Amc8 V4

American Mathematics Competitions
(AMC 8)
Preparation
Volume 4
http://www.mymathcounts.com/index.php
The American Mathematics Competitions 8 is a 25-question multiple-choice
contest for students in the sixth through eighth grade. Accelerated fourth and fifth
graders can also take part. The AMC 8 is administered in schools in November.
The American Mathematics Competitions (AMC) publishes the Achievement
Roll list recognizing students in 6th grade and below who scored 15 or above, and
the Honor Roll list recognizing students who score in the top 5%, and the
Distinguished Honor Roll list recognizing students who score in the top 1%.
This book can be used by 5th to 8th grade students preparing for AMC 8. Each
chapter consists of (1) basic skill and knowledge section with plenty of examples,
(2) about 30 exercise problems, and (3) detailed solutions to all problems.
We would like to thank the American Mathematics Competitions (AMC 8 and 10)
for their mathematical ideas. Many problems (marked by ☆) in this book are
inspired from these tests. We only cited very few problems directly from these
tests for the purpose of comparison with our own solutions.
We wish to thank the following reviewers for their invaluable solutions, insightful
comments, and suggestions for improvements to this book:
Alex Cheng (UT), Jin Cheng (CA), Felix Cui (NE), Albert Hao (CA), Sameer
Khan (VA), Priyo Majumdar (LA), Aadith Menon, Jeffery Shen (GA), Joy Shi
(MD), William Sun (VA), Yang Wei (TX), Stephan Xie (TX), Samuel Yoon
(VA), and Sophia Zhang (CO).
_________________________________________________________________
Copyright © 2014 by mymathcounts.com
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America
Reproduction of any portion of this book without the written permission of the
authors is strictly prohibited, except as may be expressly permitted by the U.S.
Copyright Act.
ISBN-13: 978-1501040566
ISBN-10: 1501040561
Please contact [email protected] for suggestions, corrections, or
clarifications.
Table of Contents
Chapter 19 Special symbols and operations 1
Chapter 20 Remainder 31
Chapter 21 Sequences and series 52
Chapter 22 Functions 71
Chapter 23 Pythagorean Theorem and triangles 97
Chapter 24 Probability 122
Index 161
This page is intentionally left blank.
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 19 Special Symbols and Operations
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE
In this lecture, we learn how to solve the following types of problems using
unconventional signs for the written notation of mathematical notions and
reasoning: additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, exponents, and
radicals.
All the rules of operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, radicals,

and exponents) we learnt from arithmetic and algebra are still valid with these
symbols.
Fundamental law of fractions:

a a ac
For any fraction and any number c  0,  .
b b bc
Division of fractions
To divide by a fraction, we simply multiply by its reciprocal.

a c a d ad
   
b d b c bc
Power rules of exponents

am  an = am + n am + n = am  an

(am)n = amn (ab)n = anbn
m m
am  a   a am
( m      m
b b b b
Properties of radicals
ab  a  b (a > 0, and b > 0)
1
a a
 (a > 0, and b > 0)
b b
 a
m
m
n
am  n
 an
Properties of absolute value
x  x
x y  yx
x x
xy  x  y , and  y  0.
y y
Square binomial
( x  y)2  x2  2 xy  y 2
( x  y)2  x 2  2 xy  y 2
x 2  y 2  x  y x  y 
Number of divisors
For an integer n greater than 1, let the prime factorization of n be

n  p1a p2b p3c  pkm , Where a, b, c,…, and m are nonnegative integers, p1, p2, …, pk
are prime numbers.
The number of divisors is: d (n)  (a  1)(b  1)(c  1)(m  1)
Sum of the positive divisors
The sum of divisors is:
2
p1a 1  1 p2b1  1 p m1  1

 ( n)  ( )( ) ( k )
p1  1 p2  1 pk  1
a 1 b 1 m 1
Or  (n)  ( p1  p1
a 0 b 0 m 0
 ...  p1 )( p2  p2  ...  p2 )...( pk  pk  ...  pk )
Patterns of the last digit of an

The last digits of an have patterns shown in the table below.
n 1 2 3 4 Period
2n 2 4 8 6 4
3n 3 9 7 1 4
4n 4 6 2
5n 5 1
6n 6 1
7n 7 9 3 1 4
8n 8 4 2 6 4
9n 9 1 2
For example, when a = 2,

21 = 2 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16,
25 = 32, 26 = 64, 27 = 128, 28 = 256,…
The last digits of 2n demonstrate a pattern: 2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, 6, etc…
Pythagorean triples
A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c, such that

a2 + b2 = c2.
There are 16 primitive Pythagorean triples with c < 100:
(3, 4, 5 ) (5, 12, 13) (8, 15, 17) (7, 24, 25)
(20, 21, 29) (12, 35, 37) ( 9, 40, 41) (28, 45, 53)
(11, 60, 61) (16, 63, 65) (33, 56, 65) (48, 55, 73)
(13, 84, 85) (36, 77, 85) (39, 80, 89) (65, 72, 97)
3
2. PROBLEMS SOLVING
2. 1. Additions
☆Example 1. For any positive integer n, define 6 n to be the sum of the
positive factors of n. For example, 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 = 12. Find 18 .
(A) 39 (B) 40 (C) 48 (D) 56 (E) 60
Solution: (D).
Method 1:
First calculate 18 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 9 + 18 = 39.
39 = 1 + 3 + 13 + 39 = 56.
Method 2:
18 = 32 × 2.
The sum of the positive factors of 18 is (32 + 31 + 30)(21 + 20) = 13 × 3 = 39.
The sum of the positive factors of 39 is (31+ 30 )(131 +130) = 56.
18 = 56.
Example 2. For the positive integer n, let <n> denote the sum of all the
positive divisors of n with the exception of n itself. For example, <4> = 1 + 2 = 3
and <12> = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16. What is <<<28>>>?
(A) 28 (B) 11 (C) 21 (D) 6 (E) 3
Solution: (A).
Method 1:
First calculate <28> = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28.
As a consequence, we also have <<<28>>> = 28.
Method 2:
28 = 22 × 7.
The sum of all the positive divisors of 28 is (22 + 21 + 20)( 71 + 70) = 7 × 8 = 56.
so <28>= 56 – 28 = 28.
As a consequence, we also have <<<28>>> = 28.
4
Note: A positive integer whose divisors other than itself add up to that positive
integer is called a perfect number. The two smallest perfect numbers are 6 and 28.
Example 3. Let ♣(x) denote the sum of the digits of the positive integer x. For
example, ♣ (8) = 8 and ♣ (123) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. For how many two-digit values of
x is ♣ (x) = 12?
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 9 (E) 7
Solution: E.
Since x ≤ 99, there are 7 values of x for which ♣ (x) = 12:
93, 39; 84, 48; 75, 57; and 66.
Example 4. If a  b = a2 + ab – b2, then find (3  2)  13.

(A) 11 (B) 95 (C)  48 (D) 59 (E) 143
Solution: B.
3  2 = 32 + 3 × 2 – 22 = 9 + 6 – 4 = 11.
(3  2)  13 = 11  13 = 112 + 11 × 13 – 132 = 95.
Example 5. If a △ b = (a + b) + ab + b, what is (5 △ 7) △ 3?
(A) 54 (B) 57 (C) 219 (D) 222 (E) 232
Solution: D.
5 △ 7 = (5 + 7) + 5 × 7 + 7 = 54.
54 △ 3 = (54 + 3) + 54 × 3 + 3 = 222.
Example 6. For all real numbers a and b, where b  0, the operation ★is defined
a 2  b2
as a ★ b = . Compute the following, and express your answer as a
b3
common fraction: (1★2)2/(2★1).
1 1 125 5 25
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8 5 64 64 64
5
Solution: D.
12  22 5 25
1★2 =   (1★2)2 
23 8 64
22  12
2★1= 5.
13
25 5
(1★2)2/(2★1)  /5= .
64 64
Example 7. If a ▽ b = a2 + 2ab + b2, what is the value of (3 ▽ 2) ▽ 5?

(A) 25 (B) 60 (C) 900 (D) 625 (E) 30
Solution: C.
a ▽ b = a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2.
3 ▽ 2 = (3 + 2)2 = 25.
25 ▽ 5 = (25 + 5)2 = 900.
2. 2. Subtractions
Example 8. Define x  y = x3 – y. What is h  (h  h)?

(A)  h (B)  0 (C) h (D) 2h (E) h3
Solution: C.
By the definition we have (h  h)  h 3  h .
h  (h  h)  h  (h3  h )  h3  (h3  h)  h .
Example 9. The operation ⊕ is defined as m⊕n = m2 – mn – n2, and the

operation ⋈ is defined as m ⋈ n = 2(m – n). Compute (3⊕4) ⋈ (4⊕3).
(A)  26 (B)  28 (C)  19 (D) 28 (E)  5
Solution: B.
3⊕4 = 32 – 3 × 4 – 42 = – 19.
6
4⊕3 = 42 – 4 × 3 – 32 = – 5.
(3⊕4) ⋈ (4⊕3) = (– 19) ⋈ (– 5) = 2[– 19 – (– 5)] = 2 × (– 14) = – 28.
Example 10. If for positive integers a and b, ab  ab  a  b , find the value of a
+ b in the equation ab  6 .
(A) 9 (B) 10 (C) 8 (D) 15 (E) 12
Solution: B.
ab  6  ab  a  b  6  (a  1)(b  1)  7 .
We have
a 1  1 (1)
and b  1  7 (2)
(1) + (2): a + b = 10.
Note that we can have a  1  7 and b  1  1 with the same answer.
Example 11. Define (x △ y) to mean 2x – 3y. Evaluate ((4 △ 3) △ (5 △ 3)).

(A) 1 (B) 1 (C) 5 (D) 5 (E) 15
Solution: D.
4 △ 3 = 2 × 4 – 3 × 3 = – 1.
5 △ 3 = 2 × 5 – 3 × 3 = 1.
((4 △ 3) △ (5 △ 3)) = (– 1) △ (1) = 2 × (– 1) – 3 × 1 = 5.
Example 12. Given that a ✦ b = a3 – b2, what is the value of 4 ✦ (2 ✦ 1)?

(A) 7 (B) 15 (C) 8 (D) 15 (E) 7
Solution: D.
2 ✦ 1 = 23 – 12 = 8 – 1 = 7.
4 ✦ (2 ✦ 1) = 4 ✦ (7) = 43 – 72 = 64 – 49 = 15.
7
Example 13. 10. Subfactorials, !n, are defined by the formula:

 1 1 1 1
!n  n!1       (1) n 
 1! 2! 3! n! 
!x
Express the following where for x = 6: .
!( x  1)
265 11 53 53
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 6.
44 30 24 144
Solution: A.
!x !6
= 
!( x  1) !(6  1)
 1 1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1
6!1        61       
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!    1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 
 1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1
5!1       1      
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!   1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
1         
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 2 6 24 120 30
1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 53
1         .
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 30 720 144
53
6
!6 144  265 .

!(6  1) 11 44
30
Example 14. The operation ✿ is defined by n ✿ = n2 – 1. What is the value of the
following: 10(3✿)  5(4✿)?

(A) 5 (B) 99 (C) 8 (D) 15 (E) 5
Solution: E.
3✿= 32 – 1 = 8
8
4✿= 42 – 1 = 15
10(3✿)  5(4✿) = 10 × 8 – 5 ×15 = 80 – 75 = 5.
2. 3. Multiplications
5!
Example 15. If 4! means 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1, what is the value of ?
3!
(A) 20 (B) 40 (C) 30 (D) 60 (E) 80
Solution: A.
5! 5  4  3!
=  5  4  20 .
3! 3!
Example 16. If a ★ b is defined as (a + 1)(b + 1), find (2 ★ 3) ★ 4.

(A) 120 (B) 65 (C) 56 (D) 11 (E) 20
Solution: B.
2 ★ 3 = (2 + 1)(3 + 1) = 12.
(2 ★ 3) ★ 4 = 12 ★ 4 = (12 + 1)(4 + 1) = 65.
Example 17. Two binary operations are defined by the rules a ✬ b = a3 – b3 and a
▽ b = (a + b)3. What is the value of (2 ✬ 3) ▽ 9?

(A) 1000 (B) 729 (C)  512 (D) 1 (E) 1000
Solution: E.
2 ✬ 3 = 23 – 33 =  19.
(2 ✬ 3) ▽ 9 = ( 19) ▽ 9 = ( 19 + 9)3 = 1000.
9
Example 18. Given a * b = ab + 1, evaluate: 4 * [(6 * 8) + (3 * 5)] .

(A) 65 (B) 121 (C) 144 (D) 261 (E) 111
Solution: D.
6 * 8 = 6 × 8 + 1 = 49.
3 * 5 = 3 × 5 + 1 = 16.
[(6 * 8) + (3 * 5)] = 49 + 16 = 65
4 * [(6 * 8) + (3 * 5)] = 4 * 65 = 4 × 65 + 1 = 261.
Example 19. If a ☆ b = ab – 1 and a ★ b = a + b – 1, what is the value of 4

☆[(6 ★ 8)★(3 ☆ 5)]?
(A) 27 (B) 104 (C) 26 (D) 103 (E) 182
Solution: D.
6 ★ 8 = 6 + 8 – 1 = 13
3 ☆ 5 = 3 × 5 – 1 = 14
(6 ★ 8)★(3 ☆ 5) = 13★ 14 = 13 + 14 – 1 = 26.
4 ☆[(6 ★ 8)★(3 ☆ 5)] = 4 ☆ 26 = 4 × 26 – 1 = 103.
2. 4. Divisions
Example 20. For each pair of real numbers a ≠ b, define the operation  as
ab
( a  b)  . What is the value of ((1  2)  4) ?
ab
(A) 2/3 (B)  1/7 (C) 0 (D) 1/2 (E) This value is not defined.
Solution: B.
1 2
First we have (1  2)   3 .
1 2
3 4 1
Then ((1  2)  4)  (3  4)   .
3 4 7
10
6@3
Example 21. Define a @ b  ab  b2 and a# b  a  b  ab2 . What is ?
6#3
(A) 1/5 (B)  1/4 (C) 1/8 (D) 1/4 (E) 1/2
Solution: A.
We have 6 @ 3  6  3  32  9 and 6#3  6  3  6  32  45 .
6@3 9 1
Therefore =   .
6#3 45 5
abc
Example 22. For the nonzero numbers a, b, and c, define (a, b, c)  .
abc
Find (2, 5, 8).
(A) 16/3 (B) 5 (C) 15/2 (D) 6 (E) 24
Solution: A.
2  5  8 80 16
(2,5,8)    .
2  5  8 15 3
ab
Example 23. Express 3 * (4 * 5) as a common fraction given a * b = .
ab
20 60 20 47
(A) (B) 1 (C) (D) (E)
9 47 47 60
Solution: C.
4  5 20
4*5=  .
45 9
20 60
3
20 9  9  60 .
3 * (4 * 5) = 3 * =
9 20 47 47
3
9 9
11
( a  b)
Example 24. If a ✽ b = , compute (3 ✽ 1) ✽ 2.
b
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 1 (E) 8
Solution: A.
(3  1) (4  2)
3✽1= 4 (3 ✽ 1) ✽ 2 = 4 ✽ 2 =  3.
1 2
1 1
(  )
Example 25. If a ✫ b = b a , express 5 ✫ 7 as a common fraction.
( a  b)
35 1 2 4 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 
3 35 35 35 35
Solution: B.
1 1 2
(  ) 
1
5 ✫ 7 = 7 5  35  .
(5  7)  2 35
ab
Example 26. Given a * b = , find (5 * 6) * 1.
a b
30 11 41 11 985
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
11 30 11 41 341
Solution: C.
5  6 11
5*6= 
5  6 30
11 41
1
11 41
* 1 = 30  30  .
30 11 11 11
1
30 30
12
ab
Example 27. If a ✪ b is defined as , what is the value of 6 ✪(3✪5)?
2
(A) 1 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 10 (E) 5
Solution: E
35 64
3✪5 =  4 and 6 ✪(3✪5) = 6 ✪(4) = 5.
2 2
2. 5. Exponents
☆Example 28. The operation  is defined for all nonzero numbers by a  b =

a2/b. Determine [(1  2)  4]  [1  (2  4)].
(A) 15/16 (B)  14/15 (C) 0 (D) 15/16 (E) 17/16
Solution: (A).
1
2 ( )2
1 1 1
We have (1  2)  4 =  4   4  2  and
2 2 4 16
22 12
1  (2  4)= 1  ( )  1 1   1 .
4 1
1 15
Therefore [(1  2)  4]  [1  (2  4)]  1   .
16 16
Example 29. If x ✪ y = (xy)x, what is the units digit of 4 ✪ 10?

(A) 6 (B) 8 (C) 2 (D) 4 (E) 0
Solution: A.
4 ✪ 10 = (410)4 = 440
The pattern for the last digit of 4n is 4, 6, 4, 6, etc.
When the exponent 40 is divided by 2, the remainder is 0. Therefore, the last digit
of 440 is the same as the last digit of 42. So the last digit is 6.
13
Example 30. If a  b means 3a – 2b, then what value is associated with 4(2 
3)?
49 47
(A) (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) (E) – 2
4 4
Solution: D.
2  3 = 3  2 – 23 = 6 – 8 = – 2.
1 47
4 (2  3) = 4  (– 2) = 3  4 – (2)– 2 = 12 – 2
= .
2 4
Example 31. If a ★ b = ab + ba, what is (4 ★ 3)  (3 ★ 4)?

(A) 256 (B) 145 (C) 1 (D) 5 (E) 2
Solution: C.
4 ★ 3 = 43 + 34 = 145
3 ★ 4 = 34 + 43 = 145
(4 ★ 3)  (3 ★ 4) = 145 145 = 1.
Example 32. For natural numbers a and b, a △ b = ba + 2ab. Find the value of (2
△ 3) – (3 △ 2).
(A) 1 (B) 41 (C) 37 (D) 12 (E) 0
Solution: A.
2 △ 3 = 32 + 2  2  3 = 9 + 12 = 21.
3 △ 2 = 23 + 2  2  3 = 8 + 12 = 20.
(2 △ 3) – (3 △ 2) = 21 – 20 = 1.
Example 33. If x ✇ y = xy  x + yy, find the value of (4 ✇ 2)  (3 ✇ 1).

(A) 16 (B) 1 (C) 13 (D) 17 (E) 15
Solution: E.
14
4 ✇ 2 = 42  4 + 22 = 16 – 4 + 4 = 16
3 ✇ 1 = 3 1  3 + 11 = 3 – 3 + 1 = 1
(4 ✇ 2)  (3 ✇ 1) = 16 – 1 = 15.
Example 34. If x ⊕ y = (xy)x, what is the units digit of 7 ⊕ 5?

(A) 7 (B) 9 (C) 3 (D) 1 (E) 6
Solution: C.
7 ⊕ 5 = (75)7 = 735.
We know that
n 1 2 3 4 Period
7n 7 9 3 1 4
35 = 4  8 + 3.
735 has the same last digit as 73. The answer is 3.
ab 3a  b
Example 35. Given a △ b = a
, and a □ b = , find the common fraction
b ab
equivalent to (2△3)□(2△1).
3 24 8 8 16
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8 9 9 3 9
Solution: A.
23 8 21
2△3 =  , 2△1 = 2
32 9 12
8
3  2
8 9 3
(2△3)□(2△1) = □ 2 =  .
9 8 8
2
9
15
2.6. Radicals
Example 36. For real numbers a and b, define ab  a 2  b2 . What is the
value of (815)((15)(8)) ?
(A) 0 (B) 13/2 (C) 15 (D) 17 2 (E) 26
Solution: D.
It follows from the definition that
(815)((15)(8)) = 82  152  (15)2  (8)2  1717  172  172  17 2 .
Example 37. Let ▽ be defined as ▽(a, b) = a 2  b 2 , for all real numbers a and
b. Find ▽ (▽ (▽(12, 5), 84), 132).
(A) 97 (B) 117 (C) 137 (D) 157 (E) 187
Solution: D.
▽(12, 5) = 122  52  13 .
▽ (▽(12, 5), 84) = ▽ (13, 84) = 132  842  85 .
▽ (▽ (▽(12, 5), 84), 132) = ▽ (85, 132) = 852  1322  157 .
Example 38. Let ✫ be defined as ✫(a, b) = a 2  b 2 , for all real numbers a and
b. Find ✫(✫(16, 63), ✫(33, 56)) and express in simplest radical form.
(A) 65 (B) 65 2 (C) 63 2 (D) 130 (E) 56 2
Solution: B.
✫(16, 63) = 162  632  65
✫(33, 56) = 332  562  65
✫(✫(16, 63), ✫(33, 56)) = ✫(65, 65) = 652  652  65 2
16
2 3
Example 39. If x ♡ y = xy   , find the value of (4 ♡ 4) ♡ 3. Express your
x 2
answer as a common fraction.
13 23
(A) (B) 3 (C) (D) 17 (E) 7
6 6
Solution: A.
2 3 1 3
4♡4= 4 4   = 4    4 1  3
4 2 2 2
2 3 5 13
(4 ♡ 4) ♡ 3 = 3♡ 3 = 3  3   = 3   .
3 2 6 6
17
3. PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Let the operations △ and □ be defined for all real numbers a and b
as follows:
a △b = a + 3b
a □ b = a + 4b
If 4 △ (5y) = (5y) □ 4, what is the value of y?
(A) 6/5 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3/5 (E) 3/5
Problem 2. For the positive integer n, let <n> denote the sum of all the positive
divisors of n with the exception of n itself. For example, <4> = 1 + 2 = 3 and
<12> = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16. What is <<<18>>>?
(A) 1 (B) 11 (C) 21 (D) 6 (E) 3
A B
Problem 3. If A ✇ B =  , what is the value of (3 ✇ 2)  (2 ✇ 3)?
B A
4 3 12
(A) (B) (C) 0 (D) 1 (E)
3 4 13
Problem 4. If ☆ represents an operation defined by a ☆ b = a3 + b, find

(1☆2)☆3.
(A) 3 (B) 27 (C) 30 (D) 9 (E) 732
1 1
Problem 5. If a ◇ b =  , for what decimal value of a is a ◇ 0.2 = 10?
a b
1 7 1
(A) (B) (C) 0 (D) 1 (E)
5 10 2
Problem 6. Given that a ✇ b = (a2 + b) ÷ 2. What is the value of 5 ✇ 3?

(A) 14 (B) 4 (C) 15 (D) 8 (E) 28
18
Problem 7. If a ⍉ b = a2 + b, evaluate (4 ⍉ 3) ⍉ 18.

(A) 19 (B) 361 (C) 380 (D) 324 (E) 379
☆Problem 8. Define x  y = x3 – y. What is h  (h  h)?

(A)  h (B)  0 (C) h (D) 2h (E) h4
Problem 9. If x ⍉ y = x2 – y2, what is (3 ⍉ 2) ⍉ 4?

(A) 5 (B) 25 (C) 9 (D) 16 (E) 25
Problem 10. If ab  ab  a  b , find the value of b in the equation 3b  5 .

(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 15 (E) 2
Problem 11. If a  b = 2a – b, what does 3  4 equal?

(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 10 (D) 5 (E) 12
Problem 12. Suppose that a ✪ b = ab – b for all integers a and b. What is the
value of 3 ✪(2)?
(A) 4 (B) 5 (C) 8 (D) 4 (E) 7
Problem 13. If A ✯ B = 3A2 – 2B3, find 7 ✯ 3.

(A) 179 (B) 93 (C) 93 (D) 21 (E) 10
Problem 14. If y ◅ = y2 – 1, find (9◅)◅.

(A) 80 (B) 6400 (C) 6399 (D) 79 (E) 81
Problem 15. If a ▼ b = 3a – b2, find 2 ▼ (3 ▼ 1).
8!
Problem 16. If 4! means 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1, express in simplest form.
6!2!2!
(A) 40320 (B) 56 (C) 28 (D) 14 (E) 120
19
Problem 17. Given a ◇b = a(a + b) + b(a + b), find 9 ◇ 7.

(A) 256 (B) 225 (C) 4 (D) 16 (E) 289
a c 5 x
Problem 18. For all values a, b, c, and d,  ab  cd . If  8,
d b 2 6
what is x?
(A) 14 (B)  11 (C)  14 (D)  15 (E) 11
Problem 19. If a ◇ b = a2b, find (3◇2)  (2◇3).

(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 18 (D) 12 (E) – 6
x 3 3
Problem 20. If x◎y =  xy , express ◎ as a common fraction.
y 8 4
5 9 1 32 25
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
32 32 2 9 32
(a 2  b 2 )
Problem 21. Given a ◇ b = , express 6 ◇ 2 as a common fraction.
ab
8 7 1 1 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3 3 2 3 8
ab
Problem 22. Given the operations: a ☆ b = 2a – b and a ★ b = , evaluate:
b
6 ★∣3☆9∣.
1 1
(A) (B) 3 (C) (D) 4 (E) – 3
3 4
a 2  b2
Problem 23. Evaluate 3 ❉ 4 if a ❉ b = . Express your answer as a
ab
common fraction.
20
5 25 9 16
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 1
7 7 7 7
8a  2b
Problem 24. The operation * is defined to be a * b = . Express 3 * (3 * 3)
2ab
as a common fraction.
31 31 3 11
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 1
3 9 11 3
ab
Problem 25. If abc  , what is the value of 123231312 ?
c
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 1 (E) 5
2A  B
Problem 26. If A ✫ B = , what is the value of (3 ✫ 4) ✫ 5? Express your
2
answer as a common fraction.
3 3 2 2
(A)  (B) (C) (D)  (E) 1
2 2 3 3
ab
Problem 27. If a ☆ b = , what is the value of (7 ☆ 9)☆(30 ☆ 17)?
2
1 47 3 11 3
(A) 15 (B) (C) 15 (D) (E) 14
4 2 4 41 4
ab
Problem 28. Given a ★ b = , find (7★9)★12.
2
(A) 10 (B) 8 (C) 20 (D) 96 (E) 6
Problem 29. If a △ b = (ab)a, find 5△2. Express the answer as a whole number.
(A) 100,000 (B) 50,000 (C) 20,000 (D) 96,000 (E) 6,000
21
a
Problem 30. If a ★ b = a b , then what value is associated with 2 ★ 3?
(A) 64 (B) 512 (C) 8 (D) 128 (E) 1024
Problem 31. If a ✪ b is defined as 2a – ba, what value is associated with (5 ✪ 2)
– (3 ✪ 2)?
(A) – 24 (B)  20 (C)  22 (D) 22 (E) 24
Problem 32. Given a ✿ b = ba  ba + ab, find (2 ✿ 3)  (3 ✿ 2).

(A) 121 (B) 22 (C) 11 (D) 144 (E) 81
Problem 33. For natural numbers, a and b a ⊠ b = ba – a + b. Find the value of

(4 ⊠ 2)  (2 ⊠ 4).
(A) 32 (B)  4 (C) 18 (D) 14 (E) 22
Problem 34. Given the a ✦ b = ab – ba, and a ▽ b = (a + b)(a – b), what is the
value of a ✦ (a ▽ b) if a = 3 and b = 2?
(A) 118 (B) 15 (C) 243 (D) 125 (E) 115
Problem 35. If (a ✦ b) = (a  b) + ab + ba, find 3 ✦ 5.

(A) 243 (B) 383 (C) 125 (D) 15 (E) 115
1 1
Problem 36. If a ♣ b = ( )b  ( ) a , find 2 ♣ 3.
a b
17 2 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) 1 (D) (E)
72 17 9 8 6
1
Problem 37. If a ⟡ b = a 2  b 2 , find the value of (2 ) ⟡ 6 and express the
2
result as a common fraction.
22
13 17 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) 13 (E) 61
2 2 2
Problem 38. Let ▽ be defined as ▽(a, b) = a 2  b 2 , for all real numbers a and
b. Find ▽ (▽(8, 5), 144).
(A) 85 (B) 125 (C) 135 (D) 145 (E) 165
Problem 39. Given a ✫ b = a 2  b 2 , find ((13 ✫ 84) ✫ (36 ✫ 77)).

(A) 85 (B) 85 2 (C) 83 2 (D) 135 (E) 58 2
Problem 40. Given that x ◇ y = x  y , find (6 ◇ 10) ◇ 5.

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 16 (D) 15 (E) 7
Problem 41. The symbols ✦ and * represent different operations, either +, , ,
or ÷, and x is a positive integer. Find x if 17 ✦ x = 54 * x.

(A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 5 (E) 7
23
4. SOLUTIONS
Problem 1. Solution: A.
4 △ (5y) = 4 + 3 × 5y (1)
(5y) □ 4= 5y + 4 × 4 (2)
We are given that (1) = (2). So 4 + 3 × 5y = 5y + 4 × 4  4 + 15y = 5y +
16  10y = 12  y = 12/10 = 6/5.
★Problem 2. Solution: A.
Method 1:
The positive divisors of 18, other than 18, are 1, 2, 3, 6, and 9, so <18> = 1 + 2 +
3 + 6 + 9 = 21. <21> = 1 + 3 + 7 = 11. <11> = 1.
Problem 3. Solution: 0.
3 2 13
(3 ✇ 2) =   .
2 3 6
2 3 13
(2 ✇ 3) =   .
3 2 6
The answer is (3 ✇ 2)  (2 ✇ 3) = 0.
Problem 4. Solution: C.
1☆2 = 13 + 2 = 3.
3☆3 = 33 + 3 = 27 + 3 = 30.
1 1 1 1 1
a ◇ 0.2 = 10   = 10   5 = 10  =5  a= .
a 0.2 a a 5
5 ✇ 3= (52 + 3) ÷ 2 = 14.
24
Problem 7. Solution: E
4 ⍉ 3 = 42 + 3 = 19.
19 ⍉ 18 = 192 + 18 = 192 + 19 – 1 = 19(19 + 1) – 1 = 19 × 20 – 1 = 380 – 1 = 379.
★Problem 8. Solution: C.
By the definition we have h  (h  h)  h  (h3  h)  h3  (h3  h)  h .
Problem 9. Solution: C
3 ⍉ 2 = 32 – 22 = (3 – 2) (3 + 2) = 5.
(3 ⍉ 2) ⍉ 4 = 5 ⍉ 4 = 52 – 42 = (5 – 4) (5 + 4) = 9.
Problem 10. Solution: B.

3b  5  5  3b  3  b  2b  8  b4

3  4 = 2 × 3 – 4 = 2.

3 ✪(2) = 3 × (2) – (2) = 6 + 2 = 4.

7 ✯ 3 = 3 × 72 – 2 × 33 = 93.

9◅ = 92 – 1 = 80
80◅ = 802 – 1 = 6399.
Problem 15. Solution: 58
25
3 ▼ 1 = 3 × 3 – 12 = 8.
2 ▼ (3 ▼ 1) = 2 ▼ 8 = 3 × 2 – 82 = –58.
Problem 16. Solution: D.

8! 8  7  6! 8  7 8  7
=    14 .
6!2!2! 6!2!2! 2!2! 4

9 ◇ 7 = 9(9 + 7) + 7(9 + 7) = (9 + 7)(9 + 7) = 162 = 256.

5 x
 8  30  (2)  x  8  2 x  8  30  22  x  11 .
2 6

3◇2 = 32× 2 = 18
2◇3 = 22× 3 = 12
(3◇2)  (2◇3) = 18 – 12 = 6.
Problem 20. Solution: E.

3
3 3 3 3 1 9 25
◎ = 8     .
8 4 3 8 4 2 32 32
4
(6 2  2 2 ) 32 8
6◇2=   .
6 2 6 2 3

3☆9 = 2 × 3 – 9 = – 3.
∣3☆9∣= 3.
26
63
6 ★∣3☆9∣=6 ★ 3 =  3.
3

32  42 25
3❉4=  .
3 4 7

8 3  2  3 3 6
3*3=  1
2  3 3 3 6
8  3  2  1 22 11
3 * (3 * 3) = 3 * 1 =   .
2  3 1 6 3

123  1  2  1
3
231  2  3  5
1
312  3  1  2
2
123231312 = 152 = 1  5  3 .
2

23 4
3✫4= 1
2
2 1  5 3
(3 ✫ 4) ✫ 5 = 1✫ 5 = =  .
2 2
79
7☆9=  8.
2
27
30  17 47
30 ☆ 17 =  .
2 2
47 63
8
47 2  2  63  15 3 .
(7 ☆ 9)☆(30 ☆ 17) = 8☆ =
2 2 2 4 4
Problem 28. Solution: A

79
7★9 = 8
2
8  12
(7★9)★12 = 8★12 =  10 .
2

5△2 = (5  2)5 = 100, 000.

2
2 ★ 3 = 23  29 = 512.

5 ✪ 2 = 2  5 – 25 = 10 – 32 = –22.
3 ✪ 2 = 2  3 – 23 = 6 – 8 = – 2.
(5 ✪ 2) – (3 ✪ 2) = –22 – (– 2) = – 22 + 2 = – 20.

2 ✿ 3 = 32  3  2 + 23 = 9 – 6 + 8 = 11.
3 ✿ 2 = 23  2  3 + 32 = 8 – 6 + 9 = 11.
(2 ✿ 3)  (3 ✿ 2) = 11  11 = 121.
28

4 ⊠ 2 = 24 – 4 + 2 = 16 – 4 + 2 = 14.
2 ⊠ 4 = 42 – 2 + 4 = 16 – 2 + 4 = 18.
(4 ⊠ 2)  (2 ⊠ 4) = 14 – 18 = – 4.

3 ▽ 2 = (3 + 2)(3 – 2) = 5.
a ✦ (a ▽ b) = 3 ✦ 5 = 35 – 53 = 118.

3 ✦ 5 = (3  5) + 35 + 53 = 15 + 243 + 125 = 383.

1 1 1 1 17
2 ♣ 3 = ( )3  ( ) 2   
2 3 8 9 72

1 1 25 169 13
(2 ) ⟡ 6 = (2 ) 2  62   36   .
2 2 4 4 2

▽(8, 5) = 82  52  17 .
▽ (▽(8, 5), 144) = ▽ (17, 144) = 172  1442  145 .

13 ✫ 84 = 132  842  85
36 ✫ 77 = 362  772  85
((13 ✫ 84) ✫ (36 ✫ 77)) = 85 ✫ 85 = 852  852  85 2
29

6 ◇ 10 = 6  10  4
(6 ◇ 10) ◇ 5 = 4 ◇ 5 = 4  5  3.

17 ✦ x = 54 * x  17 × x = 54  x  x = 3.
30
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 20 Remainders
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE
Definition. For b ≥ 2, we write b | a − r if a – r is divisible by b.
The following expressions mean the same thing:

 b|a–r
 a – r = qb (q is the quotient and has an integer value)
 a = r + qb
ar
 q
b
Example 1. When x (x > 5) is divided by 5, the remainder is 3. What is the sum of

the first three smallest possible values of x?
(A) 29 (B) 39 (C) 41 (D) 52 (E) 38
Solution: B.
The smallest value of x is 5 + 3 = 8. The next possible value is 8 + 5 = 13. The
third possible value is 13 + 5 = 18. The answer is 8 + 13 + 18 = 39.
Example 2. When 20 + x is divided by 11, the remainder is 7. What is the

smallest possible positive value of x?
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 9 (E) 10
Solution: D.
The smallest value of 20 + x is 11 + 7 = 18. The next possible value is 18 + 11 =
29. So the smallest value of x is 29 – 20 = 9.
Theorem 1.
There exists a unique pair (q, r) such that
a  qb  r (1.1)
a r
or  q  (1.2)
b b
where a and b are integers, b > 0, q is the quotient, and r is the remainder with
0r b.
31
a
If r = 0,  q , which can be written as a  qb . This is equivalent to saying that a
b
is divisible by b, ba, and b divides a.
Example 3. When 534 + x is divided by 32, the quotient is 16 and the remainder
is 30. Find x.
(A) 8 (B) 13 (C) 24 (D) 25 (E) 16
Solution: A.
By (1.1), we have 534 + x = 32 × 16 + 30  x = 8.
Theorem 2. (Residue Classes)

For any given positive integer m, when it is divided by n, the remainder must be
one the following: 0, 1, 2, …, n – 1. All integers can be classified into a unique
class according to their remainder when divided by n. A complete set of residue
classes has n classes.
Any integer can be classified into two residue classes when divided by 2:
2k (remainder is 0)
2k + 1 (remainder is 1)
k is an integer.
Any integer can be classified into 4 classes when divided by 4:

4k (remainder is 0)
k is an integer.
Example 4. When 33 is divided by a natural number x, the remainder is 5. How

many values of x are there?
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 6
Solution: B.
We have 33 = x ∙ q + 5 (x > 5).
Or 33 – 5 = x ∙ q  28 = x ∙ q.
2
Since 28 = 2  7, the number of factors of 28 is (2 + 1)  (1 + 1) = 6.
32
Since x > 5, we need to exclude 1, 2, and 4. There are 6 – 3 = 3 such numbers (7,
14, and 28).
Theorem 3.
The largest number which divides any two given numbers leaving the same
remainder equals the difference of the two numbers.
Example 5. A number N divides each of 17 and 30 with the same remainder in

each case. What is the largest value of N?
(A) 11 (B) 12 (C) 13 (D) 15 (E) 16
Solution: C.
By the theorem 3, the largest N = 30 – 17 = 13
Theorem 4.
If ab, ac, then a (jb+kc), and j, k are any integers.
Example 6. A number N divides each of 17 with the remainder of r and 30 with

the remainder 2r respectively. What is the largest value of N?
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 6
Solution: C.
We know that N divides both (17 – r) and (30 – 2r).
By the Theorem 4, N also divides any linear combination of them. That is, N
divides 2(17 – r) – (30 – 2r) = 4. The greatest N is then 4.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS
2.1. Find the divisor
Example 7. If 161 is divided by a whole number, the quotient is 14 with a

remainder of 7. What is the divisor?
(A) 12 (B) 13 (C) 14 (D) 15 (E) 11
Solution: E.
Let the whole number be x.
By (1.1), we have: 161 = 14x + 7  x = 11.
33
Example 8. When the three integers 618, 343, and 277 are divided by a positive
integer, d, where d > 1, the remainders are the same. What is the smallest possible
value of d?
(A) 5 (B) 11 (C) 25 (D) 55 (E) 16
Solution: B.
Method 1:
By the Theorem (3), d should be a common factor of 343  277 = 66 = 2  3  11
and 618  343 = 275 = 5  5  11. So d is 11.
Method 2:
Let the remainder be r. We can write the following algebraic forms where t, w,
and z are positive integers:
618 = dt + r (1)
343 = dw + r (2)
277 = dz + r (3)
(1) – (2)  275 = d(t – w)
(2) – (3)  66 = d(w – z)
(1) – (3)  341 = d(t – z)
Adding all three equations together yields 2dt = 682  dt = 341 = 11  31. The
smallest value for d is 11.
Example 9. When 732 is divided by a natural number x, the remainder is 12. How
(A) 20 (B) 30 (C) 40 (D) 50 (E) 60
Solution: A.
Because the remainder when 732 is divided by x is 12, we can subtract 12 from
732 to find a number that leaves a remainder of 0 when divided by 12. 732 – 12 =
720 and 720 = 24  32  5.
There are (4 + 1)  (2 + 1)  (1 + 1) = 30 factors of 720. Among them, we must

subtract the factors that are less than 12, because they will leave a remainder less
than 12. There are 10 factors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 12. The answer is 30 –
10 = 20.
34
2.2 Find the number
Example 10. If a certain number is divided by 2, 3, 4, or 5, the remainder is 1 in

each case. What is the least number that satisfies these conditions?
(A) 59 (B) 60 (C) 61 (D) 121 (E) 30
Solution: C.
Let the least number be a. a – 1 will be divisible by 2, 3, 4, or 5, that is, divisible
by LCM (2, 3, 4, 5, 6) = 60.
The least number of a – 1 is 60. a will be 60 + 1 = 61.
Example 11. What is the smallest whole number such that if it is divided by 2, 3
and 4, the remainders will be 1, 2 and 3, respectively?
(A) 21 (B) 31 (C) 12 (D) 11 (E) 10
Solution: D.
Let the number be x.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 2q1 + 1 (1)
x = 3q2 + 2 (2)
x = 4q3 + 3 (3)
Adding 1 to both sides of (1), (2), and (3):

x + 1 = 2q1 + 2 = 2(q1 + 1) (4)
x + 1 = 3q2 + 3 = 3(q2 + 1) (5)
x + 1 = 4q3 + 4 = 4(q3 + 1) (6)
Therefore we know that x + 1 is divisible by LCM (2, 3, 4) = 12. Thus the

smallest value of x + 1 is 12 and the smallest value of x is 12 – 1 = 11.
Example 12. The members of a band are arranged in a rectangular formation.

When they are arranged in 8 rows, there are 2 positions unoccupied in the
formation. When they are arranged in 9 rows, there are 3 positions unoccupied.
How many members are in the band if the membership is between 100 and 200?
(A) 144 (B) 150 (C) 120 (D) 60 (E) 72
35
Solution: B.
Let the number be x.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 8q1  2 (1)
x = 9q2  3 (2)
Subtracting 6 from both sides of (1) and (2):

x  6 = 8q1  8 = 8(q1  1) (4)
x  6 = 9q2  9 = 9(q2  1) (5)
Therefore we know that x  6 is divisible by LCM (8, 9) = 72. Thus the value of x
 6 can be 72, 144, 216,…
We know that x is between 100 and 200. So x  6 = 144
is 72 and the smallest value of x is 144 + 6 = 150.
2.3 Find the remainder
Example 13. Both x and y are integers. x + 9y is divisible by 5. What is the

remainder when 8x + 7y is divided by 5?
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) 4
Solution: A.
Method 1:
8x  7 y  5(2 x  5 y)  2( x  9 y) .
Since x + 9y is divisible by 5, the remainder when 8x + 7y is divided by 5 is 0.
Method 2:
Let x = 1 and y = 1. Therefore x + 9y = 10 which is divisible by 5.
8x + 7y = 8  1 + 7  1 = 15 which is also divisible by 5.
The remainder when 8x + 7y is divided by 5 is 0.
Example 14. A positive integer n has the remainder 2 when it is divided by 7.

What is the remainder when n is multiplied by 9 and then is divided by 7?
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 6
36
Solution: C.
n = 7q + 2 (1)
Multiply both sides by 9:
9n = 9(7q + 2) = 9 × 7q + 18 = 9 × 7q + 7 + 7 + 4 = 7(9q + 2) + 4
When 9n is divided by 7, the new quotient is (9q + 2) and the remainder is 4.
Example 15. When a is divided by 5, the remainder is 1. When b is divided by 5,

the remainder is 4. If 3a > b, what is the remainder when 3a – b is divided by 5?
(A) 12 (B) 8 (C) 6 (D) 4 (E) 2
Solution: D.
a = q1  5 + 1 (1)
b = q2  5 + 4 (2)
Multiplying (1) by 3:
3a = q1  5  3 + 3 (3)
(3) – (2): 3a – b = q1  5  3 – (q2  5 + 4) = (q1 – q2)  5 – 1 = (q1 – q2 – 1)  5 +
5 – 1 = (q1 – q2 – 1)  5 + 4.
The remainder is 4 when 3a – b is divided by 5.
2.4. Calendar problems and other applications
Example 16. What day of the week will be 5000 days from Sunday?
(A) Monday (B) Tuesday (C) Wednesday (D) Thursday (E) Friday
Solution: B.
5000 = 714  7 + 2.
On the 5000 – 2 = 4998th day, it will be a Sunday. Two days from Sunday is a
Tuesday.
Example 17. If the first day of a month is Monday, what day of the week is the
twenty-third day?
(A) Monday (B) Tuesday (C) Wednesday (D) Thursday (E) Friday
Solution: B.
37
Method 1: 23 = 3  7 + 2. The remainder is 2 so it is a Tuesday.

Method 2:
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
1
8
15
22 23rd
Example 18. If March 17 falls on a Wednesday, on what day of the week will
April 4 of the same year fall?
(A) Monday (B) Tuesday (C) Wednesday (D) Saturday (E) Sunday
Solution: E.
Wed Thurs Fri Sat. Sun Mon Tues
17
24
31 April 1 April 2 April 3 April 4
Example 19. Kim’s birthday was 200 days ago. Today is Wednesday. On what
day of the week did his birthday fall?
Solution: D.
200 = 7  28 + 1. The remainder is 4. It is 4 days before today so it is a Tuesday.
Thurs Fri Sat. Sun Mon Tues Wed

4 3 2 1 Today
2.5. Other applications
Example 20. Wendy noticed when she stacked her quarters in piles of 5 she had
3 left over and when she stacked them in piles of 7 she had 5 left over. If she has
less than ten dollars worth of quarters, how many quarters does she have?
(A) 11 (B) 22 (C) 33 (D) 44 (E) 55
Solution: C.
Let the number of quarters be x.
38
By (1.1), we have:
x = 5q1 + 3 (1)
x = 7q2 + 5 (2)
Adding 2 to both sides of (1) and (2):
x + 2 = 5q1 + 5 = 5(q1 + 1) (4)
x + 2 = 7q2 + 7 = 7(q2 + 1) (5)
Therefore we know that x + 2 is divisible by LCM (5, 7) = 35. Thus the value of x
+ 2 can be 35, 70, 105,…The number of quarters can be: 33, 68, 103,…Since we
know that the number is less than $10, that is, less than 40 quarters, so 33 is the
answer.
Example 21. Natasha has more than $1 but less than $10 worth of dimes. When
she puts her dimes in stacks of 3, she has 1 left over. When she puts them in
stacks of 4, she has 1 left over. When she puts them in stacks of 5, she also has 1
left over. How many dimes does Natasha have?
(A) 60 (B) 61 (C) 62 (D) 54 (E) 66
Solution: B.
Let the number of dimes be x.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 3q1 + 1 (1)
x = 4q2 + 1 (2)
x = 5q2 + 1 (3)
Subtracting 1 from each side of (1), (2), and (3):
x – 1 = 3q1 + 1 – 1 = 3q1 (4)
x – 1 = 4q2 + 1 – 1 = 4q2 (5)
x – 1 = 5q2 + 1 – 1 = 5q2 (5)
Therefore we know that x – 1 is divisible by LCM (3, 4, 5) = 60. Thus the value
of x – 1 can be 60, 120, 180,…The number of dimes can be: 61, 121, 181,…Since
we know that the number is less than 100, so 61 is the answer.
3. MORE EXMAPLES
Example 22. If p is an integer and 3 is the remainder when 2p + 5 is divided by 7,

then p could be
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 6
39
Solution: (E).
2p + 5 is odd and could be 3 + 7 + 7 = 17, 31, 15 and p could be 6, 13, 20. E is
the only choice.
Example 23. When 1270 is divided by an integer n, the quotient is 74 with a

remainder of 12. Find the divisor.
(A) 17 (B) 18 (C) 16 (D) 14 (E) 12
Solution: A.
Let the divisor be x and the remainder be r. By (1.1), we have: 1270 = 74x + 12
 x = 17.
Example 24. If July 1 falls on a Monday, then August 2 of the same year falls on
what day of the week?(July has 31 days.)
(A) Tuesday (B) Wednesday (C) Thursday (D) Friday (E) Saturday
Solution: D
Method 1: There are 31 + 2 = 33 days from July 1 to August 3. 33 = 4  7 + 5.
The remainder is 5 so it is a Friday.
Method 2: Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat. Sun

1
8
15
22
29 30 31 1 2
Example 25. When 1991 is divided by n, there is a remainder of 2. When 1769 is

divided by n, there is a remainder of 1. What is the least natural number n?
(A) 12 (B) 18 (C) 13 (D) 14 (E) 20
Solution: C.
n should be greater than 1. 1991 – 2 = 1989 is divisible by n, as well as 1769 – 1 =
1768.
Therefore n is a factor of the greatest common multiple of 1989 and 1768. (1989,
1768) = 13 × 17. So the smallest value of n is 13.
40
Example 26. When two different numbers are divided by 7, remainders of 2 and
3, respectively, are left. What is the remainder when the sum of these two
numbers is divided by 7?
(A) 6 (B) 5 (C) 4 (D) 3 (E) 2
Solution: B.
Let the two numbers be a and b.
a = q1  7 + 2 (1)
b = q2  7 + 3 (2)
(1) + (2): a + b = (q1  q1) 7 + 5.
The remainder is 5 when the sum of these two numbers is divided by 7.
Example 27. Amy has fewer than 100 computer disks. When she stacks them by
elevens, ten are left over. When she stacks them by tens, seven are left over, and
three are left over when she stacks them by sixes. How many disks does she have?
(A) 30 (B) 60 (C) 57 (D) 77 (E) 87
Solution: E.
By (1.1), we have
x = 11q1 + 10 (1)
x = 10q2 + 7 (2)
x = 6q3 + 3 (3)
Adding 3 to both sides of (2) and (3), we have
x + 3 = 10q2 + 10 = 10(q2 + 1) (4)
x + 3 = 6q2 + 6 = 6(q3 + 1) (5)
(4) and (5) mean that x + 3 is divisible by both 6 and 10, or divisible by the LCM
(6, 10) = 30.
Since x is less than 100, x + 3 could be 30, 60, 90 and x could be 27, 57, 87.
Among them, 87 has a remainder of 3 when divided by 11.
41
4. PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Which of the following could be the remainders when 5 consecutive

positive integers are each divided by 4?
(A) 3, 0, 1, 2, 3 (B) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (C) 0, 1, 2, 3, 5

(D) 0, 1, 2, 0, 4 (D) 0, 2, 3, 0, 4
Problem 2. When the positive integer x is divided by 7, the remainder is 5. What

is the remainder when x + 29 is divided by 5?
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) 4
Problem 3. In a biology class of s students, there are m microscopes available. If

the instructor assigns one microscope to each student, 8 more microscopes will be
needed. If the instructor had twice as many microscopes available and assigned
one microscope to each student, 8 microscopes would be left over. What is the
value of s?
(A) 12 (B) 16 (C) 18 (D) 24 (E) 28
Problem 4. The number n is a 2-digit number. When n is divided by 10, the

remainder is 9, and when n is divided by 9, the remainder is 8. What is the value
of n?
(A) 90 (B) 88 (C) 86 (D) 89 (E) 87
Problem 5. If 214 is divided by a whole number, the quotient is 23 with a

remainder of 7. What is the divisor?
(A) 9 (B) 12 (C) 16 (D) 14 (E) 22
Problem 6. When 200 is divided by a natural number x, the remainder is 8. How

(A) 12 (B) 8 (C) 6 (D) 4 (E) 2
Problem 7. What is the smallest number that gives a remainder of 1 when divided
by 4, a remainder of 2 when divided by 5, and a remainder of 3 when divided by
6?
(A) 60 (B) 59 (C) 58 (D) 57 (E) 56
42
Problem 8. When a number x is divided by 8, the remainder is 5. What is the

remainder when x is divided by 4?
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) 7
Problem 9. When two different numbers are divided by 11, remainders of 7 and
9, respectively, are left. What is the remainder when the sum of these two
numbers is divided by 11?
(A) 10 (B) 8 (C) 5 (D) 4 (E) 6
Problem 10. When Rachel divides her favorite number by 7, she gets a remainder
of 5. What will the remainder be if she multiplies her favorite number by 5 and
then divides by 7?
(A) 1 (B) 3 (C) 6 (D) 4 (E) 2
Problem 11. K is the smallest positive integer satisfying these properties:

1) When K is divided by 5 the remainder is 4.
K is ____.
(A) 12 (B) 22 (C) 34 (D) 54 (E) 42
Problem 12. When n is divided by 5, the remainder is 1. What is the remainder

when 3n is divided by 5?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 (E) 0
Problem 13. Find two integers between 1 and 100 such that for each:
a) if you divide by 4, the remainder is 3;
b) if you divide by 3, the remainder is 1; and
c) if you divide by 5, the remainder is 1.
(A) (11, 71) (B) (31, 91) (C) (21, 51) (D) (16, 31) (E) (46, 61)
Problem 14. Susan’s March birthday is on a Saturday this year, but she doesn’t
celebrate it until 100 days later. On what day of the week will she celebrate?
43
Problem 15. Today is a Saturday in March. What day of the week will it be one
year from today since next year is not a leap year?
Problem 16. What is the least positive integer value of p such that 7p divided by
11 has a remainder of 1?
(A) 10 (B) 9 (C) 8 (D) 7 (E) 6
Problem 17. Several thieves found a package containing some dollar bills. They
found that when they tried to give $3 to each thug, they ran out of money and one
thug received nothing. When each thug took $2, they had $1 left over. What is the
least possible number of dollars if the money is more than $2000?
(A) $2001 (B) $2014 (C) $2015 (D) $2016 (E) $2017
Problem 18. When Joyce counts the pennies in her bank by fives, she has one left
over. When she counts them by threes, there are two left over. What is the least
possible number of pennies in the bank?
(A) 10 (B) 11 (C) 12 (D) 17 (E) 16
Problem 19. The number of students in Teresa’s graduating class is more than 50
and fewer than 100 and is 1 less than a multiple of 3, 2 less than a multiple of 4,
and 3 less than a multiple of 5. How many students are in Teresa’s graduating
class?
(A) 60 (B) 69 (C) 80 (D) 71 (E) 62
Problem 20. I have some tables and chairs. If I place two chairs at each table, I
have one extra chair. If I place three chairs at each table, I have one table with no
chairs. What is the sum of the number of tables and the number of chairs?
(A) 10 (B) 11 (C) 12 (D) 13 (E) 16
Problem 21. Find the smallest positive integer that gives a remainder of 5 when
divided by 6, a remainder of 6 when divided by 7, and a remainder of 7 when
divided by 8.
(A) 167 (B) 166 (C) 168 (D) 169 (E) 171
Problem 22. When 51 is divided by the positive integer k, the remainder is 3. For
how many different values of k is this true?
44
(A) Ten (B) Eight (C) Seven (D) Four (E) Five
Problem 23. Find the greatest integer that will divide 2613, 2243, 1503, and 985
and leave the same remainder.
(A) 70 (B) 74 (C) 78 (D) 77 (E) 76
Problem 24. When a positive integer n is divided by 7, which of the following

CANNOT be the remainder?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 5 (E) 7
Problem 25. When a positive integer is divided by 7, the remainder is 4. When

the same integer is divided by 9, the remainder is 3. What is the smallest possible
value of this integer?
(A) 39 (B) 49 (C) 58 (D) 67 (E) 76
Problem 26. When 73, 216, and 227 are divided by a positive integer b, the
remainders are the same. What is the remainder when 108 is divided by b?
(A) 10 (B) 9 (C) 8 (D) 7 (E) 6
Problem 27. Both m and n are integers. 5m + 3n is divisible by 11. What is the
remainder when 9m + n is divided by 11?
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) 7 (E) 9
45
5. SOLUTIONS
Problem 1. Solution: A
We also know that the remainder must be less than the divisor by the Theorem 2.
So the remainder must be less than 4.
x can be 7 + 5 = 12. 12 + 29 = 41. The remainder is 1 when 41 is divided by 5.
By (1.1), we have:
m=s–8 (1)
2m = s + 8 (2)
(1)  2 – (2): s = 24.
By (1.1), we have:
n = 10q1 + 9 (1)
n = 9q2 + 8 (2)
Adding 1 to both sides of (1), and (2):
n + 1 = 10q1 + 9 + 1 = 10(q1 + 1) (4)
n + 1 = 9q2 + 8 + 1 = 9(q2 + 1) (5)
Therefore we know that n + 1 is divisible by LCM (9, 10) = 90. Thus the smallest
value of n + 1 is 90 and the smallest value of n is 90 – 1 = 89.
Let the whole number be x.
By (1.1), we have: 214 = 23x + 7  x = 9.
We have 200 = x ∙ q + 8 (x > 8).
Or 200 – 8 = x ∙ q  192 = x ∙ q.
6
Since 192 = 2  3, the number of factors of 196 is (6 + 1)  (1 + 1) = 14.
Since x > 8, we need to exclude 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8.
There are 14 – 6 = 8 such numbers.
46
By (1.1), we have:
x = 4q1 + 1 (1)
x = 5q2 + 2 (2)
x = 6q3 + 3 (3)
x + 3 = 4q1 + 4 = 4(q1 + 1) (4)
x + 3 = 5q2 + 5 = 5(q2 + 1) (5)
x + 3 = 6q3 + 6 = 6(q3 + 1) (6)
Therefore we know that x + 3 is divisible by LCM (4, 5, 6) = 60. Thus the
smallest value of x + 3 is 60 and the smallest value of x is 60 – 3 = 57.
x could be 8 + 5 = 13 or 13 + 8 = 21, 29,…. The remainder when x is divided by 4
is 1.
Let the two numbers be a and b.
a = q1  11 + 7 (1)
b = q2  11 + 9 (2)
(1) + (2): a + b = (q1  q1) 11 + 16 = (q1  q1) 11 + 11 + 5
The remainder is 5 when the sum of these two numbers is divided by 11.
Note: the remainder is always smaller than the divisor.

Rachel’s favorite number could be 7 + 5 = 12.
12  5 = 60 and 60  7 = 8  7 + 4.
The remainder is 4.

By (1.1), we have:
K = 5q1 + 4 (1)
K = 8q2 + 2 (2)
K = 11q3 + 1 (3)
K + 6 = 5q1 + 10 = 5(q1 + 2) (4)
K + 6 = 8q2 + 10 = 8(q2 + 1) (5)
47
Therefore we know that K + 6 is divisible by LCM (5, 8) = 40. Thus the smallest
value of K + 6 is 40 and the smallest value of K is 40 – 6 = 34. When 34 is
divided by 11 the remainder is 1 and we are done.

The smallest n is 5 + 1 = 6. 3n = 18 and the remainder is 3 when 18 is divided y 5.

Let the integer be K.
By (1.1), we have:
K = 4q1 + 3 (1)
K = 3q2 + 1 (2)
K = 5q3 + 1 (3)
Subtracting 1 from both sides of (2) and (3):
K – 1 = 3q1 + 1 – 1 = 3q1 (4)
K – 1 = 5q2 + 1 – 1 = 5q2 (5)
Therefore we know that K – 1 is divisible by LCM (3, 5) = 15. Thus the values of
K – 1 could be 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90. The values of K – 1 could be 16, 31,
46, 61, 76, and 91. Among them, only 31 and 91 have a remainder of 3 when
divided by 4.

100 = 14  7 + 2. The remainder is 2 so it is 2 days from Saturday: Monday.

365 = 52  7 + 1. The remainder is 1 so it is 1 day from Saturday: Sunday.

7p could be 11 + 1 = 12, 12 + 11 = 23, 34, 45, 56, 67,… Among them, the least
one that is divisible by 7 is 56. So 7p is 8.

Let the money be x dollars.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 3q1– 3 (1)
x = 2q2 + 1 (2)
48
x + 3= 3q1 – 3 + 3 = 3q1 (3)

x + 3 = 2q2 + 1 + 3 = 2(q2 + 2) (4)
So x + 3 is divisible by 2  3 = 6. So x + 3 could be 6, 12,… Since x is more than
2000, and 2000 = 6  333 + 2, x + 3 = 6  333 + 2 + 4 and x = 6  333 + 2 + 4 –
3 = 2001.

Let the money be x pennies.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 5q1 + 1 (1)
x = 3q2 + 2 (2)
Adding4 to both sides of (1) and (2):
x + 4= 5q1 + 1 + 4 = 5(q1 + 1) (3)
x + 4 = 3q2 + 2 + 4 = 3(q2 + 2) (4)
We see that x + 4 is divisible by 5  3 = 15. So x + 4 could be 15, 30,… The least
of x + 4 is 15 and x is 11.

Let the number of students be K.
By (1.1), we have:
K = 3q1 – 1 (1)
K = 4q2 – 2 (2)
K = 5q3 – 3 (3)

K – 2 = 3q1 – 1 – 2 = 3(q1 – 1) (4)
K – 2 = 4q2 – 2 – 2 = 4(q2 – 1) (5)
K – 2 = 5q3 – 3 – 2 = 5(q3 – 1) (6)
Therefore we know that K – 2 is divisible by LCM (3, 4, 5) = 60. Thus the values
of K – 2 could be 60, 120, …. Since 50 < K < 100, K – 2 = 60 and K = 62.

Let the number of chairs be x. the number of tables be q.
By (1.1), we have:
x = 2q + 1 (1)
x = 3(q – 1) (2)
49
(1) – (2): q = 4 and x = 9

x + q = 13.

Let the number of students be K.
By (1.1), we have:
K = 6q1 + 5 (1)
K = 7q2 + 6 (2)
K = 8q3 + 7 (3)
K + 1 = 6q1 + 5 + 1 = 6(q1 + 1) (4)
K + 1 = 7q2 + 6 + 1 = 7(q2 + 1) (5)
K + 1 = 8q3 + 7 + 1 = 8(q3 + 1) (6)
Therefore we know that K + 1 is divisible by LCM 6, 7, 8) = 168. The smallest
value of K + 1 is 168. The smallest value of K is 167.
Problem 22. Solution: C

51 – 3 = 48 = 24  3 is divisible by k. So k is a factor of 48. We also know by the
Theorem 2 that k is at least 4. There are (4 + 1)  (1 + 1) = 10 factors of 48.
Among them, we must subtract the factors that are less than 4. There are 3 factors
less than 4: 1, 2, and 3. The answer is 10 – 3 = 7.

Method 1: By the Theorem (3), d should be a common factor of 2613  2243 =
370 = 2  5  37, 2243  1503 = 740 = 2  5  37, and 1503  985 = 518 = 2  7
 37. So the greatest value for d is 2  37 = 74.
Method 2: Let the divisor be b and the remainder be r.

2613 = bq1 + r, (1)
2243 = bq2 + r, (2)
1503 = bq3 + r, (3)
985 = bq4 + r, (4)
(1) – (2): 370 = b(q1 – q2).
(3) – (2): 518 = b(q3 – q4).
Since both 370 and 518 are divisible by b, b is the common factor of 370 and 518.
The common factors of 370 and 518 are 2, 37, and 74. So the greatest divisor is
74 (and the remainder is 23).
50
Problem 24. Solution: E

By the Theorem 2, the remainder k should be less than the divisor. So it cannot
be 7.

When a positive integer is divided by 7, the remainder is 4. So the number could
be 7 + 4 = 11.
But when 11 is divided by 9, the remainder is not 3. So we keep adding 7 to 11
until the resulting number has a remainder of 3 when divided by 9. The number is
11 + 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 39.

Method 1: By the Theorem (3), b should be a factor of 227  216 = 11. Since 11
is a prime number, d is 11. The remainder when 108 is divided by b is 9.
Method 2:
73 = bq1 + r (1)
216 = bq2 + r (2)
227 = bq3 + r (3)
(3) – (2): 11 = b(q3 – q2)
Since 11 is a prime number, and b is not 1, so b equals 11. 108 = 11 × 9 + 9.
The remainder when 108 is divided by b is 9.

3(9m + n) = 27m + 3n = (5m + 3n) + 22m. Since both 5m + 3n and 22 are
divisible by 11, 3(9m + n) is also divisible by 11. The remainder when 9m + n is
divided by 11 is 0.
Method 2:
Let m = 1 and n = 2. Therefore 5m + 3n = 11 which is divisible by 11.
Substituting in these values into 9m + n, we get
9m + n = 9  1 + 2 = 11 which is also divisible by 11.
The remainder when 9m + n is divided by 11 is 0.
51
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 21 Sequences and Series
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE
1.1. Terms
An element of a sequence is called a term of the sequence, written as a1, a2, a3, …
a1 is called the first term.
an is called the general term or nth term.
The sum of the first n terms is expressed as Sn. For example, S12 means the sum of
the first twelve terms.
1.2. Arithmetic Sequences:
If any two consecutive terms in a sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an,…, have the same
difference, the sequence is called an arithmetic sequence (or arithmetic
progression).
The same difference is called the common difference (d).
A finite sequence such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…, in which each term after the first is
obtained by adding the preceding term by a fixed number, is an example of an
arithmetic sequence.
If we insert a number c between two numbers a and b such that a, c, b are in

arithmetic sequence, then c is called the arithmetic mean of a and b and c = (a +
b)/ 2.
d  an 1  an (1.2.1)
an  a1  (n  1)d (1.2.2)
(a  a )n
S 1 n (1.2.3)
2
(n  1)d
S  na1  n (1.2.4)
2
52
1.3. Geometric Sequences:
If any two consecutive terms in a sequence a1, a2, a3, …, an,…, have the same
ratio, the sequence is called a geometric sequence (or geometric progression).
The same ratio is called the common ratio (q or r).
A finite sequence such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …, in which each term after the first is
obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a fixed number, is an example of a
geometric sequence.
If we insert a number c between two numbers a and b such that a, c, b are in

geometric sequence, then c is called the geometric mean of a and b and c2 = ab,
or c   ab , where ab > 0 .
an
q (q ≠ 0，n  2) (1.3.1)
an 1
an  a1  q n 1 (a1 q ≠ 0) (1.3.2)
a1 (1  q )
n
Sn  (q ≠ 1) (1.3.3)
1 q
a1  an q
Sn  (1.3.4)
1 q
Sn = na1 (q = 1) (1.3.5)
2. PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS
(2.1). The common difference (d) of arithmetic sequences
d  an 1  an (2.1.1)
a a
d m n (2.1.2)
mn
Sm Sn

d
 m n (2.1.3)
2 mn
53
Example 1. In an arithmetic sequence an, a7  2 a4 = 1, a3 = 0. Find the

common difference d.
1 1
A. 2 B.  C. D. 2 E. 4.
2 2
Solution: B.
Method 1:
a7  a3 a4  a3
By formula (2.1.2), we have: 
73 43
a7  a3 2a4  2a3 a7  a3  (2a4  2a3 ) a7  2a4 1
 d     .
73 2(4  3) (7  3)  2(4  3) 2 2
Method 2:
a7  a3 a4  a3 a
By formula (2.1.2), we have: d =   d  7  a4 (1)
73 43 4
We are given that a7  2 a4 = 1  a7 = 2 a4 1.
2a  1
Substituting the value of a7 into (1), we get: 4  a4  2 a4 1 = 4 a4
4
1
Therefore a4 = d  
2.
(2.2). The nth term of arithmetic sequences
The nth term is expressed as an  a1  (n  1)d (2.2.1)
Other forms: an  am  (n  m)d (2.2.2)
an  S n  S n 1 (n is positive integer and n > 1) (2.2.3)
If m + n = p + q where m, n, p, and q are positive integers, then

am  an  a p  aq (2.2.4)
If m + n = 2q, then am  an  2aq (2.2.5)
54
Example 2. In an arithmetic sequence an, if a1  a9  10 , find a5 .[来:Zxxk.Com]

（A）5 （B）6[来源]（C）8 （D）10 (E) 20
Solution: (A)
By formula (2.2.5): a1 + a9 = 2a5. Therefore a5 = 5.
Example 3. In an arithmetic sequence an, a7  2 a4 = 1, a3 = 0. Find the common

difference d.
1 1
(A)  2 (B)  (C) (D) 2 (E) 4
2 2
Solution: (B)
Formula (2.2.2) gives us a7 = a3 ＋ 4d and 2a4 = 2(a3 ＋ d).
1
Therefore, a7  2a4 = a3 ＋ 4d  2(a3 ＋ d) = 2d =1  d=
2.
Example 4. In an arithmetic sequence an, if a2 + a10 = 20，find a6.

（A）5 （B）6 （C）8 （D）10 (E) 12
Solution: (D).
We know that a2 + a10 = 2a6, from formula (2.2.5), so a6 = 10.
Example 5. In an arithmetic sequence an, a1  a3  a5  105, a2  a4  a6  99 . Find

a20 .
(A) 1 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D)7 (E) 2.
Solution: B.
From a1  a3  a5  105, we get 3a3  105  a3  35 .
Similarly from a2 + a4 + a6 = 99, we get a4 =33.
The common difference of this arithmetic sequence is therefore d  a4  a3  2.

Thus, a20  a4  (20  4)  d  1 .
55
(2.3). The sum of n terms in the arithmetic sequences:
(a1  an )n
S (2.3.1)
2
(n  1)d
S  na1  n (2.3.2)
2
Example 6. In an arithmetic sequence an, the sum of first n terms is S n . If a2  3 ,

a6  11 ，find S 7 .
(A) 13 (B) 35 (C) 49 (D) 63 (E) 64
Solution: C.
Method 1:
7(a1  a7 ) 7(a2  a6 ) 7(3  11)
S7     49.
2 2 2
Note that by (2.2.4) we have a1 + a7 = a2 + a6.
Method 2:
a2  a1  d  3 a  1
  1 , a7  1  6  2  13. Therefore S7  7(a1  a7 )  7(1  13)  49.
a6  a1  5d  11 d  2 2 2
Example 7. Find the sum of all counting numbers between 50 and 350 that have 1
as the last digit.
(A) 5050 (B) 5880 (C) 5441 (D) 5552 (E) 5338
Solution: B.
The integers with 1 as the last digit form an arithmetic sequence, where the first
term is a1 = 51, the last term is an = 341, and the common difference is d = 10.
341  51  (n  1)  10  n = 30.
The sum of all counting numbers between 5 and 350 that have 1 as the last digit is
(a1  a30 ) (51  341)  30
S n   5880 .
2 2
56
(2.4). The nth term of geometric sequences
an  a1  q n 1 (a1 q ≠ 0) (2.4.1)
nm
an  am  q (a1 q ≠ 0) (2.4.2)
2
an  ank  ank (n ≥ k) (2.4.3)
If m + n = p + q, am  an  a p  aq (2.4.4)
2
If m + n = 2t, am  an  at (2.4.5)
Example 8. In a geometric sequence: 6, …, 768, …, 12288, 768 is the nth term

and 12288 is the (2n  4)th term. Find the common ratio q.
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5 (E) 8
Solution: A.
By (2.4.1), we have:
6q n 1  768  q n 1  128  27 (1)
2 n 5
6q  12288  q 2n 5  2048  211
(q n 1 ) 2
 q 2( n 1) 3  211  3
 211 (2)
q
( 27 ) 2
Substituting (1) into (2), we have 3
 211  q3  23 . Therefore q = 2.
q
1
Example 9. In geometric sequence {an}, if a2 = 4, and a5   , find the general
2
term.
Solution:
1
a2 = 4, a5   .
2
1 1
By (2.4.2), we have a5  a2 q52  q   . So an  a2 q n  2  4( )n  2 .
2 2
57
(2.5). Find a term in the geometric sequence
Example 10. If five numbers are inserted between 8 and 5832, the fifth term in
the geometric series formed is:
(A) 648 (B) 832 (C) 1168 (D) 1944 (E) none of these
Solution: A.
Denote the terms in the geometric progression by
a1  8, a2  8r , , a7  8r 6  5832.
 r 6  729; r=3 and a5  8r 4  648.
Example 11. The second and fourth terms of a geometric sequence are 2 and 6.
Which of the following is a possible first term?
2 3 3
(A)  3 (B)  (C)  (D) 3 (E) 3
3 3
Solution: (B).
Let the sequence be denoted a, ar, ar2, ar3, . . . , with ar = 2 and ar3 = 6. Then r2 =
2 3 2 3
3 and r  3 or r   3. Therefore a  or a   .
3 3
(2.6). Find the common ratio of geometric sequences
Example 12. By adding the same constant to each of 20, 50, 100 a geometric
progression results. The common ratio is
5 4 3 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3 3 2 2 3
Solution: (A).
20  a 50  a 5
Let a = the constant:  ;  a = 25;  r .
50  a 100  a 3
Example 13. {an } is a positive geometric sequence. Find the common ratio q if
a2010  8a2007 .
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 8 E. 16.
58
Solution: A.
a 2010
By (2.4.2), we have q 3  8 q  2
a 2007
3. MORE EXAMPLES
Example 14. The first term in the sequence of numbers 5, 7, 7, …is 5. Each
even-numbered term is 2 more than the previous term and each odd-numbered
term, after the first, is  1 times the previous term. For example, the second term
is 5 + 2 = 7, and the third term is (1)  7. What is the 255th term of the
sequence?
(A)  7 (B)  5 (C) 1 (D) 5 (E) 7
Solution: A.
We see the pattern: 5, 7, 7, 5, 5, 7, 7, 5… It repeats every four terms.
Since 255/ 4 has a remainder of 3, is the 255th term of the sequence is the same as
the third term, which is  7.
Example 15. The first term of a sequence is 3, and every term after the first term
is  3 times the preceding term. How many of the first 100 terms of this sequence
are less than 2000?
(A) 52 (B) 57 (C) 53 (D) 58 (E) 30
Solution: C
3, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 = 2187.
All the negative numbers are less than 1000. So we have 50 of them. For positive
numbers we see that 37 = 2187 which is over 2000. So we have 3 of them (3, 33,
and 35). The answer is 50 + 3 = 53.
Example 16. The first term of the sequence is 1 and the second term is 5, and
each term after the second is 5 times the preceding term. Which of the following
expressions represents the nth term of the sequence?
(A) 5n (B) 5n1 (C) n2 (D) (n – 5)2 (E) 5n.
Solution: B.
We see the pattern: 50, 51, 52, 53, …, 5n - 1.
59
Example 17. Set A consists of the numbers in the arithmetic sequence 15, 24, 33,
. . . , and set B consist of the numbers in the arithmetic sequence 21, 27, 33, . . . .
What is the sum of the three smallest numbers common to both sets?
(A) 152 (B) 157 (C) 151 (D) 153 (E) 133
Solution: D.
The common difference of the first sequence is 9 and the second is 6. LCM (6, 9)
= 18. Therefore the numbers common to both sets have the difference of 18. The
sum of the five numbers is 33 + (33 + 18) + (33 + 2  18) = 153.
Example 18. The arithmetic sequences 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, . . . and 1, 8, 15,
22, 29, . . . have infinitely many terms in common. Calculate the sum of the first
three common terms.
(A) 171 (B) 175 (C) 177 (D) 178 (E) 170
Solution: A.
The common difference of the first sequence is 4 and the second is 7. LCM (4,7)
= 28. Therefore the numbers common to both sets have the difference of 28. The
sum of the five numbers is 29 + (29 + 28) + (29 + 2  28) = 171.
Example 19. If the blanks are replaced with three numbers to create an arithmetic
sequence, what is the sum of these three numbers? 18, ——, —— , ——, 54.
(A) 102 (B) 104 (C) 106 (D) 108 (E) 110
Solution: D.
Let the three numbers be x , y, and z. in order from the smallest to the greatest.
18  54 xz
By the definition of arithmetic sequence, we have  36  y  
2 2
x  y  2y
So x  y  z  3 y  3  36  108
Example 20. The third term of an arithmetic sequence is 15 and the fifth term is
23. What is the first term?
(A) 2 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 8 (E) 10
60
Solution: C.
By the formula an  a1  (n  1)d , we have
15  a1  (3  1)d  15  a1  2d  30  2a1  4d (1)
23  a1  (5  1)d  23  a1  4d (2)
(1) – (2): a1  7 .
Example 21. In an arithmetic sequence the 113th term is 786 and the 125th term is
870. Find the 150th term.
(A) 1024 (B) 1045 (C) 1053 (D) 1058 (E) 1030
Solution: B.
a a a a a a 870  786 a150  786
d  m n = 125 113  150 113   
mn 125  113 150  113 12 37
84
a150   37  786  1045 .
12
Example 22. In an arithmetic sequence an, the sum of first n terms is S n . If S3 =

6, a1 = 4, find the common difference d.
5
(A)1 (B) (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) 5
3
Solution: C.
Method 1:
S 3 S1 6 a1 6 4
  
d
By formula (2.1.3), we have:  3 1  3 1  3 1  1  d = – 2.
2 3 1 2 2
Method 2:
(a1  a3 )  3
We calculate S3  6   a1  a3  4 .
2
Since a1 = 4, a3 = 0.
a3  a1 0  4
By the formula (2.1.2), we have: d    2 .
3 1 2
61
Example 23. In an arithmetic sequence an, a3 = 6, and a6 = 0. Find an in terms

of n.
(A) 2n – 12 (B) 2n – 8 (C) 10 – 2n (D) n – 12 (E) 2n + 12
Solution: A.
Let the common difference of the arithmetic sequence be d.
We are given that a3 = 6, and a6 = 0.
a  2d  6
1
.
Therefore a  5d  0
 1
Solving we get a1  10, d  2 .
an  10  (n  1)  2  2n  12 .
Example 24. In geometric sequence {an}, if a3a4a5  8 , find a1a3a4a5a7 .

(A) 24 (B) 26 (C) 32 (D) 58 (E) 30
Solution: C.
By (2.4.3), we have a3a5  a42 .
a3a4a5  a43  8 .
So a4  2 .
By (2.4.5), a1a7  a42 . Therefore a1a3a4a5a7  a45  32.
Example 25. Each new triangle shown below has one more dot per side than the
previous triangle. What
is the total number of
dots on the triangle
with 358 dots per side?
(A) 1024 (B) 1045 (C) 1053 (D) 1058 (E) 1071
Solution: E.
We see the pattern:
3 + 21 + 1 4 + 22 + 1 5 + 32 + 1
62
The formula is (n + 2) + 2n + 1 = 3(n + 1).

The total number of dots on the triangle with 358 dots per side is 3(358 + 1) =
1077.
Example 26. Seventeen consecutive positive integers have a sum of 306. What is
the sum of the seventeen consecutive positive integers that are following the
previous mentioned seventeen positive integers?
(A) 565 (B) 575 (C) 585 (D) 595 (E) 47
Solution: D.
Method 1:
By the formula (2.1.3),
S34 S17

1 34 17 17 S34 S17
     172  S34  2S17 
2 34  17 2 34 17
S34  S17  172  S17  595 .
Method 2:
S (a1  a17 ) 306
We know that a9     18 .
n 2 17
Since these positive integers are consecutive, a18  a9  9  18  9  27 and
a34  43 . The sum is 595.
Example 27. In an arithmetic sequence an, the sum of first n terms is S n . If

S9  72 , then a2  a4  a9 =?
(A) 24 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 28 (E) 30
Solution: A.
We have S9  72
 S9  9a5 , and a5  8 .
 a2  a4  a9  (a2  a9 )  a4  (a5  a6 )  a4  3a5  24 .
63
4. PROBLEMS
Problem 1. The first term in the sequence 5, 19, 61, 187, . . . is 5, and each term
after the first is determined by multiplying the preceding term by m and then
adding p. What is the value of m?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 (E) 9
Problem 2. The first term of sequence P: 3, 9, 27, . . .is 3, and each term after the
first is 3 times the preceding term. The first term of sequence T: 100, 200, 300, . .
. is 100, and each term after the first is 100 more than the preceding term. What is
the least value of n such that the nth term of sequence P is greater than the nth
term of sequence T?
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9 (E) 10
Problem 3. In the sequence 7, a, b, , . . . , the first term is 7 and the second term is
a. Each term after the second is the product of the two immediately preceding
terms. If a < 0, what is the 11th term of the sequence?
(A) 724 (B) 721 (C) 7 (D) – 7 (E) 745
Problem 4. How many integers belong to the arithmetic sequence 93, 103, 113, . .
. , 1463?
(A) 93 (B) 138 (C) 94 (D) 137 (E) 139
Problem 5. What is the tenth number in the arithmetic sequence 3, x, 11, . . .?

(A) 100 (B) 101 (C) 20 (D) 38 (E) 39
Problem 6. The first three terms of an arithmetic sequence are x – 1, x + 1 and 2x

+ 3. What is the value of x?
(A) 0 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 5 (E) 3
Problem 7. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 15, and the seventh term is
57. What is the third term of the sequence?
(A) 87 (B) 29 (C) 24 (D) 45 (E) 36
Problem 8. For what value of x does 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + . . . + x = 120?

(A) 14 (B) 15 (C) 16 (D) 12 (E) 10
64
Problem 9. The arithmetic sequences 1, 4, 7, 10, . . . , and 2, 10, 18, 26, . . . , each
contain 100 terms. How many numbers are common to both sequences?
(A) 15 (B) 14 (C) 13 (D) 100 (E) 99
Problem 10. The sum of consecutive even integers 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + m = 2550.

What is the value of m?
(A) 10 (B) 102 (C) 100 (D) 50 (E) 51
Problem 11. How many different arithmetic sequences are there with all of the
following properties:
a) the first term is 119, b) the last term is 179,
c) the common difference is a whole number, and
d) the total number of terms is at least three?
(A) 11 (B) 12 (C) 14 (D) 16 (E) 10
Problem 12. What is the 4th number in this geometric progression?

108, – 36, 12, —
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C)  4 (D) 6 (E) 6
Problem 13. This sequence is generated using the rule where each term is the
sum of the two preceding terms. Find the second term.
5, — , — , — , — , — , 9
(A) 2 (B) – 2 (C) 6 (D) 7 (E) – 12
Problem 14. What is the 101st term of the sequence 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . . , in which

each positive integer n occurs in blocks of n terms?
(A) 12 (B) 13 (C) 15 (D) 14 (E) 16
Problem 15. In the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . , each term is twice the term

immediately before it. What is the eleventh term?
(A) 2048 (B) 1024 (C) 512 (D) 256 (E) 64
Problem 16. Each term in a sequence of whole numbers is one more than the
square of the previous term Given that the fourth term is 26, what is the sum of
the third and fifth terms?
(A) 615 (B) 616 (C) 649 (D) 684 (E) 682
65
Problem 17. In a sequence, each term is obtained by calculating the sum of the
preceding two terms. The eighth term is 81, and the sixth term is 31. What is the
fourth term?
(A) 12 (B) 19 (C) 31 (D) 50 (E) 76
Problem 18. How many squares are needed to build the 10th shape in the pattern?
(A) 12 (B) 28 (C) 18 (D) 72 (E) 60
Problem 19. In an arithmetic sequence an, if a3 + a4 + a5 = 12，then a1 + a2

+…+ a7 =
(A) 14 (B) 21 (C) 28 (D) 35 (E) 24
Problem 20. In an arithmetic sequence an, if the sum of first n terms is Sn  n2 ,

find a8 .
(A) 15 (B) 16 (C) 49 (D) 64 (E) 60
Problem 21. In an arithmetic sequence an, a5 = 9,

a19 = 19, and 211  3 is the nth term. Find n.
(A) 1023 (B) 1024 (C) 1025 (D) 1064 (E) 1060
Problem 22. In an arithmetic sequence an, first term a1 and the common
difference d are real numbers. The sum of first n terms is Sn. If S5 S6 + 15 = 0 and
S5 = 5, find the sum of S 6 and a1.
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 6 (E) 7
Problem 23. The first three terms of a geometric progression are 2 , 3 2 , 6 2 .

The fourth term is
(A) 1 (B) 7 2 (C) 8 2 (D) 9 2 (E) 10 2
66
5. SOLUTIONS
5m + p = 19 (1)
19m + p = 61 (2)
(2) – (1): 14m = 42  m = 3.
Sequence P: 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729
Sequence T: 100, 200, 300 400 500 600
7a = b (1)
ab = 7 (2)
(1)  (2): b2 = 72.
Since a < 0, and 7a = b, b < 0. Therefore b = – 7 and a = –1.
The terms are 7, –1, – 7, 7, – 72, – 73, 75, – 78, – 713, 721. – 724.
an  a1  (n  1)d  1463  93  (n  1) 10  n  138
x  3  1 x  x7  d 4  a10  3  (10  1)  4  39 .
( x  1)  (2 x  3)
 x 1  x0.
2
By the formula an  a1  (n  1)d , we have
a3  15  (3  1)d  a3  15  2d  3a3  45  6d (1)
57  15  (7  1)d  57  15  6d (2)
(1) – (2): 3a3  57  45  15  3a3  87  a3  29 .
67
x( x  1)
By the sum formula, we have  120  x( x  1)  240 .
2
Since x and x + 1 are consecutive integers, we have x( x  1)  240  1516 . So x is
15.
By the formula an  a1  (n  1)d , we have a100  1  (100  1)  3  298 and
b100  2  (100  1)  8  794 .
We know that LCM (3, 8) = 24.
The number of terms in common to both sequences is n and 298  10  (n  1)  24
 n  13 .
Note we do not need to look at the second sequence because its last term is much
bigger.

2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + m = 2550 becomes 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = 2550/2. Where n =
m/2.
n(n  1) 2550
By the sum formula, we have   n(n  1)  2550.
2 2
Since n and n + 1 are consecutive integers, we have n(n  1)  2550  50  51 . So n
is 50 and m is 100.

By the formula an  a1  (n  1)d , we have 179  119  (n  1)d  (n  1)d  60
We know that 60 = 22  3  5 has (2 + 1)(1 + 1)(1 + 1) =12 factors including 1.
Since n – 1  2, so n – 1 can be any one of the 12 – 1 = 11 factors.

 36 x
Let x be the 4th number.   x = – 4.
108 12

Let the numbers be 5, a, b, c, d, e, 9.
b = a + 5; c = 2a + 5; d = 3a + 10; e = 5a + 15.
Thus 9 = d + e = 3a + 10 + 5a + 15  8a = 9 – 25  a = – 2.
68

The number of terms is 1 + 2 + 3 + …+ n which is close to 101.
n(n  1)
By the sum formula, we have  101  n(n  1)  202 .
2
14(14  1)
We use the calculator to find: 202  14 . When n = 14,  105 , which
2
means that we have 4 more 14 to go until we count a 15. So the answer is 14.

We see the pattern that
1 2 4 8 16…
0 1 2 3
2 2 2 2 24
Therefore the eleventh term is 210 = 1024.

Let the first number be x. The second number will be x2 + 1. The third number
will be (x2 + 1)2 + 1. Thus ((x2 + 1)2 + 1)2 + 1= 26  ((x2 + 1)2 + 1)2 = 25
(x2 + 1)2 + 1 = 5  (x2 + 1)2 = 4  x2 + 1 = 2  x2 = 1.
So x = 1.
The sum of the third and fifth terms is (x2 + 1)2 + 1 + 262 + 1 = 682.

Let the fourth term be x, the fifth term be y, and the seventh term be z.
We have: 31 + z = 81. So z = 50. We also have y + 31 = z. So y = 19. Since x + y
= 31, x = 12.

We see the pattern:
,….
1+30 1 + 31 1+ 32,…
The 10th shape will need 1 + 9  3 = 28 squares.

Since a3  a4  a5  12 ，then a4  4 .
69
1
a1  a2   a7   7  (a1  a7 )  7a4  28
2

We know that an  S n  S n 1 (n  2). Therefore a8  S8  S7  64  49  15 .

We have a5  a1  4d  9 and a10  a1  9d  19 .
Therefore a1  1, d = 2. an  a1  (n  1)d  2n  1 .
We know that 211  3  2(210  1)  1 .
Therefore n  210  1 = 1024 – 1 = 1023.

15
S6    3 . a6  S6  S5  8 .
S5
Therefore we have
5a1  10d  5
a1  5d  8
Solving we get a1  7 . Therefore a1  7 and S6  3 . The answer is 7  3 = 4.

Method 1 (official solution):
In a geometric progression, each term is r times the preceding one. So in this case,
r  21 / 3 / 21 / 2  21 / 31 / 2  21 / 6. Thus, the fourth term is r  21 / 6  21 / 621 / 6  20  1.
Method 2:
Let the fourth term be x. If m + n = p + q, am  an  a p  aq , we have:
3
2 6 2 2
x 2 = 3
2  6
2  x   1.
2 2
Method 3:
Let the fourth term be x. By (2.4.1), we have:
3
2 x 3
2 6 2 2
x 2 = 3
2  6
2  6  x  1.
2 2 2 2
70
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 22 Functions
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF FUNCTIONS
Definition
A function is a relationship between the independent variable x and dependent

variable y. Each value of x is corresponding to exactly one value of y.
Note that two different values of x can have the same value of y, but one value of
x cannot have two different values of y.
For example, the price of fruits in a store is a function of fruit kind. One pound of
apple (x1) and one pound of orange (x2) can have the same price $1.99 per pound
(y). However, one pound of apple (x) cannot have two different prices at the same
time (one price tag says $1.99 per pound (y1) and price tag says $0.99 per pound
(y2).
Example 1. Which of these relations cannot be functions?

(A) g(x) ={(9, 3), (2, 4)} (B) f(x) = {(5, 6), (3, 6)} (C) 2x + 5y = 10
(D) {(1, 2), (2, 4)} (E) h(x) = {(3, 4), (3, 9)}
Solution: E.
A B C D E
x (9), (2) (5), (3) (0), (5) (1), (2) (3), (3)
y (3), (4) (3), (6) (2), (0) (2), (4) (4), (9)
We see that h(x) is not a function because one value of x has two different values
of y.
Example 2. Find the value of m, expressed as a common fraction, so that this

relation is not a function. {  2m  1,4,  6m  8,0 }.
7 7 2 4 8
A. B. C. D. E.
8 4 7 7 7
71
Solution: B.
7
When  2m  1  6m  8 , or 6m  2m  8  1 or m  , this relation is not a
4
function.
Example 3. The relations, f , g , and h have the following properties:

f :1  2
f : 2 1
g :1  2
g :1  3
h : 4 1
h : 3 1
m:4 7
m:5 7
Which of these relations cannot be functions?
A. f B. g C. h D. m E. all of them
Solution: B.
We see that g is not a function because one value of x has two different values of
y.
 x, x 1

Example 4. Let f ( x)   x  1, 1  x  3 . Then f(0) + f(2) + f(4) is equal to
 x  3, x  3

A. 0 B. 9 C.10 D. 21 E. None of these
Solution: C.
f(0) = 0.
f(2) = 2 + 1 = 3.
f(4) = 4 + 3 = 7.
f(0) + f(2) + f(4) = 0 + 3 + 7 = 10.
72
Example 5. If f (1) = 2 and f (n + 1) = (f (n))2, what is the value of f (4) ?

A. 4. B. 16. C. 64. D. 256. E. 65,536.
Solution: D.
f(2) = f(1 + 1) = (f(1))2 = 4 and f(3) = f(2 + 1) = ( f(2))2 =16 , and f(4) = f(3 + 1) =
(f(3))2 = 162 = 256.
2. BASIC FUNCTIONS
2.1. Linear function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight

line.
y  mx  b , where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept .
Example 6. A formula that relates the temperature Celsius to the temperature

9
Fahrenheit is F   C  32. If the temperature is 140 0 F , want is the equivalent
5
temperature Celsius?
A. 64 B. 40 C. 64 D. 60 E. 63
Solution: D.
9 5( F  32)
F   C  32  C .
5 9
5  (140  32)
When the temperature is 140 0 F , C  = 60.
9
Example 7. If f 1  5, f 2  8 and f x   ax  b, what is the value of f 3?

A. 10 B. 16 C. 18 D. 15 E. 11.
Solution: E.
73
From f x   ax  b,
f 1  a  b = 5 (1)
f 2  2a  b = 8 (2)
(2) – (1): a = 3. So b = 2.
f x   ax  b  f  x   3x  2 .
Thus f 3  3  3  2  11
Example 8. If f x   2 x  3, find f 4.

A. 10 B. 16 C. 8 D. 11 E. 5.
Solution: D.
f x   2 x  3  f 4  2  4  3  11.
Example 9. If f x   2 x  1 and g x   3x  5, find f g 2 .

A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 5.
Solution: D.
g 2  3  2  5  1 .
f g 2 = f 1  2  1  1  3 .
Example 10. g x  is a linear function such that g 0  5 and g 1  11. Find the
value of g 2.5.
A. 10 B. 15 C. 20 D. 21 E. 16.
Solution: C.
Let g x   ax  b .
Since g 0  5 , g 0  a  0  b  5  b  5.
Since g 1  11. , g 1  a  1  b  11  a  6.
So g x   ax  b  6 x  5 and g 2.5 = 6  2.5  5  20 .
74
Example 11. The function f is linear and satisfies f d  1  f d   3 for all real
numbers d . What is f 3  f 5 ?
A. −6 B. −15 C. 10 D. 21 E. 16.
Solution: A.
Let f x   ax  b .
f d   ad  b (1)
f d  1  a(d  1)  b (2)
(2) – (1): f d  1  f d   3 or a(d  1)  b − ( ad  b ) = 3  a  3.
So f x   3x  b .
f 3  f 5  3  3  b  (3  5  b)  9  15  6 .
2.2. Quadratic functions
(a) The Quadratic Function
The following function is called the quadratic function:

y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c (2.1)
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a  0.
2
 b  4ac  b 2
y = f ( x )  a x    (2.2)
 2a  4a
(b). Vertices
b 4ac  b 2
h , and k  (2.3)
2a 4a
(a > 0, ymin = k) (a < 0, ymax = k)
75
Example 12. Find the general expression of a quadratic function that passes
through (0, 3) and (8, 3).
A. f(x) = ax2  8x + 3 B. f(x) = a(x2  8x) + 3 C. f(x) = a(x2  8x + 3)
D. f(x) = x2  ax + 3 E. none of these
Solution: B.
Initially, let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. f(0) = c = 3. f(8) = 64a + 8b + c = 3
64a + 8b = 0  b = 8a.
f(x) = ax + (8a)x + 3 = a(x2  8x) + 3.
2
Example 13. Each spring a 12 meter × 12 meter rectangular garden has its length
increased by 2 meters but its width decreased by 50 centimeters. What will be the
maximum attainable area of the garden?
A. 144 m2 B. 176 m2 C. 189 m2 D. 200 m2 E. 225 m2
Solution: E.
The area will be (12 + 2x)(12 − 0.5x) = 144 + 24x – 6x − x2 = 144 + 18x − x2 ,
where x is the number of years. This quadratic expression has a maximum at its
vertex, which occurs when x = −b/a = −18/(−2) = 9. The area when x = 9 is 144
+18(9) − 92 = 225.
Example 14. 14. If f ( x)  x 2  1, and g ( x)  2 x, find f (g (2)).

A. 11 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Solution: E.
g (2)  2  2  4
f ( g (2))  42  1  15 .
Example 15. f ( x)  ( x  3) 2 . If f ( x)  16 and x is negative, what is the value of

x?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
Solution: A.
( x  3)2  16  x  3  4 or x  3  4 . So x  1 is the answer.
76
Example 16. If f x   3x 2  1, how much larger than f 3 is f 4?

A. 21 B. 22 C. 23 D. 24 E. 25
Solution: A.
f 4  f 3 = 3  42  1 − ( 3  32  1 ) = 21.
Example 17. If {x, hx  : x is an integer and hx   x 2  2 x  3 }, find x so that

hx  is as small as possible.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. – 1 E. – 2.
Solution: A.
hx   x 2  2 x  3  x 2  2 x  1  2  ( x  1)2  2 .
We know that we can get the smallest value of h when (x – 1)2 = 0. So x = 1.
Example 18. If f x   3x 2  2 x  k find the value(s) of k which f 2  6.

A. 10 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Solution: A.
f 2  3  22  2  2  k  6  k  10
Example 19. If f x   3x 2  1, find f 2.

A. 11 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Solution: A.
f 2  3  22  1  12  1  11 .
Example 20. The function f x  is defined as f x   x 2  x . For how many

values of x will f x   x ?
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
77
Solution: B.
f x   x  x2  x  x  x2  2x  0  x( x  2)  0 .
So x = 0 or x = 2. The answer is B.
2.3. Floor functions
Definition:
y  x
(i). x  is an integer. (ii). x   x , and (iii). x  x  1 .
x  is called the floor function. Whenever we see this notation, we take the
greatest integer value not greater than x. It is also called Gaussian Function since
it was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1808 (using the square bracket
notation [x]).
The expressions x  and [x] are the same.
Example 21. Find the values of the following expressions:

(a) 3.14 . (b) 4.5 . (c)  0.5 .
Solution:
(a) 3.14  3 (b) 4.5 = 4 (c)  0.5  1 (not 0).
Example 22. How many positive integers from 992 to 1992 are multiples of 7?
A. 284 B. 143 C. 142 D. 141 E. 140.
Solution: D.
1992   991
 7   284 and  7   141 .
78
There are 284 – 141 =143 positive integers from 992 to 1992 that are the
multiples of 7.
Example 23. In the prime factorization of 100!, what is the power of 3?

A. 33 B. 44 C. 47 D. 48 E. 100.
Solution: D.
100  100  100  100 
     33  11  3  1  48 .
 3     3     3     3 
1 2 3 4

Note that this question is solved in the same as finding how many zeros 100! ends
in base 6 systems.
Example 24. f ( x)  [ x] where "[x]" is “the greatest integer less than or equal to
 1
1  
x ”, find the value of  3  .
 1  1
2 
A. 3 B. 4 C. 2 D. – 3 E. – 2.
Solution: D.
 1  4 
1  3   3   8   2
 1    1       2    3
  1     3   3
2   2
Example 25. The greatest integer function of x is expressed as x , and is

defined to be the greatest integer less than or equal to x. Find [   4 ].
A. 1 B. 3 C. 2 D. – 3 E. – 1.
Solution: E.
[   4 ] = [  ] – 4 = 3 – 4 = – 1.
79
2.4. Other nonlinear functions
Example 26. If f ( x)  4 x 3  3x 2  x  10, find f (2).

A. 11 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Solution: B.
f (2)  4  23  3  22  2  10  32  12  2  10  12 .
Example 27. If f x   5x 4  4 x 3  3x 2  2 x  1, find f  1.

A. 11 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Solution: E.
f  1  5  (1)4  4  (1)3  3  (1)2  2  (1)  1  5  4  3  2  1  15 .
3x 2  2 x  1 f 1  f 0
Example 28. Given f x   , find .
2x  3 f 2
5 3 7 22
A.  B.  C. 2 D. E.
27 7 3 7
Solution: A.
0  0 1 1 3  2 1 12  4  1
f 0    , f 1   2 , and f 2   9.
03 3 23 43
1 5
 2  ( ) 
f 1  f 0 3  3  5 .

f 2 9 9 27
2.5. Functional functions
Functional Equations: Equations containing unknown functions.
80
2
Example 29. If f (2 x)  for all x > 0, then 2f(x) =
2 x
2 2 4 4 8
A. B. C. D. E.
1 x 2 x 1 x 2 x 4 x
Solution: E.
X
Let X = 2x  x
2
2 2 2 4 4
f (2 x)   f (X )     f ( x)  .
2 x X 4 X 4 X 4 x
2 
2 2 2
4 8
2f(x) = 2 ×  .
4 x 4 x
Example 30. If f (n  1)  2 f (n)  1 for every natural number n and f (1)  3,

find f (11).
A. 4096 B. 5050 C. 4095 D. 4085 E. 4079.
Solution: C.
If n = 1, f (1  1)  2 f (1)  1  2  3  1  7 .
If n = 2, f (2  1)  2 f (2)  1  2  7  1  15 .
If n = 3, f (3  1)  2 f (3)  1  2 15  1  31 .
If n = 4, f (4  1)  2 f (4)  1  2  31  1  63 .
If n = 5, f (5  1)  2 f (4)  1  2  63  1  127 .
If n = 6, f (6  1)  2 f (6)  1  2 127  1  255 .
If n = 7, f (7  1)  2 f (7)  1  2  255  1  511 .
f(9) = 2 × 511 + 1 = 1023, f(10) = 2 × 1023 + 1 = 2047,
f(11) = 2 × 2047 + 1 = 4095.
81
n
Example 31. If f n  2  for all positive integers n and f (2)  1, find
f ( n)
f (8).
A. 1 B. 3 C. 2 D. 4 E. 7.
Solution: B.
2
If n = 2, f 2  2   2.
f (2)
4
If n = 4, f 4  2   2.
f (4)
6
If n = 6, f 6  2   3.
f (6)
Example 32. The function f x  is called a nested function, and is defined as:
x  2 for x  5
f x   
 x  f  f x  3 for x  5
Find f 1.
A. 1 B. 3 C. 2 D. 4 E. 5.
Solution: A.
f 6  6  2  4
f 7  7  2  5
f 8  8  2  6
f 5  5  f  f 5  3  5  f(f (8))  5  f (6)  5  4  1
f 4  4  f  f 4  3  4  f(f (7))  4  f (5)  4  1  3
f 3  3  f  f 3  3  3  f(f (6))  3  f (4)  3  3  0
f 2  2  f  f 2  3  2  f(f (5))  2  f (1) (1)
f 1  1  f  f 1  3  1  f(f (4))  1  f (3)  1  0  1 (2)
The answer is 1.
82
Example 33. A function is defined by f 0  1 and f n  f n  1  n  1.

Find f 5.
A. 25 B. 24 C. 12 D. 21 E. 23.
Solution: D.
f 1  f 1  1  1  1  1  1  1  3
f 2  f 2  1  2  1  3  2  1  6
f 3  f 3  1  3  1  6  3  1  10
f 4  f 4  1  4  1  10  4  1  15
f 5  f 5  1  5  1  15  5  1  21.
Example 34. The function f x  is defined as :

 x  2 for x  5,
f x   
 x  1 for x  5
Find f 3  f 5  7.
A. 25 B. 24 C. 12 D. 21 E. 23.
Solution: C.
f 3  f 5  7  (3  2)  (5  2)  (7  1)  12 .
83
3. PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Which of these relations cannot be functions?

(A) g(x) ={(2, 3) , (2, 4)} (B) f(x) = {(5, 8) , (3, 8)} (C) 3x + 5y = 15
(D) {(1, 3), (2, 5)} (E) h(x) = {(3, 4), (5, 9)}
Problem 2. Find the value of m, expressed as a common fraction, so that this

relation is not a function. {  n  2,3,  4n  3,8 }.
1 1 2
A. 3 B. C. D. 1 E.
3 5 3
Problem 3. Give the letter corresponding to the relations given which is not
functions.
x
a) f (x)   
3
b) g: x  2 x  1
c) { ( x, g ( x)) : g ( x)  3 }
d) {(0,0),(1,0),(2,0),(3,0)}
e) {(0,0),(0,1),(0,2),(0,3)}
A. a) B. b) C. c) D. d) E. e)
Problem 4. If f(x2) = 4  x  f(x + 2) + 3, what is the value of f(4)?

3 7 22
A. 1 B.  C. 2 D. E.
7 3 7
Problem 5. Let g(x) = x2 + b·x + c and g(2) = –6. Determine g(5).

A. –15 B. 2c – 9 C. –1.5c D. 2.5c – 10 E. –4c
9
Problem 6. The formula F  C  32 is used to convert temperatures from
5
degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Fahrenheit (F). What is the number of degrees in
the Fahrenheit equivalent to 20 0 C ?
A. 40. B. 16. C. 68 D. 56 E. 65.
84
Problem 7. If f is a constant function, find f (2) if f(1) = 6.

A. 1 B. 6 C. 8 D. 5 E. 2.
Problem 8. If f x   3x  1 find f 7 .
A. 10 B. 16 C. 18 D. 20 E. 22.
Problem 9. If f x   5x  2 and gx   2 x  5, find f g 3.

A. 10 B. 9 C. 8 D. 7 E. 6.
Problem 10. g is a linear function with g 5  0 and g 0  10. Find g 10 .
A. −10 B. −15 C. 10 D. 21 E. 16.
Problem 11. Given that f is a linear function where f 0  20 and f 4  0,
what is the value of f 10 ?
A. − 70 B. −30 C. 30 D. 20 E. 10.
Problem 12. Find the vertex of a quadratic function that has a for the x2
coefficient and x intercepts: (2, 0) and (10, 0).
A. (6, 16a) B. (6, a) C. (a, 0) D. (6/a, 16) E. none of these
Problem 13. If the vertex of the graph of y = x2 + 4x  7 is (h, k), then what is h
+ k?
A. 11 B. 12 C. 13 D. 14 E. 15
Problem 14. If f ( x)  (2 x  3) 2 and g ( x)  x  5, for what value(s) of x does

g ( f ( x))  8 ?
A.  8 B. 5 C. – 5 D. (5, −8) E. (5, 8)
Problem 15. If k x   x  1 and g  y   y  1 , find k 4  g 4.
2 2
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
Problem 16. If g x   13x 2  9 x and hx   13x 2  8x  2 , find the value of

h4  g 4.
85
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
Problem 17. For what value(s) of x does the function f x   2 x  5 take on

2
its minimum value? Express your answer as a decimal.

A. 2 B. 5 C. 2.5 D. 5.2 E. – 2.5.
Problem 18. If k x   5x 2 find k  1.

A. 2 B. 5 C. 2 D. 25 E. – 5.
Problem 19. If f x   3x 2  x and g x   f x   2, find g 1.

A. 6 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
Problem 20. Find the values of the following expressions:

(a) 2.71 . (b) 4.1 . (c)  0.7 .
Problem 21. How many positive integers from 1 to 500 are the multiples of 8?
A. 61 B. 62 C. 63 D. 64 E. 65.
Problem 22. How many zeros does 238! end in?

A. 47 B. 56 C. 57 D. 58 E. 59.
Problem 23. f( x)  x  x for all x such that 2  x  2. Find all values of x for
1
which f x    . ( x  is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.)
2
A. (1, 1) B. (1.5, 0.5) C. (1.5, 0.5) D. (1.5,  0.5) E. (1.5, 0.5).
Problem 24. If f x   x where x  means “the greatest integer less than or
 
equal to x, ” find f 3 2 .
A. 4 B. 5 C. 7 D. 8 E. 3.
Problem 25. If k x   x  1x  3x  2, find k 4 .
86
A. 47 B. 74 C. 72 D. 70 E. 79.
Problem 26. If f x   8x 3  6 x 2  4 x  5, find the value of f  2 .

A. 71 B. 73 C. 72 D. – 73 E. – 75.
x 2  2x  1 f 2
Problem 27. Give f x   , find .
x 1
2
f 0
A. 1 B. 3 C. 2 D. – 3 E. – 1.
 x  3
Problem 28. If f    x, find f (x).
 2 
A. f(x) = x  8 B. f(x) = 2x + 3 C. f(x) =  2x + 3
D. f(x) =  2x  3 E. f ( x)  2 x  3
Problem 29. Given f (n  2)  3 f (n)  4 and f 0  2, find the value of f (6).
A. 109 B. 105 C. 106 D. 104 E. 107.
Problem 30. A function is defined by f 0  0 and f n  f n  1  2n, for n >
0. Find f 4.
A. 10 B. 30 C. 20 D. 40 E. 70.
Problem 31. What is f  f  f 3?

n 2 , if n is even;
f n   
n  1, if n is odd.
A. 256 B. 1024 C. 512 D. 257 E. 513.
Problem 32. The function f n  (1  2      n)  2n so that f 2  7 and

f 3  12. Find f 53 .
A. 1532 B. 1535 C. 1537 D. 1521 E. 1523.
87
Problem 33. The function f n x  is the n th digit to the right of the decimal point
1
in the decimal representation of x . For example, f 2 ( )  f 2 (0.142857)  4 .
7
5 2
Find f5 (  ) .
9 3
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2 E. 1.
3h( x)  4
Problem 34. (2001 NC Algebra II ) Let h( x  1)  for positive integer
3
2
value x and , h(1)   , find h(3) .
3
A. 1 B. 0 C. 5 D. 2 E. 6
Problem 35. (2003 NC Algebra II ) If f(x) = f(x − 2) + x, and f (7) =11, find f (5).
A. 10 B. 8 C. 6 D. 8 E. 4
Problem 36. If f (x) =(x + 5)2 + 8, then what is the sum of the values of x for
which f (x) = 12?
A. 10. B. 7. C. 10. D. 20. E. 297.
Problem 37. Let the function f be defined by f(x) = x2 + 40. If m is a positive

number such that f(2m) = 2f(m) which of the following is true?
A. 0 < m  4 B. 4 < m  8 C. 8 < m 12 D. 12 < m  16 E. 16 < m
Problem 38. Function f satisfies f(x) + 2f(5 − x) = x for all real numbers x. The
value of f(1) is
A. 7/3 B. 3/7 C. 5/2 D. 2/5 E. None of these
Problem 39. Suppose that f(n + 1) = f(n) + f(n −1) for n = 1, 2, … . Given that
f(6) = 2 and f(4) = 8, what is f(3) + f(5)?
A. −18 B. −19 C. −20 D. −21 E. −22
Problem 40. The function A ( x, y) is defined by the following rules:

1) A(0, n)  n  1
88
2) A (m,0)  A(m  1,1)

3) A(m, n)  A(m  1, A(m, n  1))
4) m and n are natural numbers
If A(2,3)  k , where k is a whole number, find the value of k .
A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8 E. 9.
89
4. SOLUTIONS
A B C D E
x (2), (2) (5), (3) (0), (5) (1), (2) (3), (5)
y (3), (4) (8), (8) (5), (0) (3), (5) (4), (9)
We see that g(x) is not a function because one value of x has two different values
of y.
1
When  n  2  4n  3 , or 4n  n  3  2 or n  , this relation is not a function.
3
We see that e) is not a function because one value of x has four different values of
y.
f(22) = 4  2  f(2 + 2) + 3  f(4) = 4  2  f(2 + 2) + 3  f(4) = 4  2  f(4) + 3
 f(4) = −3/7.
g(2) = –6 = (2)2 + b·2 + c  –10 − c = 2b  b = –5 − c/2.
2
g(5) = (5) + b·5 + c = 25 + 5(− 5 − c/2) + c = − 5c/2 + c = –1.5c.
9 9
F   C  32   20  32  68 .
5 5
Since f is a constant function. f (2) = f(1) = 6.
90
f  x   3x  1  f 7  3  7  1  22 .
g3  2  3  5  6  5  1
f g 3 = f 1  5 1  2  7 .

Let g x   ax  b .
Since g 0  10 , g 0  a  0  b  10  b  10 .
b
Since g 5  0 , g 5  a  5  b  0  a    2 .
5
So g x   ax  b  2 x  10 and g 10 =  2 10  10  10 .

Let f x   ax  b .
Since f 0  20 , f 0  a  0  b  20  b  20 .
b
Since f 4  0, f 4  a  4  b  0  a    5 .
4
So g x   ax  b  5x  20 and f 10 =  5 10  20  30 .

Knowing the 2 roots and the constant multiplier, we can say that the form of the
quadratic function is f(x) = a(x  2)(x  10) This expands to ax2  12ax + 20a. The
x-value of the vertex is  b/2a , which is  (12a)/2a = 6. f(6) = 16a, making the
vertex (6, 16a).

b 4ac  b 2
By (3.3), h   , and k  .
2a 4a
91
b 4ac  b 2 4 4  (7)  42
hk      2  11  13 .
2a 4a 2 4

g ( f ( x))  8  (2 x  3)2  5  8  (2 x  3)2  8  5  13
 (2 x  3)2  132 .
So 2 x  3  13 x=5
or 2 x  3  13  x = −8 (ignored since x  0).

k 4  g 4 = 42  1 − ( 42  1 ) = 2.

hx   g x   13x 2  8x  2 − (13x 2  9 x)  2  x
h4  g 4  2  4  2 .

We see that 2 x  5 is a square number. We know that a2  0 for any real
2
number a. Thus f x   2 x  5 take on its minimum value when 2 x  5  0 ,

2 2
or x = 2.5.

k  1  5  (1)2  5 .

g (1)  f 1  2  (3  12  1)  2  6 .
Problem 20. Solution:

(a) 2.71 = 2 (b) 4.1 = 4 (c)  0.7 = – 1.
92

 500 
 8   62.5  62 .

Since in order to end in zero, a number must be divisible by 10 = 5  2, each zero
is the result of the number having a factor of both 5 and 2. Since every other
number is even there are plenty of 2’s as factors, so we need to determine how
many factors of 5 there are.
 238   238   238 
 1    2    3   47  9  1  57
 5  5  5 
There are 57 factors of 5 in 238!, therefore it ends in 57 zeros.

We know that 2  x  2.
1
If x =  0.5, we have x  x     0.5   0.5  1  0.5   1 .
2 2
1
If x =  1.5, we have x  x     1.5   1.5  2  0.5   1 .
2 2

   
f 3 2 = 3 2  3  1.414  4 .

k 4  4  14  3  4  2  (20  3)  4  2  68  2  70 .

f  2  8  (2)3  6  (2)2  4  (2)  5  64  24  8  5  75 .
93
0  0 1
f 0   1
0 1
22  2  2  1 9
f 2    3.
22  1 3
f 2 3
  3 .
f 0  1

x3
Let X   x  2X  3
2
 x  3
f x  f ( X )  2X  3  f ( x)  2 x  3 .
 2 

If n = 0, f (0  2)  3 f (0)  4  3  2  4  10 .
If n = 2, f (2  2)  3 f (2)  4  3 10  4  34 .
If n = 4, f (4  2)  3 f (4)  4  3  34  4  106 .

If n = 1, f 1  f 1  1  2  2 .
If n = 2, f 2  f 2  1  2  2  f (1)  4  2  4  6 .
If n = 3, f 3  f 3  1  2  3  f (2)  6  6  6  12 .
If n = 4, f 4  f 4  1  2  4  f (3)  8  12  8  20 .

f 3  3  1  4
f  f 3  f (4)  42  16
f  f  f 3  f (16)  162  256 .
94
(1  n)n (1  n)n  4n (5  n)n

f n  (1  2      n)  2n   2n   .
2 2 2
(5  n)n (5  53)53
f 53    1537 .
2 2

5 2 11
   1.2 .
9 3 9
5 2
f5 (  ) = 2.
9 3

3h( x)  4 4
h( x  1)   h( x)  , so each term is just four-thirds greater than the
3 3
2 2 4 2 2 4
one before it. So h(1)   , h(2)   +  , and h(3)    2 .
3 3 3 3 3 3

Since f(x) = f(x − 2) + x, f (7) = f (5) + 7 ⇒ 11 = f (5) + 7 ⇒ f (5) = 4.

12 = (x + 5)2 + 8  4= (x+5)2  ±2 = (x + 5), so x = −3 or x =
−7 .
So −3 + (−7) = −10.

Note that f(2m) = (2m)2 + 40 = 4m2 + 40 and 2f(m) = 2(m2 + 40) = 2m2 + 80. It
follows that 2m2 = 40, so 4 < m  8.

We know that f(x) + 2f(5 − x) = x.
f(1) + 2f(5 − 1) = 1 (1)
f(4) + 2f(5 − 4) = 4 (2)
(2)  2 – (1): 3f(1) = 7  f(1) = 7/3.
95

f(6) = f(5) + f(4) = f(4) + f(3) + f(3) + f(2) = 5f(2) +3 f(1) = 2 (1)
f(4) = f(3) + f(2) = f(2) + f(1) + f(2) = 2 f(2) + f(1) = 8 (2)
(2)  3 – (1): f(2) = 22. Thus f(1) = 8 – 44 = – 36.
f(3) + f(5) = f(2) + f(1) + f(4) + f(3) = f(2) + f(1) + f(3) + f(2) + f(2) + f(1)
= 4f(2) + 3f(1) = 4  22 + 3  (– 36) = – 20.

A(2,3)  A(2  1, A(2,3  1))  A(1, A(2,2)) (1)
A(2,2)  A(2  1, A(2,2  1))  A(1, A(2,1)) (2)
A(2,1)  A(2  1, A(2,1  1))  A(1, A(2,0)) (3)
A (2,0)  A(2  1,1)  A(1,1) . (4)
A(1,1)  A(1  1, A(1,1  1))  A(0, A(1,0)) (5)
A (1,0)  A(1  1,1)  A(0,1)
A(0,1)  1  1  2 .
Substituting the value for A(0,1) into (5): A(1,1)  A(0,2)  2  1  3
So we know that A(2, 0) = A(1, 1) = 3
Substituting the value for A(2,0) into (3): A(2,1)  A(1,3)  A(0, A(1,2)) (6)
A(1,2)  A(1  1, A(1,2  1))  A(0, A(1,1))  A(1,1)  1  3  1  4
So A(2,1)  A(1,3)  A(0, A(1,2))  A(0,4)  4  1  5 .
Substituting the value for A(2,1) into (2):
A(2,2)  A(1,5)  A(1  1, A(1,5  1))  A(0, A(1,4))
A(1,4)  A(1  1, A(1,4  1))  A(0, A(1,3))  A(1,3)  1
 A(0, A(1,2))  1  A(0,4)  1  6.
So A(2,2)  A(0, A(1,4))  A(0,6)  6  1  7 .
Therefore A(2,3)  A(1, A(2,2))  A(1,7)  A(1  1, A(1,7  1))  A(0, A(1,6))
= A(1,6)  1 .
Here A(1,6)  A(1  1, A(1,6  1))  A(0, A(1,5))  A(1,5)  1  A(0, A(1,4))  1
= A(1,4)  1  1  A(1,4)  2  6  2  8 .
So A(2,3)  A(1,6)  1  8  1  9 .
96
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 23 Pythagorean Theorem
1. PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
(For right triangles only): a2 + b2 = c2 (1.1)

(a and b are two legs. c is the hypotenuse).
Proof:
Method 1: (Chinese way):
Arrange four congruent right triangles to form a square as show
in the figure.
1
The area of the four triangles is a  b  4  2ab (1)
2
The area of the smaller square is (b  a)2  b2  2ab  a 2 (2)
The area of the large square is c2 (3)
(3) = (1) + (2)
1
c2 = a  b  4  (b  a) 2  2ab  b2  2ab  a 2  c 2  a 2  b2
2
Method 2: (U.S. President Garfield’s way):

Arrange two congruent right triangles as show in the figure.
Connect PQ. Quadrilateral ABQP is a trapezoid.
Since PRA +QRB = 90, so PRQ = 90 and PRQ is a
right triangle.
The two bases of the trapezoid are a and b.

The height is (a + b). The area of trapezoid ABQP is
( a  b )  ( a  b)
S ABQP  (1)
2
The sum of the areas of three right triangles
1 1 1
S = ab  ab  c 2 (2)
2 2 2
We know that (1) = (2).
97
( a  b)  ( a  b ) 1 1 1
= ab  ab  c 2  a 2  2ab  b2  ab  ab  c2 
2 2 2 2
c  a b
2 2 2
Method 3 (the simplest way).

In right triangle ABC, draw CD  AB. From lecture
27, we know that ABC  ACD  CBD and:
AC 2  AB  AD (1)
BC 2  AB  BD (2)
(1) + (2):
AC 2  BC 2  AB  AD  AB  BD  AB( AD  BD)  AB  AB  AB 2
Method 4:
In right triangle ABC, draw CD  AB. From the lecture 26, we know that ABC 
ACD  CBD.
We also know that SCBD  SACD  SABC 
SCBD SACD
 1
SABC SABC
BC 2 AC 2 a b
( ) ( )  1  ( )2  ( )2  1
AB AB c c
2 2 2
 a +b =c
2. SOME THEOREMS
Theorem 1.
When we draw similar figures on the two legs and the hypotenuse of a right
triangle, the following formula is true:
S1  S2  S3 (2.1)
Proof:
98
2
S2  a 
  (1)
S1  c 
2
S3  b 
  (2)
S1  c 
a 2  b2
S2  S 3 S 1 S1 .
c2
Theorem 2.
Draw semicircles along the sides of a right triangle, using the sides of the right
triangle as the diameters, the following relationship is true:
S1  S2  S3 (2.2)
Proof:
Since triangle ABC is a right triangle, we have:
a2 + b2 = c2 (1)
2
1 1
Multiplying every term of (1) by    :
2 2
2 2 2
1 a 1 b 1 c
        (2)
2  2 2 2 2 2
Subtract (S4 + S5) in each side of (2):
2 2 2
1 a 1 b 1 c
    S 4      S5      S 4  S5  S2  S3  S1 .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Theorem 3.
In a 45o  45o  90o right triangle, or right isosceles triangle,
the length of the hypotenuse is 2 times of the length of each
leg.
99
Theorem 4. If triangle ABC is a right triangle, then the radius of the inscribed
circle can be calculated by:
AC  BC  AB
r (2.3)
2
Theorem 5. For a right triangle, if A = 30°, then

1
BC  AB
2
Theorem 6. The length of the median to the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals
one-half the length of the hypotenuse.
AM = MB = MC
3. PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES
A Pythagorean triple is an ordered triple (a, b, c) of three positive integers such

that a2 + b2 = c2. If a, b, and c are relatively prime, then the triple is called
primitive.
Integral values of a, b, and c, where a, b, and c are relatively prime:
a b c a b
c
3 4 5 5 12 13
8 15 17 7 24 25
20 21 29 12 35 37
9 40 41 11 60 61
13 84 85 15 112 113
100
☆Example 1. Given the areas of the three squares in the figure, what is the area
of the interior triangle?
(A) 13 (B) 300 (C) 60 (D) 84 (E) 100
Solution: D.
The interior triangle is a 7 – 24 – 25 right triangle.
1
A   24  7  84 .
2
Example 2. Find x .
(A) 8 2 (B) 16 2 (C) 8 (D) 10 2 (E) 9
Solution: A.
By Theorem 3: c  2a  8 2
Example 3. The measure of the hypotenuse of the right triangle is 10 cm.

Semicircles are drawn on the sides of the triangle as shown. Find the number of
square centimeters in the sum of the shaded areas.
(A) 10 (B) 14 (C) 25 (D) 16 (E) 20
Solution: C.
By Theorem 1, S1  S2  S3 .
r 2   52
We see that S1  
2 2
  52
The shaded area is S1  S2  S3  2S1  2   25 .
2
101
☆Example 4. Right isosceles triangles are constructed on the sides of a triangle

of sides 9, 40, and 41 as shown. A capital letter represents
the area of each triangle. Which one of the following is
true?
(A) X + Z = W + Y (B) W + X = Z
1
(C) 3X + 4Y = 5Z (D) X +W = (Y + Z)
2
(E) X + Y = Z
Solution: E.
Note that the triangle with the sides of 9, 40, and 41 is a right triangle (92 + 402 =
412).
By the formula (2.1), X + Y = Z.
Example 5. Consider the region formed by the intersections of three semi-circles

whose diameters, of lengths 3, 4, and 5, form a triangle. What is
the area of the region (dark shading in figure)?
A. 6 B. 12 C. 3 D. 6 E. ( 12  5 ) ).
Solution: A.
By Theorem 2, the shaded areas are the same as the area of the right triangle ABC.
The answer is 6.
Example 6. Find x .
(A) 8 2 (B) 16 2 (C) 16 (D) 10 2 (E) 8
Solution: 8 2
By Theorem 3: c  2a  16  2a 
16 16 2 16
a   2 8 2
2 2 2 2
102
Example 7. Find x .
(A) 8 2 (B) 9 3 (C) 9 (D) 10 2 (E) 9
Solution: B.
1
By Theorem 5: y   18  9
2
By Pythagorean Theorem c 2  a 2  b2  182  x 2  92
16  2a  x  182  92  243  9 3
☆Example 8. The two circles as shown have the same center C. Chord AD is
tangent to the inner circle at B. Find the shaded area if AD =
24.
(A) 121 (B) 144 (C) 25 (D) 169 (E) 24
Solution: B.
Connect AB. Draw CB  AD at B.
We know that triangle ABC is a right triangle. Applying Pythagorean Theorem we
get AC 2  BC 2  AB 2 (1)
S, the shaded area = the area of the larger circle – the area of the
smaller circle:
S    AC 2    BC 2   ( AC 2  BC 2 ) (2)
Substituting (1) into (2):
S    AB 2   122  144 .
Example 9. Triangle ABC is isosceles with AC = BC. Angle A measures 45

degrees. Segment CD is the perpendicular bisector of segment AB. If segment AD
measures three meters, how long is segment AC?
(A) 3 2 (B) 6 (C) 2 2 (D) 3 (E) 3
Solution: A.
103
Since DCA = 45 and CD  AD, DCA = 45.

AD = DC.
By Theorem 3: AC  2 AD  3 2
Example 10. If mB  60 in right triangle ABC , and BC  3, find AC .

(A) 2 2 (B) 2 3 (C) 3 (D) 3 2 (E) 9
Solution: C.
We know that A = 30°. AB  2BC  2 3
AC 2  BC 2  AB 2    3  9
 AC 2  AB 2  BC 2  2 3 
2 2
 AC  3 .
Example 11. As shown in the figure, B = 90, AB = 3, BC= 4, CD =13, AD =12.

Find the area of quadrilateral ABCD.
(A) 32 (B) 33 (C) 34 (D) 36 (E) 30
Solution: D.
ACD is a right triangle and DAC=90.
Area of ABCD = Area of ABC + Area of ACD
1 1
 3  4   12  5 = 6 + 30 = 36 square units.
2 2
Example 12. In the figure shown, a circle is inscribed in a right triangle with
sides of length 5, 12, 13. The radius of the circle is
A.  B. 12/5 C. 8 D. 2 E. 3
Solution: D.
12  5  13
By Theorem 4: r   2.
2
104
Example 13. In triangle ABC, C = 90. AC = 6, BC = 8. Find the area of the

regions outside the circle but inside the triangle.
(A) 12 2 (B) 24 – 4 (C) 24 (D) 24 – 2 (E) 14
Solution: B.
Since AC = 6 and BC = 8, AB = 10.
AC  BC  AB 6  8  10
By Theorem 4: r   2
2 2
The area of the circle is r2 = 4
AC  BC 6  8
The area of the triangle is   24
2 2
The answer is 24 – 4.
Example 14. Right triangle ABC with AC = 2, AB + BC = 6 . Find the area of

ABC.
(A) 3 2 (B) 6 (C) 1 (D) 2 (E) 1/2
Solution: E.
( x  y)2   6
2
 x 2  2 xy  y 2  6
By the Pythagorean Theorem: x 2  y 2  4
xy 1
So 2 xy  2   .
2 2
☆Example 15. Quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid, AD = 17, AB = 30, BC = 25,

and the altitude is 15. Find the area of the trapezoid.
(A) 440 (B) 550 (C) 660 (D) 1320 (E) 450
Solution:
Let E and F be the feet of the perpendicular from A and B
105
to DC, respectively. Applying Pythagorean Theorem to

right AED, DE2  AD 2  AE 2  172  152  82 . So DE =
8.
Applying Pythagorean Theorem to right BFC,
CF 2  BC 2  BF 2  252 152  202 .
So CF = 20. Thus DC = 8 + 30 + 20 = 58.
30  58
The trapezoid has area  15  660 .
2
☆Example 16. (2008 AMC 8 Problem 23) In square ABCE, AF = 2FE and CD =
2DE. What is the ratio of the area of BFD to the area of square
ABCE ?
(A) 1/6 (B) 2/9 (C) 5/18 (D) 1/3 (E) 7/20
Solution: (C).
Method 1 (official solution):
Because the answer is a ratio, it does not depend on the side
length of the square. Let AF = 2 and FE = 1. That means square
ABCE has side length 3 and area 32 = 9 square units. The area of
1
BAF is equal to the area of BCD =  3  2  3 square units.
2
Triangle DEF is an isosceles right triangle with leg lengths DE = FE = 1. The area
1 1
of DEF is  1  1  2 square units. The area of BFD is equal to the area of
2 2
the square minus the areas of the three right triangles: 9  (3 + 3 + 1/2 ) = 5/2 . So
the ratio of the area of BFD to the area of square ABCE is 5/2 / 9 = 5/18.
Method 2 (our solution):

BF = 22  32  13 , BD = 22  32  13 , BD = 12  12  2 .
13  13  2 2
s  13  .
2 2
106
By the Heron's Formula, the area of BFD =

2 2 2 2 5
( 13  )( 13   13 )( 13   13 )( 13   2)  .
2 2 2 2 2
So the ratio of the area of BFD to the area of square ABCE is 5/2 / 9 = 5/18.
☆Example 17. The area of trapezoid ABCD is 318 cm2. The altitude is 12 cm,
AB is 13 cm, and CD is 37 cm. What is BC, in centimeters?
(A) 13 (B) 10 (C) 12 (D) 15 (E) 6.5
Solution: E.
Let E and F be the feet of the perpendicular from B and C to
AD, respectively. Applying Pythagorean Theorem to right
ABE, AE 2  AB 2  BE 2  132  122  52 . So AE = 5.
Applying Pythagorean Theorem to right DCF,
DF 2  DC2  CF 2  372  122  352 . So DF = 35.
BC  AD
The trapezoid has area  12  318  BC  AE  EF  DF  53
2
 BC  5  BC  35  53  BC  6.5 .
☆Example 18. Square ABCD has sides of length 3. Segments CM and CN divide
the square's area into three equal parts. How long is the segment
connecting M and N?
Solution: 2 .
One-third of the square's area is 3, so triangle MBC has area 3 =
1
 MB  BC  MB = 2.
2
So AM = AN = 1.
Applying Pythagorean Theorem to right AMN,
MN 2  AM 2  AN 2  12  12  2 . So MN = 2.
107
Example 19. If QPR is a right triangle where M is the midpoint of RQ, and MP
= 5, the length of RQ is:
A. 5 B. 10 C. 5 2 D. 10 2 E. 15
Solution: B.
We know that M is the midpoint of RQ
By Theorem 6, RM = MQ = MP.
The answer is RQ = RM + MQ = 2MP = 10.
Example 20. In triangle ABC, C = 90. 1 = 2. CD = 15 mm, BD = 25 mm.

Find AC.
(A) 12 2 (B) 25 (C) 40 (D) 30 (E) 50
Solution: D.
Method 1: By the angle bisector theorem, we have:
AC AB AC AB
  
CD BD 15 25
AC 5
AB   25  AC .
15 3
C = 90. By the Pythagorean theorem:
AC 2  BC 2  AB 2  AB 2  AC 2  BC 2
2
5  16
  AC   AC 2  (15  25) 2  AC 2  402  AC = 30.
3  9
Method 2:
Draw DE AB and meets AB at E. CAD and AED are congruent. DE = CD =
15 mm. DBE is a 15 – 20 – 25 right triangle and is similar to ABC.
AC DE AC 15
    AC = 30.
CB EB 15  25 25
108
Example 21. Triangle ABC has sides AC, BC and AB measuring 18, 24 and 30
units, respectively. If D is the midpoint of segment AB, what is
the length of segment CD?
(A) 10 2 (B) 30 (C) 15 (D) 24 (E) 33
Solution: C.
Note that three sides of the triangle is a Pythagorean triple.
1
By Theorem 6, CD  AD  DB  AB  15 .
2
Example 22. A right triangle with integer side lengths a, b, and c satisfies a < b <
c and a + c = 49. What is the area of the right triangle?
A. 176. B. 210. C. 224. D. 225. E. 232.
Solution: B.
We have the following Pythagorean Triples:
a b c
20 21 29
12 35 37
1 1
The area of the right triangle is then  20  21   12  35  210 .
2 2
Example 23. Triangle ABC is shown with measures indicated. BC equals:

A. 4 B. 4 2 C. 4 3 D. 5 E. 3 5
Solution: B.
We draw the height from B to AC to meet AC at D.
ABD is a 30-60-90 right triangle.
By Theorem 2, BD = 4.
CBD is an isosceles right triangle. So DC = 4.
By Theorem 3, BC  4 2 .
109
4. PROBLEMS
Problem 1. What is the length of side b in the figure shown?

A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
Problem 2. The sides of a right triangle have lengths x − y, x, and x + y where x

> y > 0. The ratio of x to y is:
A. 3 : 2 B. 2 : 1 C. 3 : 1 D. 4 : 1 E. 4 : 3
Problem 3. Given a right triangle with an altitude drawn to the hypotenuse If

this altitude divides the hypotenuse into segments measuring 16 and 4 inches, the
length of this altitude is:
A. 12 inches B. 8 inches C. 4 5 inches D. 10 inches E. none of the
above
Problem 4. The diagonal of a rectangle is 13 inches. The width of the rectangle is

5 inches. What is the length of the rectangle?
A. 12 B. 11 C. 10 D. 9 E. 8
Problem 5. The diagonal of a square is 12 inches. The length of the side of the
square is:
A. 4 inches B. 12 inches C. 6 inches D. 6 2 inches E. 2 6 inches
Problem 6. In the figure, CAB is a right angle, D lies in the line segment AB,
the length of AC is 6, the length of BC is 10, and the length
of BD is 4. What is the length of CD?
A. 4 3 B. 2 13 C. 2 14 inches D. 8. E. 6 2
110
Problem 7. Find the radius of the circle inscribed in a triangle whose sides are 8,
15, and 17.
A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 E. 6
Problem 8. A right triangle has the property that the lengths of its sides form a
geometric progression, (i.e. the ratio of shorter leg to the longer leg is the same as
the ratio of the longer leg to the hypotenuse.) What is the ratio of the hypotenuse
to the shorter leg?
1 5 1 5
A. 2 B. 5/3 C. 5 /2 D. E.
2 2
Problem 9. In the acute triangle ABC, the line segments AD and BE are altitudes.
If the length of AB is 10, the length of CD is 2, and the
length of AD is 6, what is the length of BE?
A. 8. B. 12. C. 2 10 . D. 3 10 . E. Cannot be determined.
Problem 10. Given the right triangle ABC as shown with EB  CB, PM  AB,
and M as the midpoint of AB. If AC = 6 and CB = 8, what is
the length of EP?
A. 5 B. 14 C. 75/16 D. 4 E. none of these
Problem 11. A triangle has sides of lengths 14, 11, and 7. Find the length of the
altitude of the triangle drawn to the longest side.
111
Problem 12. In right triangle EFH, EF = 1, FG = 1, and EG = GH. Find the

length of EH.
A. 4. B. 5 . C. 42 2 D. 2 + 2 2 . E. 4 + 2 2
Problem 13. MK and LJ are the hypotenuses of overlapping right triangles KLM
and JKL. MK  LJ, the length of MK is 6 5 , the length of
LK is 6 3 . Find the length of JK.
A. 9/ 2 . B. 18/ 5 . C. 12/ 5 D. 6 3 . E. 6 6 / 5
Problem 14. If the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 30 inches long and one angle
measures 30º, then one leg must have a length of:
A. 30 in. B. 10 in. C. 20 in. D. 20 E. 15 in.
Problem 15. Triangle PQR has a right angle at P. If QR = 16, what is the length
of median PS?
A. 4 B. 4 3 C. 8 D. 8 3 E.16 3 /3.
Problem 16. Find x in the right triangle (not drawn to scale):

A. 14 B. 7 C. 8 D. 9 E. 4
Problem 17. Triangle ABC has a right angle at A. AD is the interior altitude and
BD = 8 and CD = 4. Find AD.
A. 2 3 . B. 4 2 . C. 12. D. 4 3 . E. 32.
112
Problem 18. A right triangle is partitioned into five congruent triangles as shown
in the figure. If the hypotenuse has length 5, find the length of the shorter leg.
5 5 1 5
A. 5 B. C. 3 D. E. 5  5
2 2
Problem 19. Consider a right triangle that can be partitioned into 5 congruent
parts as shown. What is the length of the shorter leg
of the smaller triangle?
A. 2 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1 E. (1 + 5 )
Problem 20. A right triangle with integer sides has area equal to 30. What is the
length of its hypotenuse?
A. 10 B. 12 C. 13 D. 15 E. none of these
Problem 21. Given a right triangle with sides of length a, b, and c and area, a2 +
b2  c2. Find c/b the ratio of the legs of the right triangle.
A. 1 B. 3 /2 C. 4 D. 1/4 E. none of the above
Problem 22. Find the perimeter of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 and
whose area is 1.
A. 2 + 6 B. 2 + 2 C. 2 + 2 2 D. 2 + 5 E. none of these
Problem 23. For what positive value of x is there a right triangle with sides x + 1,
4x, and 4x + 1?
A. 4 B. 6 C. 8 D. 10 E. 12
113
Problem 24. Consider a quadrilateral ABCD with AB = 4, BC = 10 3 and DAB

= 150, ABC = 90, and BCD = 30. Find DC.
A. 16 B. 17 C. 18 D. 19 E. 20
Problem 25. Circles are constructed on each of the three sides of a right triangle
ABC using the sides as diameters. In each case, the
center of the circle is the midpoint of the side, with
the side being a diameter of the circle. If the area of
the triangle is 12 square units, what is the total area
of the two smaller circles that lies outside the largest
circle and is shaded in the figure?
A. 3 B. 9 C. 12 D. 4 E. 5.
Problem 26. One leg of a right triangle is 2 inches longer than the other leg. If the
area of the triangle is 24 square inches, how long is the shorter leg?
A. 3 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8 E. 6 3 .
Problem 27. ABCD is a rectangle and DE = DC. Given AD = 5 and BE = 3, find

DE.
17 16 34 7
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 6
3 3 7 3
114
Problem 28. An irregular hexagon DEFMNL is drawn as follows: We start with a

right triangle ABC, draw the squares on the legs and hypotenuse, and then join in
sequence the free vertices of the squares. If the hypotenuse of triangle ABC has
length 13 and the triangle ABC has area 30, find the area of the hexagon
DEFMNL.
A. 458 B. 146 C. 210 D. 512 E. 264 2 .
Problem 29. The two tangent circles with the radii 3 and 1, respectively, have an
external common tangent as shown. Find the shaded area.
11 11 7
(A) 4 3   (B) 4 3 (C)  (D) 2 (E) 4 3  
6 6 6
115
5. SOLUTIONS
By Pythagorean Theorem c 2  a 2  b2  ( 5 ) 2  b 2  22
b2  1  b 1
Since x > y > 0, x + y is the longest side.
So we have ( x  y)2  x 2  ( x  y)2 (1)
x x x
Dividing both sides of (1) by y2: (  1) 2  ( ) 2  (  1) 2 (2)
y y y
x
Let m  . (2) becomes: (m  1)2  m2  (m  1)2  m2  4m  m  4.
y
CD2  AD  BD  CD2  4  16  82 
CD  8 .
As shown in the figure, ABC is a 5-12-13 right
triangle. So the answer is A.
By Theorem 3, c  2a  12  2a 
12
a 6 2.
2
116
ABC is a 6-8-10 right angle. So AB = 8. We know that BD = 4. So AD = 4.

Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to ACD: AC 2  AD 2  CD2 
62  42  CD2  CD  2 13 .
8  15  17
By Theorem 4: r   3.
2
Let three sides be a, b, and c. c is the hypotenuse.
We have
a 2  b2  c 2 (1)
a b
  b2 = ac (2)
b c
Substituting (2) into (1): a 2  ac  c 2 (3)
a c
We divide each term of (3) by ac:  1  ( ) 2 (4)
c a
a
Let m  .
c
 (1)  (1) 2  4  1  (1) 1  5
(4) becomes: m  m  1  0 
2
m  .
2 2
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to ACD: AD 2  CD2  AC 2 
62  22  AC 2  AC  2 10 .
ADB is a 6810 right triangle. So DB = 8.
We also see from the figure that EAF + F = DBF
+ F = 90. So EAF = DBF. Thus BCE is similar
AC AD 2 10 6
to ACD and    
BC BE 10 BE
BE  3 10 .
117

AB CB
We know that ABC is similar to PBM. So  
PB MB
10 8 25
  PB  .
PB 5 4
We also know that ABC is similar to PBP.
AC CB 6 8 75
So     EP  .
EP PB EP 25 16
4
Method 1:
We draw the figure. Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to ACD:
AC 2  AD 2  CD2  72  x 2  CD2 (1)
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to BCD:
BC 2  DB2  CD2  112  (14  x)2  CD2 (2)
31
(1) – (2): 72  x 2  112  (14  x)2  x .
7
31 31 12 10
Substituting x  into (1): 7 2  ( ) 2  CD 2  CD  .
7 7 7
Method 2:
The semi perimeter of the triangle is (7 + 11 + 14)/2 = 16.
By the Heron Formula, the area of the triangle is
16(16  7)(16  11)(16  14)  12 10 .
1
Also the area can be calculated by  14  CD.
2
1 12 10
So  14  CD  12 10  CD  .
2 7

We know that EG = GH = 2 . Applying the Pythagorean
Theorem to EFH: EF 2  FH 2  EH 2 
12  (1  2 )2  EH 2  EH  4  2 2 .
118

Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to KLM:
ML2  KL2  MK 2  ML2  (6 3 )2  (6 3 )2
 ML  12 2 .
We know that  KLM is similar to JKL.
ML KL 12 2 6 3 108 9
So     JK   .
KL JK 6 3 JK 12 2 2

1
By Theorem 5, one leg must be  30  15 . The answer is E.
2

1
By Theorem 6, PS = RS = SQ =  QR  8 .
2

Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right
triangle: (2 10 )2  ( x  5)2  112  x  4 .

AD 2  CD  DB  32  AD  4 2 .

We label the figure as follows:
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right
triangle: (n)2  (2n)2  52  n  5 .

We label the figure as follows:
Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right triangle
ABC: (n)2  (2n)2  52  n  5 .
119
ACD: (m)2  (2m)2  n2  5m2  ( 5 )2  m  1 .

The Pythagorean Triple 5, 12, 13 work since 5  12 / 2 = 30. So C is the answer.

By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have b2 + c2 = a2 (1)
1
We are given that bc  a2 + b2  c2  bc  2a2 + 2b2  2c2 (2)
2
Substituting (1) into (2): 4b = c  c/b = 4.

By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have a2 + b2 = c2 (1)
1
We are given that ab  1  2ab  4 (2)
2
(1) + (2): (a + b)2 = 4 + c2  (a + b)2 = 8  a+b= 2 2
The perimeter is 2 + 2 2 .

Let the hypotenuse be 4x + 1.
By the Pythagorean Theorem, (x + 1)2 + (4x)2 = (4x + 1)2  x = 6 (x = 0
ignored).

First we see that the angle D is 90 = 360 − 150 − 90 − 30.
Extend CD and BA to meet at E. We see that E = 60.
By Theorem 5 in  EBC, EB = 10 and EA = 6.
By Theorem 5, in  EAD, ED = 3.
EBC: BC 2  EB 2  EC 2  (10 3 )2  102  (3  DC)2  DC  17 .

By Theorem 2, the shaded areas are the same as the area of the right triangle
ABC. The answer is 12.
120

1
Let the length of the other leg be x. We have x( x  2)  24  x = 6.
2
AE = AB – BE = DC – 3.
DAE is a right triangle. DE2 = AD2 + AE2
Since DE = DC and AE = DC – 3, we have DC2 = 52 + (DC – 3)2 
34 17
DC2 = 52 + DC2 – 6DC + 9  6DC = 52 + 9 = 34  DC =  .
6 3
As shown in the figure, four triangles have the same
area and S1  S2  S3 .
The answer is 30  4 + 132  2 = 458.

We see that DF = DA – AF = DA – BC = 3 – 1 = 2.
DC = 3 + 1 = 4.
Thus triangle DCF is a 30 – 60 – 90 right triangle.
The shaded area is the area of the trapezoid ABCD – the areas of sectors ADE and
ECB.
(3  1)  4 2  2 2   32  12 11
The answer is   4 3  .
2 6 3 6
121
AMC 8 Preparation Chapter 24 Probability
BASIC KNOWLEDGE
1. Properties of probability:
(1). The probability of an event is between 0 and 1.

(2). The probability of an impossible event is 0.
(3). The probability of a certain event is 1.
(4). The probability that an event will occur is equal to one minus the
probability that it will not occur.
2. Basic probability formula
number of ways that a certain outcome can occur

Probability =
total number of possible outcomes
Example 1. A bag contains 4 red chips, 2 blue chips, and 3 white chips. If one
chip is drawn at random, what is the probability that the chip will not be red?
5 7 5 4 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
9 9 9 9 9
Solution: A.
There are total 4 + 3 + 2 = 9 chips. There are 4 red chips. The probability to draw
a red chip is then 4/9. By property 4, the probability that the chip will not be red is
1  4/9 = 5/9.
Example 2. There are 2 blue marbles, 6 yellow marbles, and 5 green marbles in a
bag. One at a time, two marbles are drawn randomly from the bag, with
replacement after each drawing. What is the probability that all two are green?
5 25 5 10 20
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
13 169 169 169 169
Solution: B.
122
There are total 2 + 6 + 5 = 13 marbles. There are 5 green marbles. The probability
to draw a green marble is then 5/13. By the fundamental counting principle, the
probability that all three are green is (5/13)  (5/13) = 25/169.
Example 3. Mark has 3 marbles in his pocket. Two marbles are yellow and one is
blue. If he randomly selects two marbles, what is the probability that they are the
same color?
2 4 2 2 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
9 9 3 5 3
Solution: E.
There are total 3 ways to select two marbles. There is only 1 way to select 2
marbles s of the same color (two yellow marbles). The probability to select 2
1
marbles that are the same color is .
3
Example 4. Three darts are thrown at the figure given, each landing in a different
square. What is the probability that the squares they land in form a
row, either horizontally, or vertically?
3 1 2 2 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
28 14 21 5 9
Solution: B.
9
There are    84 ways that three darts can be thrown at the figure given.
3
There are 6 ways that they land in a row, either horizontally, or vertically.
The probability that the squares they

land in form a row, horizontally or
1
vertically is 6/84 = .
14
123
Example 5. Peter rolls a pair of dice with the integers 1 through 6 on the faces of
each die. What is the probability that the sum of the integers on the top faces is 9?
2 4 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
9 9 3 9 3
Solution: D.
When two dice are rolled, there are 36 outcomes. Four outcomes show that the
sum of the integers on the top faces is 9.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
The probability is 4/ 36 = 1/9.
Example 6. What is the probability that exactly two heads will come up when
three coins are flipped?
3 1 1 5 7
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8 4 8 8 8
Solution: A.
The total number of outcomes is 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
124
We have three cases that exactly two heads will come up when three coins are
flipped:
HHT, THH, and HTH.
The probability is 3/8.
☆Example 7. (2004 AMC 8 Problem 21) Spinners A and B are spun. On each
spinner, the arrow is equally likely to land on each number. What is the
probability that the product of the two spinners’ numbers is even?
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 (C) 1/2 (D) 2/3 (E) 3/4
Solution: D.
Method 1 (official solution, indirect way):
To get an odd product, the result of both spins must be odd. The probability of
odd is 1/2 on Spinner A and 1/3 on Spinner B. So the probability of an odd
product is (1/2)(1/3) = 1/6. The probability of an even product, then, is (1  1/3)
= 2/3.
Method 2 (our solution, direct way):

To get an even product, we have three cases:
Spinner A Spinner B.
Case 1: even even
Case 2: even odd
Case 3: odd even
The probability is
2 1 2 2 2 1 8 2
P       
4 3 4 3 4 3 12 3
125
☆Example 8. Angie, Bridget, Carlos, and Diego are seated at random around a
square table, one person to a side. What is the probability that Angie and Carlos
are seated next to each other?
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 (C) 1/2 (D) 2/3 (E) 3/4
Solution: D.
If Angie sits down first, there are three equally likely places for Carlos to sit.
Two of these is next to Angie. Thus the probability is 2/3.
☆Example 9. A fair six-sided die is rolled twice. What is the probability that the
first number that comes up is less than or equal to the second number?
(A) 1/6 (B) 5/12 (C) 1/2 (D) 7/12 (E) 5/6
Solution: D.
In 6 of the 36 possible outcomes the two numbers are equal. The first number is
less than the second in half of the remaining 30 outcomes, so the first number is
less than or equal to the second in 6 + 15 = 21 outcomes. The probability is 21/36
= 7/12.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 1, 1 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4 1, 5 1, 6
2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6
3 3, 1 3, 2 3, 3 3, 4 3, 5 3, 8
4 4, 1 4, 2 4, 3 4, 4 4, 5 4, 6
5 5, 1 5, 2 5, 3 5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
6 6, 1 6, 2 6, 3 6, 4 6, 5 6, 6
126
☆Example 10. One of the three-digit numbers is randomly selected. What is the
probability that the number is divisible by 13?
(A) 23/300 (B) 23/243 (C) 23/333 (D) 790 (E) 19/225
Solution: A.
The smallest three-digit number divisible by 13 is 13 × 8 = 104. The greatest
three-digit number divisible by 13 is 13 × 76 = 988. Therefore, there are 76  7 =
69 three-digit numbers divisible by 13. The answer is 69/900 = 23/300.
3. Basic geometric probability formula
"Geometric probability" is exactly the same as basic probability, except that we

are dealing with the geometric figures instead of the "numbers".
The basic probability formula becomes:
measure of geometric figure representing desired outcomes in the event

P=
measure of geometric figure representing all outcomes in the same space
Some examples of geometric measures are lengths, areas, angle measures, and
volumes.
For example, a probability determined by comparing the area of a given section to

that of a total available region, is:
measure of area of favorable region
P=
measure of area of total region
Example 11. If a dart hits the square board (a = 10) below, what is the probability
that it will land in the circle (r = 4)?
2  4 3 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
25 16 25 16 8
127
Solution: C.
Area of circle  r 2 16 4
P  2  
Area of square a 100 25
Example 12. Three concentric circles have radii of 1, 4, and 9. If a point is

randomly selected from the interior of the largest circle, what is the probability
that it is in the region bounded by the two smaller circles?
5 4 2 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
27 9 3 9 9
Solution: A.

P=
Area of ring  r  r
2 2
r r
2 2
16  1 15 5
P  1 2 2  1 22   
Area of largest circle  r3 r3 81 81 27
Example 13. In the figure shown, four circles are tangent to each other and to the
sides of the square as shown. A dart randomly hits the figure. What is
the probability that it lands inside one of the circular regions?
   3 
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8 10 16 16 4
Solution: E.

P=
measure of area of whole region
Area of four circle 4 r 2 4 r 2 

P   
Area of square (4 r ) 2 16 r 2 4
128
Example 14. Find the probability that four randomly selected points on the
geoboard below will be the vertices of a square.
5 1 2 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
126 21 9 9 21
Solution: B.
9 
The number of ways to select four vertices from the nine vertices is    126 .
 4
The number of squares is 6.
The probability is 6/126 = 1/21.
Example 15. A point E is chosen at random from within square ABCD. What is
the probability that ∆ABE is obtuse?
   3 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
8 4 16 16 8
Solution: A.
If E is inside the semicircle that has AB as its diameter, then
∆ABE will be obtuse.
1
Area of the semicircle 2
 r2 
P  
Area of square ( 2r ) 2 8
☆Example 16. A complete cycle of a traffic light takes 60 seconds. During each
cycle the light is green for 25 seconds, yellow for 5 seconds, and red for 30
seconds. At a randomly chosen time, what is the probability that the light will
NOT be yellow?
(A) 11/12 (B) 7/12 (C) 5/12 (D) 1/2 (E) 1/3
129
Solution: A.
time not yellow rr 25  30 11
P    .
total time rr y 60 12
4. General addition rule of probability:
(1). If A and B are any two events:

P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
(2). If A and B are mutually exclusive ( P( A  B)  0 ):

P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
Note: Any two events that cannot both occur at the same time are called mutually
exclusive.
(3). General addition rule of probability (three events):

P( A  B  C)  P( A)  P( B)  P(C)  P( A  B)  P( B  C)  P(C  A)  P( A  B  C)
Example 17. A bag contains 3 red chips, 4 blue chips, and 2 white chips. If a chip
is drawn at random, what is the probability that the chip is red or white?
5 4 1 1 7
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
9 9 3 9 9
Solution: A.
The probability that the chip is red: 3/9 = 1/3.
The probability that the chip is white: 2/9.
The probability that the chip is red or white can be calculated using the formula:
130
Since the two events (to draw a red chip and to draw a white chip) are mutually
exclusive (when you draw a chip, if it is red, it cannot be white at the same time),
P( A  B)  0
1 2 5
P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)    .
3 9 9
Example 18. Two standard dice are rolled and their face values multiplied. What
is the probability that the product is prime or ends in 0?
1 1 2 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3 6 3 9 9
Solution: A.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
3 3 6 9 12 15 18
4 4 8 12 16 20 24
5 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 6 12 18 24 30 36
The probability that the product is prime: 6/36 = 1/6.

The probability that the product ends in 6: 6/36 = 1/6.
The probability that the product is prime or ends in 6 can be calculated using the
formula: P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
131
Since the two events (the product is prime or ends in 6) are mutually exclusive
(see the table above), P( A  B)  0
1 1 2 1
P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)     .
6 6 6 3
Example 19 Two standard dice are rolled and their face values multiplied. What
is the probability that the product is prime or ends in 5?
1 5 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
4 36 6 18 9
Solution: A.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
3 3 6 9 12 15 18
4 4 8 12 16 20 24
5 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 6 12 18 24 30 36
The probability that the product is prime: 6/36 is 1/6.

The probability that the product is ends in 5 is 5/36.
The probability that the product is prime or ends in 5 is 2/36 = 1/18.
The probability that the product is prime or ends in 5 can be calculated using the
formula:
132
1 5 2 9 1
     .
6 36 36 36 4
Example 20. Three coins are flipped. What is the probability, expressed as a
common fraction, that all are heads or all are tails?
3 3 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
4 8 6 8 4
Solution: E.
There are total 2  2  2 = 8 ways to flip three coins.
There is only 1 way to flip three heads.
There is only 1 way to flip three tails.
The probability of all heads: 1/8.
The probability of all tails: 1/8.
Since the two events are mutually exclusive (you can’t flip a coin and get both
head and tail), P( A  B)  0
The probability that all are heads or all are tails can be calculated using the
formula:
1 1 2 1
P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)    
8 8 8 4
Example 21. If four coins are tossed, what is the probability that exactly three of
them show heads or exactly three of them show tails?
1 1 3 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 16 16 8 4
Solution: A.
There are total 2  2  2  2 = 16 ways to flip four coins.
4!
There are 4 ways to get exactly three heads (HHHT):  4.
3!1!
133
4!
There are 4 ways to get exactly three tails (TTTH):  4.
3!1!
The probability of getting exactly three heads: 4/16 = 1/4.
The probability of getting exactly three tails: 4/16 = 1/4.

heads and tails), P( A  B)  0 .
The probability that exactly three of them show heads or exactly three of them
show tails can be calculated using the formula is:
1 1 2 1
P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)     .
4 4 4 2
6. General multiplication rule of probability:
(1). If A and B are any two events:
P(A and B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B A) , where P( B A) is the probability of B

happening under the condition of event A.
(2). If A and B are two independent events:
If the outcome of event A does not affect the outcome of event B, A and B are
called independent events. P( B A)  P( B)
P(A and B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)
Example 22. What is the probability of rolling doubles on a pair of fair dice?
1 1 3 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
6 12 18 8 4
Solution: A.
134
The probability of rolling a number from 1 to 6 (event A) is 1.

The probability of rolling a number that will match the number rolled before
(event B) is 1/6.
Since the two outcomes are independent events, P( B A)  P( B) .

The probability of rolling doubles on a pair of fair dice:
1 1
P( A and B)  P( A)  P( B)  1   .
6 6
Example 23. The probability that Chris will win the first set of a tennis match is
2 1
and that he will win the second is . Assuming independence of the two sets,
5 2
what is the probability that he wins both sets?
1 1 2 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
5 6 3 10 9
Solution: A.
The probability that he wins both sets:
2 1 1
P(A and B)  P( A)  P( B)    .
5 2 5
Example 24. Fifty cards numbered from 1 to 30 are placed in a box. If a card is
selected at random, what is the probability that the card is a prime number and a
multiple of seven?
7 1 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
30 10 25 25 30
Solution: E.
There are 30 numbers and 10 of them are prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17,
19, 23, 29).
There is one number that is both a prime number and a multiple of seven (7).
135
The probability to select a prime number (event A) is 10/30= 1/3.
The probability to select a multiple of seven from all these prime numbers (event
B under event A) is 1/10.
The probability that the card is a prime number and a multiple of seven
1 1 1
P( A and B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B A)    .
3 10 30
Example 25. Cards are randomly drawn one at a time, without replacement, from
a standard deck of playing cards. What is the probability that the first three cards
chosen are clubs?
11 11 13 4 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
50 850 52 14 5
Solution: B.
Method 1:
There are 52 cards in a standard deck and 13 cards in a set clubs.
The probability to draw a club the first time: 13/52.
The probability to draw a club the second time (under the condition that one club
was drawn the first time): 12/51.
The probability to draw a club the third time (under the condition that two clubs
were drawn and only 10 of them are left): 11/50.
The probability that the first three cards chosen are clubs is:
13 12 11 11
P   
52 51 50 850
Method 2:
There are total 22100 ways to draw three cards from a standard deck of 52 cards:
 52 
   22100 .
3 
136
13 
There are total 286 ways to draw three clubs from a set of 13 clubs:    286 .
3 
286 11
The probability that the first three cards chosen are clubs: P   .
22100 850
Example 26. The figure below represents five offices that will be assigned
randomly to four employees, one employee per office. If Karen and Tina are two
of the four employees, what is the probability that each will be assigned an office
indicated with an X ?
(A) 1/10 (B) 1/12 (C) 1/6 (D) 1/4 (E) 1/2
Solution: A.
The probability that each will be assigned an office with an X is
2 1 1
P( A and B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B A)   
5 4 10
7. Total probability
Law of total probability (Marginal Probability)
Let A1, A2, A3, …, and An be mutually exclusive and exhaustive events. Then for
any other event B,
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  ....  P( An Bn )
 P( A1 ) P( B1 A1 )  P( A2 ) P( B2 A2 )  P( A3 ) P( B3 A3 )  ...  P( Bn An )
Note: Mutually exclusive means that P( Ai B j )  0
Exhaustive rule: P( A1 or A2 or A3 or.... An )  1
137
Then since A1, A2, A3, …, and An exhaustive, if B occurs, it must be in conjunction
with exactly one of Ai’s. That is B = (A1 and B1) or (A2 and B2) or ….(An and Bn).
Example 27. Digit d is randomly selected from the set {4, 5, 6, 7}. Without
replacement of d, another digit e is selected. What is the probability that the two-
digit number de is a multiple of 8?
1 1 2 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3 6 3 9 9
Solution: B.
Method 1: The following cases are only ones that work: (5, 6), and (6, 4).
Let A1 be the event of selecting the digit 5 as the digit d.

B1 be the event of selecting the digit 6 as the digit e.
A2 be the event of selecting the digit 6 as the digit d.
B be the event that the two-digit number de is a multiple of 8.
B  A1B1  A2 B2
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )
1 1
P( A1 )  ; P( A2 )  .
4 4
1 1
P( B A1 )  ; P( B A2 )  .
3 3
1 1 1 1 2 1
P( B)       .
4 3 4 3 12 6
Method 2: There are a total of 12 ways to select two digits (four ways to select
first digit and 3 ways to select second digit).
There are four favorable ways (5, 6), and (6, 4) such that the two-digit number is a
multiple of 38.
138
2 1
The probability is P   .
43 6
☆Example 28. A number cube has its faces numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. A

second cube has its faces numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12. If the cubes are rolled,
what is the probability that the sum of the numbers showing is 10?
1 1 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
3 6 12 9 9
Solution: C.
Method 1:
For the sum to be 8, the pair of numbers on the two dice can be (2, 8), (4, 6), or
(6, 4).
Let A1 be the event that the first number is 2.

B1 be the event that the second number is 8.
A2 be the event that the first number is 4.
A3 be the event that the first number is 6.
B be the event that the sum of the numbers showing is 10.
B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3
Since the selection of the second number is independent to the selection of the
first number, so
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  P( A1 )  P( B1 )  P( A2 )  P( B2 )  P( A3 )  P( B3 )
1 1 1
P( A1 )  ; P( A2 )  ; P( A3 )  .
6 6 6
139
1 1 1
P( B1 )  ; P( B2 )  ; P( B3 )  .
6 6 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
P( B)         .
6 6 6 6 6 6 36 12
Method 2:
There are a total of 36 outcomes rolling two dice.
There are three favorable ways: (2, 8), (4, 6), and (6, 4).
3 1
36 12
Example 29. An ordered pair (a, b) is determined by choosing a number a and

then a number b at random without replacement from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. What
a
is the probability that is an integer?
b
1 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12 8 6 5 4
Solution: E.
a
Method 1: If is an integer, the following cases are the only ones that satisfy the
b
requirement: (5, 1), (4, 2), (4, 1), (3, 1), and (2, 1).
Let A1 be the event that a is 5.

B1 be the event that b is 1
A2 be the event that a is 4.
B2 be the event that b is 2.
140
a
Let B be the event that is an integer.
b
B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3 + A4 B4  A5 B5
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  P( A4 B4 )  P( A5 B5 )
1 1 1 1 1
P( A1 )  ; P( A2 )  ; P( A3 )  ; P( A4 )  , P( A5 )  .
5 5 5 5 5
1 1 1 1 1
P( B A1 )  ; P( B A2 )  ; P( B A3 )  ; P( B A4 )  , P( B A5 )  .
4 4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1
P( B)             .
5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 20 4
Method 2:
There are a total of 5  4  20 ways to select two digits.
There are five cases that work: (5, 1), (4, 2), (4, 1), (3, 1), and (2, 1).
5 1
20 4
☆Example 30. Harry selected an even positive integer less than 10, and Jim
selected an odd positive integer less than 10. What is the probability that the
number selected by Jim is greater than the number selected by Harry?
1 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 8 6 5 4
Solution: A.
Say that Harry picks up a number from the set {2, 4, 6, 8} and Jim picks up a
number from the set {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Let B be the event that the number selected by Jim is greater than the number
selected by Harry,
141
A1 be the event that Harry picks up the number 2,

B1 be the event that Jim picks up a number that is larger than Harry’s number after
A1
A2
A3
A4
Then B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3  A4 B4
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  P( A4 B4 )
 P( A1 ) P( B1 A1 )  P( A2 ) P( B2 A2 )  P( A3 ) P( B3 A3 )  P( A4 ) P( B4 A4 )
Or
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 10 1
P( B)            .
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 2
Example 31. Tim selects three different numbers at random from the set {1, 7,
9, 11} and adds them. Cathy takes two different numbers at random from the set
{ 3, 4, 5, 6} and multiply them. What is the probability that Tim’s result is less
than Cathy’s result?
1 7 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12 12 6 5 12
Solution: E.
Tim can get the numbers 1 + 7 + 9 = 17, 1 + 7 + 11 = 19, 1 + 9 + 11 = 21, or 7 + 9
+ 11 = 27.
142
Cathy can get 3  4 = 12, 3  5 = 15, 3  6 = 18, 4  5 = 20, 4  6 = 24, or 5  6 =

30.
Let B be the event that Tim’s result is less than Cathy’s result,
A1 be the event that Tim picks up the number 17,

B1 be the event that Tim picks up a number that is less than Cathy’s number after
A1
A2
A3
A4
Then B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3  A4 B4
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  P( A4 B4 )
 P( A1 ) P( B1 A1 )  P( A2 ) P( B2 A2 )  P( A3 ) P( B3 A3 )  P( A4 ) P( B4 A4 )
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 10 5
Or P( B)            .
4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 12
143
PROBLEMS
☆Problem1. James rotates spinners P, Q and R and adds the resulting numbers.
What is the probability that his sum is an odd number?
(A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 (C) 1/2 (D) 2/3 (E) 3/4
Problem 2. A number is selected at random from 101 through 900. What is the
probability that the number selected is a perfect square?
1 21 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
40 800 80 5 12
Problem 3. A bag contains 3 white, 4 blue, and 5 red marbles. What is the
probability that a marble selected at random is blue?
1 1 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12 3 6 5 12
Problem 4. A bag contains 5 blue marbles, 4 white marbles, and 3 red marbles. If
three marbles are randomly selected from the bag, what is the probability that the
marbles selected will be of the same color?
1 1 1 1 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
22 110 6 5 44
Problem 5. All three-digit numbers that have only the digits 1, 3, 5, or 7 in each
position are recorded on slips of paper and placed in a container. If a slip of paper
is picked at random from the container, what is the probability that it contains the
number 153?
144
1 1 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12 24 64 4 24
Problem 6. Two fair cubical dice are tossed. What is the probability that the sum
of the numbers showing on the dice will be four?
1 1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
12 9 36 4 18
Problem 7. What is the probability that three randomly selected points on the
geoboard shown will be vertices of a triangle?
19 1 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
21 9 36 14 21
Problem 8. Two different prime numbers are selected at random from among the
first ten prime numbers. What is the probability that the sum of the two primes is
24?
1 2 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
45 45 15 9 5
Problem 9. In the figure shown, the circle with center O has a radius of 8 and the
square has side length of 16. If a point is selected at random from
within the region determined by the circle and the square, what is
the probability that it will be within the shaded region?
    2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
  16 3  4 16 3  16 3  16
Problem 10. Darts thrown at a board are equally likely to hit anywhere within a
region on the board. If 75% of the darts land inside the small
square, what is the value of y ?
(A) 4 3 (B) 3 3 (C) 2 3 (D) 3 (E) 7
145
Problem 11. Points A, B, C, and D, are located on AB such that AB  4 AD

 5BC . If a point is selected at random on AB , what is the probability that it is
between C and D?
1 11 1 1 9
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 20 3 4 20
Problem 12. Parallelogram ABCD has vertices A(3, 3), B( –3, –3), C( –9, –3), and
D( –3, 3). If a point is selected at random from the region
determined by the parallelogram, what is the probability
that the point is not above the x-axis?
1 1 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 3 5 4 3
Problem 13. A dart is thrown at the square target shown. Assuming the dart hits
the target at a random location, what is the probability that it
will be in the shaded region?
5 3 4 3 9
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
16 16 4 4 16
Problem 14. When four fair coins are tossed, what is the probability that the
outcome will consist of two heads and two tails?
1 11 1 1 3
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 20 3 4 8
Problem 15. Four coins are tossed. What is the probability that the outcome will
be four heads or four tails?
3 3 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
4 8 6 8 4
146
Problem 16. If a marble is chosen from a bag that contains 10 red marbles, 5 blue
marbles, and 15 white marbles, what is the probability that the marble chosen is
blue or red?
1 1 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 6 3 4 3
Problem 17. If you roll a pair of dice, what is the probability expressed as a
common fraction that both numbers are 2’s or that the sum is less than 6?
1 5 1 1 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
2 18 3 4 3
Problem 18. In his locker, Andrew has 2 history books and 3 math books. In his
rush to get to class, he grabs 1 book, then a second book, without stopping to
look. What is the probability that he pulls a math book out first and a history book
out second?
1 5 1 3 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 18 3 10 3
Problem 19. A dime, 2 nickels, and 3 pennies are in a container. Assume that it is
equally likely to shake out any one coin. What is the probability of shaking out a
penny each of 4 times if the coin is returned after each shake?
1 1 1 3 2
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
2 8 16 10 3
Problem 20. What is the probability that, in three single draws without
replacement, two red marbles and one blue marble will be drawn in that order
from a bag containing six red marbles, eight yellow marbles, and seven blue
marbles?
1 1 3 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
8 18 38 4 38
147
Problem 21. A bag contains 6 marbles and each is red or blue. If 2 marbles are
1
randomly selected, the chance that they are both blue is . How many red
5
marbles are in the bag?
(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 9 (E)11.
Problem 22. What is the probability that, when Alex selects a positive even
integer less than twenty and Bob picks a positive multiple of 3 less than thirty,
they pick the same number?
1 1 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
3 9 27 27 38
Problem 23. Two distinct numbers are chosen at random from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
What is the probability that the quotient of the smaller number divided by the
larger number is a terminating decimal?
2 3 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
5 5 6 7 8
Problem 24. Digit d is randomly selected from the set {4, 5, 6, 7}. Without
replacement of d, another digit e is selected. What is the probability that the two-
digit number de is a multiple of 3?
1 2 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
3 3 4 7 8
Problem 25. What is the probability that David and Tim randomly select the
same number if David selects a positive divisor of 64 and Tim selects a multiple
of 3 that is less than 64?
1 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 0.
3 3 4 7
148
Problem 26. A bag contains only red marbles, blue marbles, and yellow marbles.
1
The probability of randomly selecting a red marble from this bat is , and the
3
1
probability of randomly selecting a blue marble is . Which of the following
5
could be the total number of marbles in the bag?
(A) 10 (B) 15 (C) 18 (D) 20 (E) 32
Problem 27. A box contains wood beads, red glass beads, and blue glass beads.
The number of glass beads is 7 times the number of wood beads. If one bead is to
be chosen at random from the box, the probability that a red glass bead will be
chosen is 6 times the probability that a blue glass bead will be chosen. If there are
24 red glass beads in the box, what is the total number of beads in the box?
(A) 32 (B) 42 (C) 48 (D) 60 (E) 64
Problem 28. A list consists of all possible three-letter arrangements formed by

using the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H such that the first letter is D and one of the
remaining letters is A. If no letter is used more than once in an arrangement in the
list and one three-letter arrangement is randomly selected from the list, what is the
probability that the arrangement selected will be DCA?
(A) 1/5 (B) 1/6 (C) 1/9 (D) 1/10 (E) 1/12
Problem 29. There are x (either hardback or paperback) books on a shelf. If one
book is to be selected at random, the probability that a paperback will be selected
5
is . In terms of x, how many of the books are hardbacks?
12
5x 7x 12x 12x
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 5x
12 12 5 7
Problem 30. Anna is to spin each of the three spinners shown and then add the
resulting numbers. What is the probability that the sum of the three numbers will
be odd?
149
1 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 1.
3 3 4 7
Problem 31. In the 3 × 4 grid shown, the points are one unit apart horizontally
and vertically. Given that two points are randomly selected
from the grid, what is the probability that the distance between
them is 2 ?
1 2 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 0.
3 11 4 7
Problem 32. Two girls and three boys are to be seated in a row of five desks.
What is the probability that the students at the ends of the row are both boys?
1 2 1 3 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) .
3 11 4 10 5
150
SOLUTIONS
☆Problem1. Solution: D.
Because the sum of a number from spinner Q and a number from spinner R is
always odd, the sum of the numbers on the three spinners will be odd exactly
when the number from spinner P is even. Because 4 and 6 are even number on
spinner P, the probability of getting an odd sum is 2/3.
There are 900 – 101 + 1 = 800 numbers.
There are    101  30  10  20 square numbers.
900 
The probability that the number selected is a perfect square is 20/800 = 1/40.
There are total 3 + 4 + 5 = 12 marbles. There are 4 blue marbles. The probability
to draw a blue marble is then 4/12 = 1/3.
There are total 5 + 4 + 3 = 12 marbles. If three marbles are randomly selected
from the bag, the possible outcomes will be:
blue, blue, blue
white, white, white
red, red, red.
 5   4   3
       
3 3 3 10  4  1 15 3
P        .
12  220 220 44
 
3 
There are 4  4  4 = 64 such 3-digit numbers. There is only one 3-digit number
1
of 153. So the probability is .
64
151
When two dice are rolled, there are 36 outcomes. Three outcomes show that the
sum of the integers on the top faces is 4.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
The probability is 3/ 36 = 1/12.
9
The number of ways to select three vertices from the nine vertices is    84 .
3
We must exclude from our count those sets of three points that are collinear.
19
The probability is (84 – 8)/84 = .
21
152
Let us list the first ten prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29.
We have 3 ways to get a sum of 24: 5 + 19 = 24; 7 + 17 = 24; and 11 + 13 = 24.
10 
So we have    45 sums and the probability is 3/45 = 1/15.
2 
P=
1
  82 16 
P 4   .
3
  82  162 3  16  16 2
3  16
4

y 2 75 3 3 2
P    y2  8 
82 100 4 4
y4 3

4 4
4 AD  AD  AD 4   1
CD AB  BC  AD 5 5 11
P     .
AB AB 4 AD 4 20

1
S ABCD
2 1
P  .
S ABCD 2
153

P=
Area of shaded 32  22 5
P  
Area of largest square 42 16

There are total 2  2  2  2 = 16 ways to flip four coins.
4!
There are 4 ways to get exactly two heads and two tails (HHTT): 6.
2!2!
The probability that the outcome will consist of two heads and two tails is:
6/16 = 3/8.

There are total 2  2  2  2 = 16 ways to flip three coins.
There is only 1 way to flip four heads.
There is only 1 way to flip four tails.
The probability of all heads: 1/16.
The probability of all tails: 1/6.
head and tail), P( A  B)  0
The probability that all are heads or all are tails can be calculated using the
1 1 1
formula: P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)    .
16 16 8
There are total 10 + 5 + 15 = 30 marbles. There are 5 blue and 10 red marbles.
The probability to draw a blue marble is 5/30 = 1/6.
The probability to draw a red marble is 10/30 = 1/3.
154
The probability that the marble chosen is blue or red can be calculated using the
formula: P( A or B)  P( A  B)  P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B)
1 1 3 1
  0  .
6 3 6 2

In 1 of the 36 possible outcomes the two numbers are 2’s. There are 9 outcomes
that the sum is less than 6. The probability is (1 + 9)/36 = 10/36 = 5/18.
D1 1 2 3 4 5 6
D2
1 1, 1 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4 1, 5 1, 6
2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6
3 3, 1 3, 2 3, 3 3, 4 3, 5 3, 8
4 4, 1 4, 2 4, 3 4, 4 4, 5 4, 6
5 5, 1 5, 2 5, 3 5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
6 6, 1 6, 2 6, 3 6, 4 6, 5 6, 6

 3  2 
    
1 1 6 3
P     .
5 4 20 10

There are total 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 coins. There are 5 blue and 10 red marbles.
The probability of shaking out a penny is 3/6 = 1/2.
155
The probability of shaking out a penny each of 4 times if the coin is returned after
1 1 1 1 1
each shake is then    = .
2 2 2 2 16

There are total 6 + 8 + 7 = 21 marbles.
 6  5  7 
       
1 1 1 210 1
P       .
21  20  19 7980 38

b
 
2 1  b  15 b(b  1)
P      3   3  b2  b  6  0 
6 5  2 5 2
 
 2
(b  2)(b  3)  0 . So b = 3.

Alex can select 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18
Bob can select 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, and 27.
They can select the following three numbers: 6, 12, and 18.
3 1
The probability that Alex select these three numbers is PA   .
9 3
1
The probability that Bob matches Alex selection is PB  .
9
1 1 1
The answer is P    .
3 9 27
The fraction can be expressed as a terminating decimal if the denomination
contains only factors of 2 or 5.
156
6
We have    15 ways to select two numbers.
 2
The following fractions are not terminating:
(1, 3), (2, 3), (1,6), (2, 6), (4, 6), (5, 6).
The probability that the quotient of the smaller number divided by the larger
6 2
number is a repeating decimal is Pr   .
15 5
The probability that the quotient of the smaller number divided by the larger
2 3
number is a terminating decimal is Pt  1  Pr  1   .
5 5

Method 1: If a two-digit number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits must
be divisible by 3. The following cases are only ones that work: (4, 5), (5, 4), (7,
5), and (5, 7).
Let A1 be the event of selecting the digit 4 as the digit d.

B be the event that the two-digit number de is a multiple of 3.
B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3 + A4 B4
P( B)  P( A1B1 )  P( A2 B2 )  P( A3 B3 )  P( A4 B4 )
1 1 1 1
P( A1 )  ; P( A2 )  ; P( A3 )  ; P( A4 )  .
4 4 4 4
157
1 1 1 1
P( B A1 )  ; P( B A2 )  ; P( B A3 )  ; P( B A4 )  .
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1
P( B)           .
4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 12 3
Method 2: There are a total of 12 ways to select two digits (four ways to select
first digit and 3 ways to select second digit).
There are four favorable ways (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 7), and (7, 5) such that the two-
digit number is a multiple of 3.
4 1
43 3

The positive divisors of 64 are: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64.
The multiple of 3 includes: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45,
48, 51, 54, 57, 60, 63.
No number is belonging to two sets. So the probability is 0.

Let the total number of marbles be t, the number of red marbles be r, and the
number of blue marbles be b.
r
 
1   1  3r = t (1)
t 3
b
 
1   1  5b = t (2)
t 5
Solving (1) and (2): 3r = 5b (3)
We know that r and b are both positive integers. So we have b = 3 and r = 5.
t = 5b = 15 or a multiple of 15. So B is the only answer.
158

Let the number of red glass beads be rg, and the number of blue glass beads be bg.
1
The number of wood beads will be (rg  bg ) .
7
rg bg
 6  rg  6bg
1 1
rg  bg  (rg  bg ) rg  bg  (rg  bg )
7 7
1 1
We know that rg  24 . So bg  4 , and (rg  bg )  (24  4)  4 .
7 7
The answer is 24 + 4 + 4 = 32.

We have two cases:
Case 1: DAX
Case 2: DXA
X represents the letter undetermined.
For each case, we have 6 ways to put another letter.
We only have one way to get DCA.
So the probability is 1/12.

Let the number of paperback books be p.
p 5 5
  p  x.
x 12 12
5 7
The number of hardback books is x  p  x  x  x.
12 12

The sum of the first and the second spinners is odd. If the final sum is odd, the
third spinner needs to show an even number.
The probability that the third spinner shows an even number is 1/3. So the answer
is 1/3.
159

12 
We have    66 line segments.
2 
We have 12 line segments with the distance of 2 :
The answer is then 12/66 = 2/11.

We have five positions as follows.
The total number of ways to seat them is 5! = 120.

For position A, we can seat boy 1, boy 2 or boy 3. So we get 3 ways.
For position E, after position A is occupied, we have 2 ways.
After positions A and E are occupied, we have 3! Ways to seat one boy and two
girls.
So we get 3 × 2 × 3! = 36 ways such that the students at the ends of the row are
both boys.
The answer is then P = 36/120 = 3/10.
160
AMC 8 Preparation Index
A D
absolute value, 2 decimal, 18, 86, 88
acute triangle, 111 diagonal, 110
altitude, 110, 111, 112 diameter, 114, 129
angle, 108, 110, 112, 117, 120, 127 difference, 33, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 65,
area, 76, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 66
109, 113, 114, 115, 118, 120, 121, 127 digit, 3, 5, 13, 15, 42, 56, 88, 127, 138, 144, 148,
arithmetic mean, 52 151, 157, 158
arithmetic sequence, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, divisible, 31, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 45, 46, 47, 48,
62, 63, 64, 65, 66 49, 50, 51, 93, 127, 157
divisor, 33, 40, 42, 46, 47, 50, 51, 148
B
E
base, 79
binary, 9 equation, 7, 19
evaluate, 10, 19, 20
C even number, 151, 159
event, 122, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
center, 103, 114, 145 141, 142, 143, 157
chord, 103 exponent, 13
circle, 100, 103, 104, 105, 111, 114, 127, 128, expression, 76
145
coefficient, 85
F
collinear, 152
combination, 33 face, 131, 132
common factor, 34, 50 factor, 40, 50, 51, 93
common fraction, 5, 11, 12, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, finite, 52, 53
71, 84, 114, 133, 147 formula, 8, 54, 55, 61, 63, 67, 68, 69, 73, 84, 98,
common multiple, 40 102, 122, 127, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 154,
concentric, 128 155
congruent, 97, 108, 113 fraction, 1, 156
constant, 58, 85, 90, 91 function, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83,
counting, 56, 123 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91
counting numbers, 56
counting principle, 123 G
cube, 139
geometric mean, 53, 58
geometric sequence, 53, 57, 58, 62
161
graph, 73, 85 operation, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 18, 21

ordered pair, 140
H outcome, 134, 146, 154
hexagon, 115
P
hypotenuse, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 110, 111, 112,
113, 115, 117, 120 parallelogram, 146
perimeter, 113, 118, 120
I perpendicular, 103, 105, 107
point, 88, 128, 129, 145, 146
independent events, 134, 135 positive number, 59, 88
integer, 2, 4, 5, 18, 23, 31, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40, 42, prime factorization, 2
43, 44, 45, 48, 51, 54, 65, 77, 78, 79, 86, 88, prime number, 2, 51, 135, 136, 145, 153
109, 113, 140, 141, 148 probability, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128,
integers, 2, 3, 7, 19, 32, 33, 34, 36, 42, 43, 45, 54, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137,
56, 63, 64, 65, 68, 78, 79, 82, 86, 100, 124, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147,
152, 158 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
isosceles, 99, 102, 103, 106, 109 157, 158, 159
isosceles triangle, 99, 102 product, 64, 125, 131, 132
Pythagorean Theorem, 3, 103, 105, 106, 107,
L 116, 117, 118, 119, 120
Pythagorean Triple, 109, 120
LCM, 35, 36, 39, 41, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 60, 68
line, 73, 110, 111, 160
line segment, 110, 111, 160
Q
quadrilateral, 104, 114
M quotient, 31, 32, 33, 37, 40, 42, 148, 157
mean, 7, 31, 41
median, 100, 112
R
midpoint, 108, 109, 111, 114 radius, 100, 104, 111, 145
multiple, 2, 44, 135, 136, 138, 148, 157, 158 random, 122, 126, 129, 130, 135, 140, 142, 144,
145, 146, 148, 149
N ratio, 53, 57, 58, 106, 107, 110, 111, 113
real number, 5, 10, 16, 18, 23, 66, 75, 88, 92
natural number, 14, 22, 32, 34, 40, 42, 81, 89 real numbers, 5, 10, 16, 18, 23, 66, 75, 88
natural numbers, 14, 22, 89 reciprocal, 1
negative number, 59 rectangle, 110, 114
relatively prime, 100
O remainder, 13, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 59
odd number, 144
162
repeating decimal, 157 trapezoid, 97, 105, 106, 107

right angle, 110, 112, 117 triangle, 62, 63, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
right triangle, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 145
116, 117, 119, 120, 121
V
S
variable, 71
semicircle, 129 vertex, 76, 85, 91
sequence, 52, 53, 58, 59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 68, 115
set, 32, 60, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, W
148
similar, 98, 108, 117, 118, 119 whole number, 21, 33, 34, 35, 42, 46, 65, 89
similar figures, 98 whole numbers, 65
slope, 73
solution, 70, 106, 125 X
square, 65, 78, 92, 97, 101, 104, 106, 107, 110,
114, 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, 144, 145, 146, x-axis, 146
151
sum, 2, 4, 5, 18, 31, 41, 43, 44, 47, 52, 56, 60, 61, Y
63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 88, 97, 101, 124, 139, 144,
y-intercept, 73
145, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 159
T Z
zero, 93
term, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65,
66, 68, 69, 70, 95, 99, 117
terminating decimal, 148, 156, 157
163

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American Mathematics Competitions

Chapter 19 Special symbols and operations 1

Chapter 21 Sequences and series 52

Chapter 23 Pythagorean Theorem and triangles 97

Chapter 24 Probability 122

All the rules of operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, radicals,

Fundamental law of fractions:

To divide by a fraction, we simply multiply by its reciprocal.

Power rules of exponents

ab  a  b (a > 0, and b > 0)

Properties of absolute value

For an integer n greater than 1, let the prime factorization of n be

The number of divisors is: d (n)  (a  1)(b  1)(c  1)(m  1)

Sum of the positive divisors

The sum of divisors is:

p1a 1  1 p2b1  1 p m1  1

Patterns of the last digit of an

For example, when a = 2,

A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c, such that

There are 16 primitive Pythagorean triples with c < 100:

Example 4. If a  b = a2 + ab – b2, then find (3  2)  13.

Example 7. If a ▽ b = a2 + 2ab + b2, what is the value of (3 ▽ 2) ▽ 5?

Example 8. Define x  y = x3 – y. What is h  (h  h)?

Example 9. The operation ⊕ is defined as m⊕n = m2 – mn – n2, and the

Example 11. Define (x △ y) to mean 2x – 3y. Evaluate ((4 △ 3) △ (5 △ 3)).

Example 12. Given that a ✦ b = a3 – b2, what is the value of 4 ✦ (2 ✦ 1)?

Example 13. 10. Subfactorials, !n, are defined by the formula:

Example 14. The operation ✿ is defined by n ✿ = n2 – 1. What is the value of the

following: 10(3✿)  5(4✿)?

10(3✿)  5(4✿) = 10 × 8 – 5 ×15 = 80 – 75 = 5.

Example 16. If a ★ b is defined as (a + 1)(b + 1), find (2 ★ 3) ★ 4.

▽ b = (a + b)3. What is the value of (2 ✬ 3) ▽ 9?

(2 ✬ 3) ▽ 9 = ( 19) ▽ 9 = ( 19 + 9)3 = 1000.

Example 18. Given a * b = ab + 1, evaluate: 4 * [(6 * 8) + (3 * 5)] .

Example 19. If a ☆ b = ab – 1 and a ★ b = a + b – 1, what is the value of 4

☆Example 28. The operation  is defined for all nonzero numbers by a  b =

Example 29. If x ✪ y = (xy)x, what is the units digit of 4 ✪ 10?

Example 31. If a ★ b = ab + ba, what is (4 ★ 3)  (3 ★ 4)?

Example 33. If x ✇ y = xy  x + yy, find the value of (4 ✇ 2)  (3 ✇ 1).

Example 34. If x ⊕ y = (xy)x, what is the units digit of 7 ⊕ 5?

✫(33, 56) = 332  562  65

✫(✫(16, 63), ✫(33, 56)) = ✫(65, 65) = 652  652  65 2

Problem 4. If ☆ represents an operation defined by a ☆ b = a3 + b, find

Problem 6. Given that a ✇ b = (a2 + b) ÷ 2. What is the value of 5 ✇ 3?

Problem 7. If a ⍉ b = a2 + b, evaluate (4 ⍉ 3) ⍉ 18.

☆Problem 8. Define x  y = x3 – y. What is h  (h  h)?

Problem 9. If x ⍉ y = x2 – y2, what is (3 ⍉ 2) ⍉ 4?

Problem 10. If ab  ab  a  b , find the value of b in the equation 3b  5 .

Problem 11. If a  b = 2a – b, what does 3  4 equal?

Problem 13. If A ✯ B = 3A2 – 2B3, find 7 ✯ 3.

Problem 14. If y ◅ = y2 – 1, find (9◅)◅.

Problem 15. If a ▼ b = 3a – b2, find 2 ▼ (3 ▼ 1).

Problem 17. Given a ◇b = a(a + b) + b(a + b), find 9 ◇ 7.

Problem 19. If a ◇ b = a2b, find (3◇2)  (2◇3).

Problem 31. If a ✪ b is defined as 2a – ba, what value is associated with (5 ✪ 2)

Problem 32. Given a ✿ b = ba  ba + ab, find (2 ✿ 3)  (3 ✿ 2).

Problem 33. For natural numbers, a and b a ⊠ b = ba – a + b. Find the value of

Problem 35. If (a ✦ b) = (a  b) + ab + ba, find 3 ✦ 5.

Problem 39. Given a ✫ b = a 2  b 2 , find ((13 ✫ 84) ✫ (36 ✫ 77)).