rate of infiltration into the building measured in air changes
per hour.

Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer (U) :

Look up for materials used

The letter "U" represents the overall coefficient of heat transfer. The U-value measures
how well a building component, e.g. a wall, roof or a window, keeps heat inside a
building. For those living in a warm climate the U-value is also relevant as it is an
indicator of how easy it is to keep the inside of the building cold. The higher the U-value
the more heat flows through so a good U-value is a low one as you want to keep heat
inside the building or outside depending on the climate you live in. A house built with
low U-value building components will use less energy and thus the buildingowner saves
money on the energy bill. Using less energy is good for the environment.

The higher the U-value the more heat flows through so a good U-value is a low one as
you want to keep heat inside the building or outside depending on the climate you live
in. A house built with low U-value building components will use less energy and thus the
building owner saves money on the energy bill. Using less energy is good for the
environment.
“U” factor is the inverse of “R” factor, (“U” = 1 / “R”); the larger the R-value or the
lower the “U” factor, the lower the heat loss. Calculating the U-value is often
complicated by the fact that the total resistance to the flow of heat through a wall
made of several layers is the sum of the resistances of the individual layers. This
aspect is discussed in detail in subsequent sections.

EVAPOTATIVE COOLOING:

Evaporative coolers provide cool air by forcing hot dry air over a wetted pad. The water
in the pad evaporates, removing heat from the air while adding moisture. Although the
concept has been used in residential “swamp” coolers in the Southwest for decades,
technology advances have commercial buildings and in other areas of the country.
Manufacturers have begun to offer two-stage (“indirect-direct”) evaporative coolers that
offer greater cooling effectiveness, extending the geographic range where evaporative
cooling can be used.

Types of Evaporative Cooling:

Direct Evaporative Cooling:

Direct evaporative cooling, commonly used with residential systems, cools the air by
evaporating water to increase the moisture content of the air. Standard residential systems
use evaporative media of shredded aspen fibres, typically 1 to 2 inches thick. These
systems have an effectiveness of 55 to 70 percent. (Effectiveness is a measure of how
closely the supply air temperature leaving the evaporative cooler approaches the outdoor
wet-bulb temperature – see sidebar.)

Effectiveness is defined by:

where TDB is the outdoor dry-bulb temperature, TWB is the outdoor wet-bulb
temperature and SAT is the supply air temperature leaving the evaporative cooler. The
thickness of the media and air velocity contribute to the effectiveness. More advanced
systems use a rigid medium 8 to 12 inches thick and have an effectiveness of 80% to
90%.

Direct evaporative cooling systems are suitable for hot and dry climates where the design
wetbulb temperature is 68°F or lower. In other climates, outdoor humidity levels are too
high to allow for sufficient cooling.
Indirect Evaporative Cooling:

Indirect evaporative cooling uses an air to air heat exchanger to remove heat from the
primary air stream without adding moisture. In one configuration, hot dry outside air is
passed through a series of horizontal tubes that are wetted on the outside. A secondary
air stream blows over the outside of the coils and exhausts the warm, moist air to the
outdoors. The outside air is cooled without adding moisture as it passes through the tubes.
Indirect evaporative cooling typically has an effectiveness of 75%.

Another system type that is used in residential and light commercial applications uses the
aisotsenko cycle, which uses a cross-channel heat exchanger that cools the air
incrementally over a large number of stages.

Systems using the Maisotsenko cycle can have wet-bulb effectiveness values of 85% to
over 100% (cooling the supply air to below the wet-bulb temperature). While the greater
number of air passes increases the pressure drop and the required fan power, the high
effectiveness extends the geographic range where the indirect evaporative cooler can
fully meet the cooling demand.

Indirect cooling is often paired with a second direct evaporative cooling stage, to cool the
supply air further while adding some moisture to the supply air. Such two-stage systems
(referred to as indirect-direct or IDEC systems) can meet the entire cooling load for many
buildings in arid to semi-arid climates. IDEC systems provide cooler supply air at a lower
relative humiditythan direct evaporative coolers. The first indirect stage cools the supply
air without increasing humidity. Since the air is cooled it has a reduced capacity to hold
moisture. The air is then passed through a direct stage, which cools the air further while
adding moisture. IDEC systems typically have an effectiveness of 100% to 115%,
cooling the air to a temperature slightly below the outdoor air wet-bulb temperature .

ADVANTAGES:

Advantages Over Conventional Cooling Towers. Comparing the evaporative cooled

exchanger to a cooling tower-shell and tube exchanger combination there are several
basic advantages to the evaporative cooled exchanger. First of all, lower process
temperatures are obtainable by combining two steps of heat transfer intone, thereby
utilizing the maximum possible temperature difference between the process temperature
and the prevailing wet bulb temperature.

For example, in a cooling tower-shell and tube steam condenser combination, the cooling
tower cools the water down to within about 7 to 15° F of the prevailing wet bulb
temperature. If the wet bulb temperature is, say, 75° F the water may be cooled to about
85° F. Similarly in the condenser a temperature difference must also be maintained as a
driving force for the heat transfer. With a 15-degree rise on the cooling water through the
shell and tube condenser the minimum condensing temperature would be limited to about
5° above the outlet water temperature or in this case 105° F (2.24” Hg Abs). With a
condenser that is evaporative cooled, however, the condensing temperature could be
easily within 15° F of the prevailing wet bulb temperature, or in this case 95° F (1.66”
Hg Abs), 10 degrees lower than with the cooling tower and water cooled heat exchanger.

The advantages offered by the evaporative cooled condenser is, of course, dependent
upon the ability of the cooler to raise the temperature and humidity of the cooling air to
the highest possible point consistent with cost. It would be false economy to achieve the
last few degrees of temperature rise at the expense of a disproportionate rise in the cost
of the equipment and its operating cost. The example cited here is merely typical of the
lower process temperatures that can be achieved with evaporative cooled condensers as
compared to a cooling tower and water cooled condensers. One must consider the size of
the installation as well as other factors for each case to accurately assess the merits of
each system.

TYPICAL APPLICATION:

Some typical applications for evaporative cooled exchangers are:

PROCESS VAPOR CONDENSERS:

• Distillation towers
• Deodorizers
• Refrigerant condensers
• Vapor recovery
• Glycerine condensers

STEAM CONDENSERS:

• Steam turbines
• Steam vacuum refrigeration systems
• Steam jet ejectors
• Evaporator condensers
• Waste or contaminated steam condensers

HEAT EXCHANGER:

• Water cooling for air compressors

• Water cooling for internal combustion engines
• Oil coolers for internal combustion engines
• Transformer oil coolers
• Compressor discharge gas cooling

Because of the relatively small sizes of evaporative cooled exchangers as compared to

dry air cooled units, indoor or semi-indoor installations are often practical in addition to
the usual outdoor installations. If the indoor installation can be made adjacent to a wall,
the air intake and discharge can be easily made through the wall. For architectural
purposes, as in the case of an office building, it may be desirable to conceal the unit by
installing it under the roof of the building allowing for louvered air intakes and exhaust
openings.

Mass wall: a wall constructed of concrete, concretemasonry, insulating concrete form

(ICF), masonry cavity,brick (other than brick veneer), earth (adobe, compressedearth
block, rammed earth), and solid timber or logs.

Exterior insulation requirements shall apply when at least 50% of the required insulation
R-value I son the exterior of, or integral to, the wall. Walls that do notmeet this
requirement for insulation placement shall meet the requirements for interior insulation.
The interior insulationcase shall apply when there is no exterior insulation
requirementsand wood or steel framing is used. When an added Rvalueof 3.4 or less is
required, concrete block walls, in accordancewith ASTM C90, with cores filled with
material havinga maximum thermal conductivity of 0.44 Btu-in./hr-ft20F,shall be
permitted to be used.

Trombe Wall and Attached Sunspace

A Trombe wall is a system for indirect solar heat gain and, although not extremely
common, is a good example of thermal mass, solar gain, and glazing properties used
together to achieve human comfort goals passively. It consists of a dark colored wall of
high thermal mass facing the sun, with glazing spaced in front to leave a small air space.
The glazing traps solar radiation like a small greenhouse. An attached sunspace is
essentially a Trombe wall where the air space is so big it is habitable.

A Trombe wall is a system for indirect solar heat gain and, although not extremely
common, is a good example of thermal mass, solar gain, and glazing properties used
together to achieve human comfort goals passively.

It consists of a dark colored wall of high thermal mass facing the sun, with glazing spaced
in front to leave a small air space. The glazing traps solar radiation like a small
greenhouse. An attached sunspace is essentially a Trombe wall where the air space is so
big it is habitable.

A Trombe wall (left) and attached sunspace (right).

Trombe walls are a very useful passive heating system. They require little or no effort to
operate, and are ideal for spaces where silence and privacy are desirable. Sunspaces are
equally simple and silent, and can allow views. Rooms heated by a Trombe wall or
sunspace often feel more comfortable than those heated by forced-air systems, even at
lower air temperatures, because of the radiantly warm surface of the wall.

A successful Trombe wall or attached sunspace optimizes heat gain and minimizes heat
loss during cold times, and avoids excess heat gain in hot times.

Trombe Walls

Trombe walls are thermal storage walls, named after the French inventor Felix Trombe.
A typical Trombe wall consists of a 20 - 40cm (8" - 16") thick masonry wall painted a
dark, heatabsorbing color and faced with a single or double layer of glass. The glass is
placed between 2 15cm (1" - 6") away from the masonry wall to create a small airspace.
Heat from sunlight passing through the glass is absorbed by the dark surface, stored in
the wall, and conducted slowly inward through the masonry.

The glass prevents the escape of radiant heat from the warm surface of the storage wall.
The heat radiated by the wall is therefore trapped within the air gap, further heating the
wall surface. For a 40cm (16") thick Trombe wall, heat will take about 8 to 10 hours to
reach the interior of the building. This means that the room behind remains comfortable
through the day and receives slow, even heating for many hours after the sun sets. Such
designs are ideal for use in residential living areas and bedrooms.

In addition to radiant heat, you can also configure Trombe walls to heat air within the
internal space. Including upper and lower air vents in the wall allows convection currents,
as cooler air from the room enters at the bottom and air heated in the Trombe wall escapes
into the room at the top. These vents must be operable to prevent reverse convention
currents occurring at night, which would cool the occupied space. Operable vents also
allow the occupants control over instantaneous heating.

Avoiding Losses

Using low-E glazing can prevent heat from re-radiating out through the glass of a Trombe
wall and greatly reduce the amount of heat lost. Applying a spectrally selective surface
or low-E coating to the wall itself can also improve performance by reducing the amount
of infrared energy radiated towards the glass.

Adapting to Day & Season

To avoid overheating at hot times of day or hot seasons of the year, architects can use
Trombe walls in conjunction with overhangs, eaves, and other building design elements
to evenly balance solar heat delivery.

Ideally, the glazing should have exterior insulating shutters for nighttime use in order to
prevent the heat gained from being returned back to the outside.

While even seasonally-adapting Trombe walls can have no moving parts, you should
provide for some method of cleaning the internal area between the glazing and the storage
portion of a Trombe wall.

Sunspaces

Attached sunspaces (also called "conservatories") work much like vented Trombe walls.
They can heat spaces both through radiation and convection. The difference is that the
space between the glass and the thermal mass creates a habitable space.

The same sunspace at night, with vents closed, to keep convection going the proper
direction Sunspaces are primarily used for indirect solar heat gain and generally have
more glazing area than floor area. Nighttime heat loss is not as critical in a sunspace as
in direct gain systems, since the room can be closed off from the rest of the building.
However, night insulation or double-glazing is recommended if the sunspace serves as
living space after sundown.

Designing Sunspaces

Important considerations for sunspace design are:

• In very cold climates, double glazing reduces conductive losses through the glass
to the outside.
• Insulated panels, shades, or blinds are more important for sunspaces than for
Trombe walls, as sunspaces are sometimes occupied.
• As with Trombe walls, the darker the internal surfaces of the sunspace, the more
effectively the thermal mass can store heat during the day.
• Do not overpopulate conservatories with vegetation, as foliage can reduce the
system's heat capture by significantly shading the floor and wall.
• For all climates except those with very cool summers, operable or mechanized
windows should be considered at top and bottom. These allow the sun space to avoid
overheating by passively venting hot air out the top of the glazing and pulling cool air in
through the bottom of the glazing.

Trombe Wall and Attached Sunspace

A vented Trombe wall heats air convectively as well as heating the space radiatively.

Vents can be shut at night to keep the convection loop moving the right direction.

Low-E glazing reflecting heat back into the Trombe wall

 A Trombe wall with overhang to shade from summer sun

A sunspace with vents for convective heating as well as radiative heating

Advantages:

1. Comfortable Heat: Radiates in the infra red, which is more penetrating and pleasant
than traditional convective forced air heating systems.
2. Passive: No moving parts and essentially no maintenance.
3. Simple Construction: Relatively easy to incorporate into building structure as an
internal or external wall. Materials (masonry, concrete) are relatively inexpensive.
4. Effective: Can reduce heating bills by large amounts.

Disadvantages: 1.Extended Overcast: Exterior walls become a heat loss source during
extended overcast days.

Not a problem for interior Trombe wall.