Data and Digital The first wide-area computer network is

created by Thomas Marill and Lawrence

(reviewer) G. Roberts, linking PCs across multiple
systems.
1940: Small Step for Man, Great
Leap for Communications 1977: The Hayes 80-130A

With morse code, the telephone, and The first personal computer modem, the
radio signals behind him, George Stibitz Hayes 80-130A, was designed by Dennis
took networking technology a great leap Hayes and Dale Heatherington.
forward when he sent computing
commands over a teletype machine from 1981: The Hayes Smartmodem
his model at Dartmouth College to his An improved iteration, the Hayes
Complex Number Calculator in New York. Smartmodem, is released. This device
1943: Teletype Computation offered 300 bits per second speed in an
affordable body.
Stibitz's successful telegraph prompted a
new method of computation, which was Mid 80s: Modems Hit the Fast Lane
quickly used for loop-based teleprinters IBM PC clones dominated the PC market,
and automated telegraphs. leading to a new ear of internal Industry
1948: Teletype Modems to Sage Standard Architecture (ISA).

Telephone systems using early teletype 1989: The World Wide Web
communication modems were used to Consumer demand for more visual
transmit multiple images across the imagery, a better web-browsing
United States to Semi-automatic Ground interface, and more online content
Environment (SAGE) computers.. prompted Sir Tim Berners-Lee to create
1958: American Telephone and an Information Management proposal.
Telegraph Bring the Digital Subset Mid 90s: Lower Costs and Faster
Speed was boosted by over 4 times, Speeds
sending a new record of 110 bits per Home broadband entered the market in
second through American Telephone and 1991, and people all over the world
Telegraph (AT&T) computer modems, began accessing the Internet using
called Digital Subsets. Berners-Lee's World Wide Web.
1962: AT&T Releases Bell 103 Data 1996: The 56K
Phone
Brent Townshend created the technology
The first civilian commercial computer for the first 56K modem, a model which
modem, the Bell 103 Data Phone, used a bitrate of 56.0/33.06 kilobytes
allowed digital data to be transmitted per second, doubling the speed and
over regular unconditional telephone power of previous modems.
lines..
Early 2000s: Analog Out, ISDN,
1962: Intergalactic Computer ADSL, and Cable In
Network
Major companies began moving toward
J.C.R. Licklider leads the Advanced new approaches to gain faster modem
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) to speeds. All digital phone lines (ISDN)
create and link a network of computers surfaced as an alternative to analog.
across the world, effectively known as Cable TV modems gathered a great
the Intergalactic Computer Network. amount of attention. Phone companies
1965: Wide Area Network soon figured out how to deliver digital
data more economically through
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines
(ADSL), boosting speeds over existing 2017 and Beyond
telephone copper deployments.
The fulcrum pivots from human triggered
2002: 3G Arrives communications to AI triggered
communications. Smart cities and smart
Commerical third-generation wireless homes, the Internet of Everything (IoE),
connection (3G) was launched, offering mobile communications, and evolving
application services like wide-area consumption habits increases spectrum
wireless voice, mobile Internet (a utilization.
fascinating feature), video calling, and
on-the-go TV. Transmission media: refers to the
physical medium through which data is
Mid 2000s: The Wireless Age transmitted from one device to another
Matures within a network.
Broadband Internet services and wiress Transmission medium: is a physical path
access networks quickly became between the transmitter and the
mainstream technology due to the receiver i.e. it is the channel through
convenience and ease of access. Users which data is sent from one device to
no longer required two phone lines to another.
connect to the Internet
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired
2009: Enter 4G/LTE or Bounded transmission media.
4G and LTE represented the new There are 3 major types of Guided
generation of cellular standards, Media:
satisfying the speeds required by heavy
file sizes. New features were constantly Twisted Pair Cable :It consists of 2
introduced into customer premises separately insulated conductor wires
equipment to enable functions for wound about each other.
Internet service providers and end users

Providing a Better Quality of

Experience Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP): UTP consists of two insulated
During the later part of this decade, copper wires twisted around one another
major markets across the world became
saturated with Internet-enabled devices. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): cable
Internet penetration rates quickly consists of a special jacket (a copper
approached 100%, meaning everyone braid covering or a foil shield) to block
had access to the web in various ways.. external interference.

2011-2014: How Fast can we Go? Coaxial cable: has an outer plastic
covering containing an insulation layer
4G is ubiquitous. Fiber optic made of PVC or Teflon and 2 parallel
communications gained popularity. conductors each having a separate
Hardware manufacturers continued to insulated protection cover.
develop new features within modems so
that new services could be enjoyed by Optical Fiber Cable: uses the concept of
the end-user. refraction of light through a core made
up of glass or plastic
2015: Network Function
Virtualization – The Next Evolution Stripline: is the earliest form of the
planar transmission line. It uses a
Fiber becomes commonplace. Bitrate conducting material to transmit high-
speeds are at an all-time high. Removing frequency waves it is also called a
functionality from physical gateways and waveguide.
enabling cloud-based services is the next
big broadband trend.. A microstripline is a type of transmission
media used to carry high-frequency
signals, commonly found in microwave Modulation: is the process of
and radio frequency circuits superimposing high-frequency carrier
signals with low-frequency message
Unguided Media : It is also referred to signals resulting in a modulated wave
as Wireless or Unbounded transmission
media . No physical medium is required Analog Modulation : In Analog
for the transmission of electromagnetic Modulation, both carrier and message
signals. signals are analogue waves.

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted Digital Modulation : In Digital Modulation,

through unguided media: only the carrier signal is analogue and
the message signal is in digital form.
Radio Waves: are easy to generate and
can penetrate through buildings. The Analog waves : Analog waves are those
sending and receiving antennas need signals which can take an infinite value
not be aligned. between two points.

Microwaves: It is a line of sight Digital signals : Digital signals are binary

transmission i.e. the sending and values that can take either logic 0 as in
receiving antennas need to be properly zero volts or logic 1 as in any other
aligned with each other. voltage.

Infrared: are used for very short Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): each
distance communication. They cannot symbol in the message signal gives a
penetrate through obstacles. unique amplitude to the carrier wave.

Causes of Transmission Impairment Phase Shift Keying (PSK):each symbol in

the message signal gives a unique phase
Attenuation: It means loss of energy. shift to the carrier wave.
Distortion: It means changes in the M-ary ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying):It is
form or shape of the signal. also known as M-ASK or M-FSK,In this
Noise: The random or unwanted signal multiple amplitude levels are used to
that mixes up with the original signal is represent several different combinations
called noise. of bits.

M-ary FSK (Frequency Shift Keying):In

this the carrier frequency is shifted to
represent different symbols

M-ary PSK (Phase Shift Keying):It

involves shifting the phase of the carrier
Factors Considered for Designing
wave to represent different symbols.
the Transmission Media

Bandwidth: Assuming all other

conditions remain constant, the greater Entropy: can be defined as a measure
a medium’s bandwidth, the faster a of the average information content per
signal’s data transmission rate. source symbol.
Transmission Impairment : when the Claude Shannon: the “father of the
received signal differs from the Information Theory”, provided a formula
transmitted signal. for it as
Interference: Interference is defined as Discrete Memoryless Source: A source
the process of disturbing a signal as it from which the data is being emitted at
travels over a communication medium successive intervals, which is
with the addition of an undesired signal. independent of previous values
Digital Modulation Techniques
channel capacity: the probabilities of Quantizer: Quantizing is a process of
the rate of maximum reliable reducing the excessive bits and
transmission of data, can be understood confining the data.
as the
Encoder: The digitization of analog signal
Input Transducer: this is a transducer is done by the encoder. It designates
which takes a physical input and each quantized level by a binary code.
converts it to an electrical signal
(Example: microphone). Regenerative Repeater: This section
increases the signal strength
source encoder: compresses the data
into minimum number of bits. This Decoder: The decoder circuit decodes
process helps in effective utilization of the pulse coded waveform to reproduce
the bandwidth the original signal. This circuit acts as
the demodulator.
channel encoder: does the coding for
error correction. Digital Communication - Sampling

Digital Modulator: The signal to be Sampling is defined as, “The process of

transmitted is modulated here by a measuring the instantaneous values of
carrier. continuous-time signal in a discrete
form.”
channel or a medium: allows the analog
signal to transmit from the transmitter Sample is a piece of data taken from
end to the receiver end. the whole data which is continuous in
the time domain.
Source Decoder: The resultant signal is
once again digitized by sampling and Sampling frequency: is the reciprocal
quantizing so that the pure digital output of the sampling period. This sampling
is obtained without the loss of frequency, can be simply called
information. as Sampling rate.

Output Transducer: This is the last block Nyquist theorem, : The sampling
which converts the signal into the theorem, which is also called as Nyquist
original physical form, which was at the theorem, delivers the theory of
input of the transmitter. sufficient sample rate in terms of
bandwidth for the class of functions that
Output Signal: This is the output which is are bandlimited.
produced after the whole process
Aliasing: can be referred to as “the
Modulation: is the process of varying phenomenon of a high-frequency
one or more parameters of a carrier component in the spectrum of a signal,
signal in accordance with the taking on the identity of a low-frequency
instantaneous values of the message component in the spectrum of its
signal. sampled version.”

Low Pass Filter: this filter eliminates the scope of Fourier Transform: It is
high frequency components present in generally observed that, we seek the
the input analog signal which is greater help of Fourier series and Fourier
than the highest frequency of the transforms in analyzing the signals and
message signal, to avoid aliasing of the also in proving theorems.
message signal.
Quantizing an Analog Signal: The analog-
Sampler :This is the technique which to-digital converters perform this type of
helps to collect the sample data at function to create a series of digital
instantaneous values of message signal, values out of the given analog signal.
so as to reconstruct the original signal.
Mid-Rise type is so called because the
origin lies in the middle of a raising part
of the stair-case like graph.
The Mid-tread type is so called because Synchronous TDM: In Synchronous TDM,
the origin lies in the middle of a tread of the input is connected to a frame
the stair-case like graph.
Asynchronous TDM: In Asynchronous
TDM, the sampling rate is different for
each of the signals and a common clock
is not required.
Quantization Noise: It is a type of Regenerative Repeater: For any
quantization error, which usually occurs communication system to be reliable, it
in analog audio signal, while quantizing it should transmit and receive the signals
to digital. effectively, without any loss.
Companding: is a combination of
Compressing and Expanding, which
means that it does both.

DPCM Transmitter: consists of Quantizer Equalizer: The channel produces

and Predictor with two summer circuits. amplitude and phase distortions to the
signal.
Delta Modulator: comprises of a 1-bit
quantizer and a delay circuit along with Timing Circuit: To obtain a quality
two summer circuits output, the sampling of the pulses
should be done where the signal to noise
Linear Predictive Coding (LPC): is a ratio (SNR) is maximum
tool which represents digital speech
signals in linear predictive model. Decision Device: The timing circuit
determines the sampling times. The
Multiplexing: is the process of decision device is enabled at these
combining multiple signals into one sampling times
signal, over a shared medium.
line code: is the code used for data
if analog in nature, the process is called transmission of a digital signal over a
as analog multiplexing. If digital transmission line.
signals are multiplexed, it is called
as digital multiplexing. 3 types of Line Coding

analog multiplexing: techniques involve  Unipolar-0

signals which are analog in nature.
 Polar
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM):This technique uses various  Bi-polar
frequencies to combine streams of data,
for sending them on a communication Systematic Code: Any linear block code
medium, as a single signal.
can be a systematic code, until it is
Wavelength Division multiplexing: is an
analog technique, in which many data altered. Hence, an unaltered block code
streams of different wavelengths are
transmitted in the light spectrum

Digital Multiplexing: The term digital

represents the discrete bits of
information. Hence, the available data is
in the form of frames or packets, which
are discrete

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): In

TDM, the time frame is divided into slots