LESSON – 1

WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the definition of psychology in the beginning and then
moves onto the various aspects or views that the psychologists have till date, focused
upon. The numerous challenges to behaviorism and the consequent emergence of what
we term today as modern psychology is the next aspect reviewed. Over the years,
several psychologists have developed a variety of approaches to understand behaviour
and these can be broadly classified into the perspectives of modern psychology. As
future psychologists, we also have to understand what areas or subfields of psychology
exist even before we can choose our specialization or the area we wish to deal in. The
sub fields of psychology are briefly visited in this lesson for this purpose. The lesson
concludes with the exploration of psychology from being a science to actual practice.

1 .2 Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
 Understand the concept of psychology.
 Identify the several views of psychologists.
 Enumerate the challenges to behaviorism.
 Trace the emergence of modern psychology.
 Explore the perspectives of modern psychology.
 Classify the sub fields of psychology.

Plan of study
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Objectives.
1.3 Definition of Psychology.
1.4 Challenges to Behaviorism and the Emergence of Modern Psychology.
1.5 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology.
1.6 Sub Fields of Psychology.
1.7 Exploration of Psychology.
1.8 Summary.
1.9 Activity.
1.10 Key Words.
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress.
1.12 Model Questions.
1.3 Definition of Psychology.
Psychology is best defined as the science of behaviour and cognitive processes. By
the term behaviour, in other words psychology means any observable action or reaction
of a living organism everything from overt actions (anything we say or do) through
subtle changes in the electrical activity occurring inside our brains. If it can be observed
and measured then it fits within the boundaries of psychology. Similarly, by cognitive
processes, psychology means every aspect of our mental life-our thoughts memories,
mental images, reasoning, decision making, and so on-in short, all aspects of human
mind.
Wilhelm Wundt proposed that psychology should focus on analyzing the contents
of consciousness in order to determine basic elements and relationship between them,
a view known as structuralism. The task he argued could be carried out by introspection
a method in which trained individuals report in detail on their conscious experiences in
response to specific stimuli [example: sounds, optical illusions, other visual stimuli]
under carefully controlled condition.
Structuralism‘s focus on identifying the elements of consciousness was soon
challenged by William James and other psychologists who felt that their new field
should focus not on the structure of consciousness but on its functions. Functionalism
was strongly influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection; its proponents argued
that since consciousness is uniquely human characteristics it must serve important
functions for us — otherwise it would never have evolved. With this in mind James and
other functionalist focused on understanding the functions of consciousness - how it
helps human beings cope with the challenging and changing world around them. This
gave a practical slant to the research conducted by functionalist. Who began to focus on
such topics as child development and the relative benefits of various educational
practices.
Although functionalism itself gradually faded away as an identifiable ‘ism' or
school, its practical orientation left a lasting impact on the field. Moreover, the idea that
aspects of consciousness or behaviour have evolved to serve important functions has
recently received new attention in the field of Evolutionary psychology.
Behaviorism burst upon the field in 1913 Watson argued passionately for
the view that psychology should focus not on consciousness or experience but on
behaviour – actions that can be observed and measured. Many psychologists had
already begun to lose interest in studying consciousness and in using introspection as a
research method, so Watson views quickly won general acceptance. Indeed, the idea
that psychology should focus only on observable behavior dominated the field for
several decades. Moreover, B.F Skinner perhaps the most famous behaviorist of all
emphasized it still further. He argued that these mental states could be studied
scientifically; they should not be part of psychology. Rather the field should focus only
on overt responces to various stimuli For example; we should not make any
assumptions about internal state such as motivation. For instance, we can condescend
that the animal who has not eaten for several hours may press a lever to obtain food,
but we cannot directive its hunger motivation. Behaviorism in one form or another, had
won the day.

1.4 Challenges to Behaviorism and the Emergence of Modern Psychology

Although behaviorism dominated psychology for decades, it never had things all its
own way. Even as Watson was issuing his call for focusing on overt behaviour
psychologist were listening with growing interest to the theories of Viennese.
Psychiatrist named Sigmund Freud who argued strongly for the role of unconscious and
other internal processes in human behaviour and mental disorders. Another challenge
to behaviorism occurred in the 1950's when humanistic psychologists argued that
contrary to what behaviorist proposed, people really do have free will-they do not
repeat behaviour that yield positive outcomes while avoiding behaviour that produce
negative ones. Moreover, people are strongly motivated by future plans and goals, and
by the desire for personal growth. Humanist also rejected Freud‘s view that much of our
behaviour stem from innate aggression and sexual urges.
The ultimate changes to behaviorism and narrow definition of psychology it
proposed, however came from what psychologist often describe as the cognitive
revolution - a renewal of interest in all aspects of cognition. This revolution has been
brewing for some time. As psychologist quietly went about studying memory /
reasoning problem solving, and other cognitive processes.
By the 1960, the development of computers provided such researchers with
important tools for conducting the research. For instance, computers made it possible
to expose individuals to specific stimuli in a very precise manner and to measure the
speed of their reactions with great precision researchers could then use such
information as the basis for drawing inferences about underlying mental processes.
Suppose that research participants are first exposed to some stimuli a list of words such
as hotel, river, and stadium. Then they are shown parts of these words namely, hot. riv.
stad. along with parts of other words, they have not seen and were asked to complete
all the words. Generally, those words the participants had seen previously have an
advantage - they were identified more quickly or accurately than the new words. Yet if
asked, participants were often unaware of this and believed they had simply guessed.
Findings like these provide evidence that our memory holds information we cannot
readily put into words.
These advances in research methods were soon followed by techniques for
observing activity within the brains of fully awake people as they perform various
cognitive tasks trying to remember words they had previously heard or seen or working
on various kinds of problem. The result processes that early behaviorist once thought to
be unobservable and the behaviorist objection to studying them faded away. The study
of cognitive processes is now one of the most vigorous areas of research in psychology.
In short, modern psychology truly is the study of behaviour and cognitive
processes. It studies all aspects of human behaviour everything we think, feel,
experience do and is no longer restrained by the boundaries imposed on it by the
various school or ‘isms' described.

Check Your Progress -l

Fill in the blanks

1. Wundt described psychology as the study of conscious experience, a perspective he

called _____________.
2. Early psychologists studied the mind by asking the people to describe what they were
experiencing when exposed to various stimuli. This procedure was known as _________.
3. The statement, “In order to study human behaviour, we must consider the whole of
perception rather than its component parts" might be made by a person subscribing to
the ____________ perspective.
4. Jeanne‘s therapist asks her to recount a violent dream she recently experienced in
order to gain insight into the unconscious forces affecting her behaviour. Jeanne’s
therapist is working from a ____________ perspective.

1.5 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology

The various perspective offer distinct outlooks and emphasize different factors.
Psychologists developed a variety of approaches to understanding behaviour. When
considered jointly, the different perspectives provide the means to explain behaviour in
its amazing variety.
Today, the field of psychology involves five major perspectives. Each of these
broad perspectives emphasizes different aspects of behaviour and mental processes,
and each takes our understanding of behaviour in somewhat different directions.

1.5.1 Biological perspective.

When we get down to the basics, human beings are animals made of skin and
bones; The biological perspective considers how people and non-humans function
biologically how individual nerve cells are joined together, how the inheritance of
certain characteristics from parents and other ancestors influences behaviour, how the
functioning of the body’s affects hopes and so forth. Even more complex kinds of
behaviour. Such as a baby's response to strangers, are viewed as having critical
biological components by psychologists using the biological perspective. This
perspective includes the study of heredity and evolution, and how heredity might
influence behaviour.
Because every behaviour at some level can be broken down into its biological
components, the biological perspective has broad appeal. Psychologists who subscribe
to this perspective have made major contributions to the understanding and betterment
of human life, ranging from developing cures types of deafness to identifying
medications to treat people with severe mental disorders.

1.5.2 Psychodynamic perspective

To many people who have never taken a psychology course, psychology begins
and ends with the psychodynamic perspective. Proponents of the psychodynamic
perspective believe that behaviour is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about
which we have little awareness or control. Dreams and slips the tongue are viewed as
indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething cauldron of unconscious
psychic activity.
The psychodynamic view is intimately linked with one individual, Sigmund Freud.
Freud was a Viennese physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about unconscious
determinants of behaviour had a revolutionary effect on twentieth-century thinking, not
just in psychology but in related fields as well. Although some of the original principles
of psychodynamic thinking have been roundly criticized, contemporary use of the
perspective has provided a means not only to understand and treat some kinds of
psychoicgical disorders, but also to understand everyday phenomena such as prejudice
and aggression.

1.5.3 Cognitive perspective

The route to understanding behaviour leads some psychologists straight into the
mind. Evolving in part from structuralism, the cognitive perspective focuses on how
people think, understand, and know about the world. The emphasis is on how people
comprehend and represent the outside world within themselves, and how our ways of
thinking about the world influence behaviour.
Psychologists using the cognitive perspective often compare human thinking to
the working of a computer, considering how information is input, transformed, stored,
and retrieved, in this view, thinking is information processing.
 Psychologists relying on the cognitive perspective ask questions ranging from how
people make decisions to whether a person can watch television and study at the same)
time. The common elements that link cognitive approaches are an emphasis on how
people understand and think about the world and a concern to describe the patterns
and irregularities in the operation of our minds.

1.5.4 Behavioral perspective

While the biological, psychodynamic, and cognitive approaches look inside the
organism to determine the causes of its behavior the behavioral perspective takes a
very different approach. The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of
psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind, suggesting instead that
the field should focus on observable behaviour that can be measured objectively.
John B Waston was the first major American psychologist to advocate a behavioral
approach, working in the 1920s. Watson was adamant in his view that one could gain a
complete understanding of behaviour by studying and modifying the environment in
which people operated, In fact, he believed rather optimistically that it was possible to
elicit any desired sort of behaviour by controlling a person's environment. This
philosophy is clear in his own specified world to bring them up in and I will guarantee to
take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-
doctor, lawyer, artist merchant- chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of
his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors
Watson.1924). B.F. Skinner, who until his death in 1990 was probably the best, later
championed the behavioral perspective- know psychologist. Much of our understanding
of how people learn new behaviour is based on the behavioral perspective as we see,
the behavioral perspective crops up along every by way of psychology. Along with its
influence in the area of learning processes, this perspective has also contributed in such
diverse areas as treating mental disorders, curbing aggression, resolving sexual
problems, and ending drug addiction.

1.5.5 Humanistic perspective

Rejecting the views that behavior is determined largely by automatic biological
force, by or by the environment, the humanistic perspective instead suggests that all
individuals naturally strive to grow, develop and be in control of their lives and
behaviour. Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the capacity to seek
and reach fulfillment.
According to Call Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who were central figures in the
development of the humanistic perspective, people will strive to reach their full
potential if given the opportunity. The emphasis of the humanistic perspective is on free
will, the ability to make decision freely, about one’s own behavior and life. The notion of
free will stands in contrast to determinism , which sees behavior as cause, or
determined, by things beyond a person’s control.
The humanistic behaviour perspective assumes that people have the ability to
make their own choices about their behaviour rather than rely on societal standards.
More than any other approach, it stresses role of psychology in enriching people’s lives
and helping them to achieve self-fulfillment. The humanistic perspective has had
important influence psychologists, reminding them of their commitment to the
individual person in society.

Check Your Progress – ll

1 “We should study observable behaviour, not the suspected inner workings of the
mind.” Someone with which perspective most likely made this statement:
a. cognitive perspective.
b. biological perspective.
c. humanistic perspective.
d. behavioural perspective.

2. "My therapist is wonderful! She always points out my positive traits. She dwells on
my uniqueness and strength as an individual. I feel much more confident about myself
as if l'm really growing and reaching my potential." The therapist being described most
likely practices from _________perspective.

3. What perspective suggests that abnormal behavior is largely that result of

unconscious forces?

4. Which perspective considers how people know, understand and think about the
world?

5. The biological approach focuses on the biological functioning of people and animals,
considering the most basic components of behaviour. True or False

1.6 Sub Fields of Psychology

Psychologists specialize in studying many different aspects of behaviour.

1 .6.1 Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a framework in which to understand the mind more than a
subject area, although it has traditionally focused on certain aspects of psychology.
Perception, learning, problem solving. Memory, attention, language and emotion are all
well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is based on a school of thought known as
cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information-processing model of mental
function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models
from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological
theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology.

1.6.2 Clinical and counselling psychology

Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to the understanding,
treatment, and assessment of psychopathology, behavioral or mental health issues. It
has traditionally been associated with counseling and psychotherapy, although modern
clinical psychology make take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic
approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as psychiatrists,
clinical psychologist does not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Clinical psychologist largely
works within the scientist-practitioner model where clinical problems are formulated as
hypotheses to be tested as information is gathered about the patient and his or her
mental state. Some clinical psychology may focus on the clinical management of
patients with brain injury. This is known as clinical neuropsychology and typically
involves additional training in brain function.
In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been
developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches
of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use
therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their
effectiveness. From the other side, those clinicians believe that the academics are
ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted
in the formation of the American Psychological Society by the research psychologists as
a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association.

1.6.3 Developmental psychology

Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span,
developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive,
understand, and act within the world and how these perceptions change as we age. This
may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers
who study children use a number of unique research methods to engage them in
experimental tasks. These tasks often resemble specially designed games activities that
are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically usefully. In addition to studying
children, developmental psychologists also study other times of rapid change such as
adolescence and old age.

1.6.4 Educational psychology

Educational psychology largely seeks to apply much of this knowledge and
understand how learning can best take place in educational situations. Because of this,
the work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky , Jean piaget and Jerome Bruner
have been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

1.6.5 Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is concerned with the psychology of crime, criminals, and law
enforcement. A forensic psychologist may be involved in assessment of offenders or
innervations to prevent offending behaviour, usually with people who have already met
the legal or penal system. Often this involves working with offenders with mental health
problems. Or with people who act dangerously or in an antisocial Manner [example,
psychopaths]. Criminal profiling is another important role fulfilled by forensic
psychologists and typically involves building psychological profiles of unknown or at-
large offenders from the known evidence.

1:6.6 Health psychology

Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness,
health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-
related behaviour including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient
understands of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may
be involved in public health campaigns, examine the impact of illness or health policy on
quality of life or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

1.6.7 Industrial and organizational psychology

Involved with the application of Psychology to the world of business, commerce
and the function of organizations, industrial and organisational psychology focuses to
varying degrees on the psychology of workforce, customer, and consumer, including
issues such as the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant
pool which overall includes Training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, work
behavior, stress at work and management.
1.6.8 Neuro psychology
Neuropsychology is branch of psychology that aims to understand how the
structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. Often
neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical
knowledge. Cognitive neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding
of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. Clinical
neuropsychology is the application of neuropsychology for the clinical management of
patients with neurocognitive deficits.

1.6.9 Social psychology

Social psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For
example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (Example
conformity or persuasion). The perception and understanding of social cues. Or the
formation of attitudes or stereo types about other people. Social cognition is a common
approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding
social behaviour.

1.6.10 Experimental psychology

Studies all basic psychological processes, including, perception, learning and
motivation.

1.6.11 Environmental psychology

Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their
physical environment, including how our physical duding how our physical Environment
affects our emotions and the amount of stress we experience in a particular setting.

1.6.12 Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology

Investigates biological bases of behaviour and the role of evolution in human
behaviour.

Check Your Progress - Ill

State whether the following statements are True or False

1. Cognitive psychology an outgrowth of experimental psychology, studies higher

mental processes, including memory, knowing, thinking, reasoning, problem solving,
judging, decision-making and language.
2. Clinical psychologists can prescribe psychiatric drugs for treatment.

3. Developmental psychologists study how people grow and change throughout the life
span.
4. Forensic psychologists are involved with offenders or interventions to prevent
offending behaviour.
5. Modern clinical psychology does not take an eclectic approach.
6. Educational psychology primarily deals with how learning can best take place in
educational situations.
7. Health psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness.
8. Industrial and organizational psychology deals with the psychology of the workforce,
customer and consumer, recruitment, training at all.
9. Neuropsychology dealing with the structure and function of the brain can be classified
into cognitive neuropsychology and clinical neuropsychology.
10. Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and actions are
affected by others.

1.7 Exploration of Psychology

Most people realize that several branches of psychology are applied - not only
they seek to acquire basic knowledge about human behaviour, but also they attempt to
put it to practical use For instance clinical psychologists help individuals deal with
emotional and psychological problem, while industrial / organizational psychologist
focus on solving problem relating to work (eg increased motivation, evaluating
employees performance fairly and accurately.
In recent years, however, application of psychology‘s knowledge about human
behaviour has expanded beyond psychology itself. Many other fields have found
answers to some of their most questions in the findings and principles of psychology,
and have begun to draw upon his knowledge to an increasing degree. In other words,
Psychology has matured and become an ever-richer source of knowledge about human
behaviour; persons in other fields have recognized this resource and put it to good use.
How have they used the findings of psychology in many ways: to improve procedures for
the selection and training of employees, to enhance the performance of athletes, to
improve classroom instructions, and to train police for better community relations , to
mention just a few instances.
Trained psychologist tries to practice psychology anyway to conduct therapy.
Design psychological tests, or advice business about how to handle their employees.
Check Your Progress - IV

Match each subfield of psychology with an issue or question posed below:

A. Psychobiology 1. Joan in college needs to learn better organizational

skills and study habits to cope with the demands of
college.
B. Experimental psychology 2. At what age do children generally begin to acquire an
emotional attachment to their fathers?
C. Cognitive psychology 3. Films that show violence against women can prompt
aggressive behaviour in man.
D. Developmental 4. What chemicals are released in the human body as a
psychology result of a stressful event? What are their effects on
behaviour?
E. Health psychology 5. Luc is not able to concentrate and work well because of
his discomfort and the stress with his physical
environment.
F. Clinical psychology 6. Janetta's job is stressful and demanding. She wonders
of her lifestyle are making her prone to certain illnesses.
such as cancer and heart disease.
G. Counseling psychology 7. A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people
are much more sensitive to painful stimuli than others
are.
H. Educational psychology 8. A strong fear of crowds leads a young woman to seek
treatment for her problem.
l. Social psychology 9.Teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary
school students to successfully accomplish academic
tasks.
J. Industrial organizational 10. You are asked to develop a management strategy that
will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant.
K. Environmental 11. William was in an accident and has suffered a brain
psychology injury. The focus now is to gain understanding of the
injury to bring normal psychological functioning.
L. Neuropsychology 12. Mental strategies involve in solving complex word
problems.
1.8 Summary
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.
Encompassing not just, what people do, but also their biological activities, feelings,
perceptions, memory, Reasoning and thoughts. Vlfilheim Wundt in Germany established
the foundations of psychology in 1879, the early perspectives that guided the work of
psychologists were structuralism, functionalism and gestalt theory. Modern psychology
boasts of five broad perspectives, - the Biological, Psychodynamic, Cognitive, Behavioral
and Humanistic perspectives. Further, psychology encompasses many different subfields
and specialties practiced in a variety of settings such as (3) Cognitive psychology (b)
Clinical and Counselling psychology (c) Developmental psychology (d) Educational
psychology (e) Forensic psychology (f) Health psychology (g) industrial and
organizational psychology (h) Neuropsychology (i) Social psychology 0) Experimental
psychology (k) Environmental psychology (l) Psychobiology and Evolutionary psychology.
The field of psychology is broad and diverse with new subfields arising and coming to
prominence all the time.

1.9 Activity
Make a self-assessment of your strengths and weakness that is the introspection
method of looking into yourself.

1.10 Key Words

Psychology : A Scientific study of mind and behaviour.
Structuralism : Focuses on the basic elements that form the foundation of
thinking, consciousness, emotions and other kinds of mental and
states and activities.
Introspection : A procedure used to study the structure of mind, by looking into
themselves.
Functionalism : The functions of mind for the role of behaviour in allowing people
to adapt to their environment.
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

I. 1. Structuralism 2. introspection 3. Gestalt 4. Psychoanalytic

II. 1. (b) 2. Humanistic 3. Psychoanalytic 4. Cognitive 5. False

III. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False

6. True 7. True 8. True 9. True 10. True

lV. A-4 B-7 C - 12 D-2 E-6

F-8 G-1 H-9 l-3 J - 10
K-5 L - 11

1.12 Model Questions

1. Define psychology and enumerate the various perspectives of modern

psychology.
2. How would the approach taken by a psychologist using the biological perspective
differ from the approach taken by a cognitive psychologist?
3. What are the major approaches used by contemporary psychologists?
4. Select one of the five major perspectives in use today and describe the sorts of
research questions and studies that researchers using that perspective may
pursue.
 LESSON - 2

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

We begin this chapter by examining the scientific method used to pose and
answer questions of psychological interest. We then discuss the different methods of
psychology and the various research methods employed by psychologists. We also
describe how psychologists develop suppositions and theories that can be tested
through research. Finally, we look at the aspect of psychological testing as an important
research instrument.

2.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to

 Explain the scientific method.
 Elucidate the several research methods of psychology.
 Understand the psychological testing.

Plane of study
2.1 Introduction.
2.2 Objectives.
2.3 Scientific Method.
2.4 Psychological Research.
2.5 Psychological Testing.
2.6 Summary.
2.7 Activity.
2.8 Key Words.
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress.
2.10 Model Questions.

2.3 Scientific Method

The challenge of posing, appropriate question and properly answering them has
been met through reliance on the scientific method. The scientific method is the
approach used by psychologist to interest. It consists of three main steps (1) Identifying
question of interest (2) Formulating an explanation, and (3) Carrying out research
designed to lend support to or refute the explanation.
2.3.1 Theories
In using scientific method, psychologists start with the kinds of obeservations
about behaviour we are all familiar with, if you have ever asked yourself why a
particular teacher is so easily annoyed, why a friend is always late for appointments, or
how your dog understands your commands, you have been formulating questions about
behaviour. Psychologists, too, ask questions about the nature and causes of behaviour,
and this questioning is the first step in the scientific method; identifying questions of
interest.
Once a question has been identified, the next step in the scientific method
involves developing theories to explain the phenomenon that has been observed.
Theories are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.
They provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of otherwise
unorganized facts or principles.

2.3.2 Hypotheses; Crafting testable prediction

Their next step was to devise a way of testing their theory. To do this, they needed
to create a hypothesis. The hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be
tested) Hypotheses stem from theories; they help to test the underlying validity of
theories.

Check Your Progress -I

Fill in the blanks

1. Scientific method is the challenge of posing ___________questions and

answering them ____________.

2. An explanation about a phenomenon of interest is known as a ______________.

3. To test this statement, it must be stated in terms of a testable question known as a

______________.

2.4 Psychological Research

Research, systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge, is a central
ingredient of the scientific method in psychology. It provides the key to understanding
the degree to which theories and hypotheses are accurate.
2.4.1 Archival research

In archival research, existing data such as census, document, college records, or

newspaper clipping, are examined to test a hypothesis. For example, college records
might be used to determine if there are gender differences in academic performance.
Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis because
someone else has already collected the basic data. Of course, the use of existing data
has several drawbacks. For one thing, the data might not be in a form that allows the
researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could
have been collected haphazardly.
Most archival research is hampered by the simple fact that records with the
necessary information do not exist. In these instances, researchers often turn to another
research method (i.e.) naturalistic observation.

2.4.2 Naturalistic observation

In naturalistic observation, the investigator simply observes some naturally
occurring behaviour and does not make a change in the situation. For example, a
researcher investigating helping behaviour might observe the kind of help given to
victims in a high- crime area of a city. The important point to remember about
naturalistic observation is that the researcher is passive and simply records what occurs
(Eriandsonet at, 1993; Adler& Adler 1994; Schmidt. 1999)
Although the advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious-we get a sample of
what people do in their "natural habitat”-there is also an important drawback; (i.e) the
inability to control any of the factors of interest. For example, we might find so few
naturally occurring instances of helping behaviour that we would be unable to draw any
conclusions. Because naturalistic observation prevents researchers from making
changes in a situation. They must wait until appropriate conditions occur. Furthermore,
if people know that they are being watched, they might alter their reactions, producing
behaviour that is not truly representative of the group in question.

2.4.3 Survey research

There is straighter forward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do than
asking them directly. For this reason, surveys are an important research method. In
survey research, samples of people chosen to represent some larger group of interest
are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thought, or attitudes. Survey
methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample researchers
are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond. For instance, a
sample of just a few thousand voters is sufficient to predict within one or two
percentage points who will win care (Weisberg, Krosnick. & Bowen. 1996; Fink&
Koseciff.1998).
Researchers investigating helping behaviour might conduct a survey by asking
people to complete a questionnaire in which they indicate their reasons for not wanting
to come forward to help another individual. Similarly, researchers interested in learning
about sexual practices have carried out surveys to learn which practices are common
and which are not, and to chart changing notions of sexual morality over the past
several decades.
Asking people directly about their behaviour seems in some ways the most
straightforward approach to understanding what people do, but survey research has
several potential drawbacks. For one thing, people might give inaccurate responses
because of memory lapses or because they do not want the researcher to know what
they really believe about a particular issue. Moreover, people sometimes offer
responses they think the researcher wants to hear, or, in just the opposite instance,
responses they assume the researcher does not want to hear. Finally, if the samples of
people who are surveyed are not representative of the broader population of interest,
the results of the survey have little meaning.

2.4.4 Case study

A case study is an in-depth intensive investigation of an individual or a small group
of people. Case studies often include psychological testing, a procedure in which a
carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of
the individual or group being studied. When case studies are used as a research
technique, the goal is often not only to learn about the few individuals being examined,
but also to use the insight gained from the study to improve our understanding of
people in general. Sigmund Freud built his theories through case studies of individual
patients. Similarly, case studies of the two killers in the Columbine High School
shootings might help identify other adolescents who are prone to violence.

2.4.5 Correlational research

In using the research methods that we have described, researchers often wish to
determine the relationship between two variables. Variables are behaviour, events or
other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. For example, we might want
to find out if there is a relationship between the variable of religious service attendance
and the variable if helpfulness in emergency situations. If we did find such a relationship
we could say that there was an association-or correlation—between attendance at
religious services and helpfulness in emergencies.
 In correlational research, the relationship between two sets of variables is
examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated." The strength and
direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a
mathematical score, known as a correlation that can range has +1.0 to -1.0.

A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can
predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. For example, if we predict
that the more that students study for a test, the higher their subsequent grades on the
test will be, and that the less they study, the lower their test scores will be. We are
expecting to find a positive correlation. (Higher values of the variable “amount of study
time" would be associated with higher values of the variable “test score", and lower
values of “amount of study time” would be associated with lower values of “test score“)
The correlation then, would be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the
association between studying and test scores, the closer the number would be to + 1.0.
For example, we might find a correlation of +0.85 between test scores and amount of
studying time, indicating a strong positive association.
On the other hand, a negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable
increases, the value of the other decreases. For instance, we mighty predict that as the
number of hours spent studying increase, the number of hours spent in partying
decreases. Here, we are expecting a negative correlation ranging between 0 and -1 .0.
More studying is associated with less partying, and less studying is associated with more
partying. The stronger the association with less partying, the closer the correlation
would be to -1.0. For instance, a correlation of -.85 would indicate a strong negative
association between partying and studying.
Of course, it is quite possible that little or no relationship exists between two
variables. For instance, we would probably not expect to find a relationship between
number of study hours and height. Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a
correlation close to 0. For example, if we found a correlation of -.02 or +.03 It would
indicate that there is virtually no association between the two variables; knowing how
much someone studies does not tell us anything about how tall, he or she is.
When we find that two variables are strongly correlated with one another, it is
tempting to presume that one variable causes the other. For example, if we find that
more study time is associated with higher grades, we might guess that more studying
causes higher grades. Although this is not a bad guess, it remains just a guess-because
finding that two variables are consisted does not mean that there is a causal
relationship between them. Although the strong correlation suggests that knowing how
much a person studies can help us redirect how she or he will do on a test, it does not
mean that the studying caused the test performance, It might be, for instance, that
people who are interested in the subject matter tend to study more than those who are
less interested and that the amount of interest. Not the number of hours spent
studying, predicts test performance.

The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes
the other.
Another example illustrates the critical point that correlations tell us nothing
about cause and effect but only provide a measure of the strength of a relationship
between two variables. We might find that children who watch a lot of television
programs featuring high levels of aggression are likely to demonstrate a relatively high
degree of aggressive behaviour, and that those who watch few television shows that
portray aggression are apt to exhibit a relatively low degree of such behaviour.
However, we cannot say that the aggression is caused by the TV viewing, because
several other explanations are possible.
For instance, it could be that children who have an unusually high level of energy
seek out programs with aggressive content and are more aggressive. The children's
energy level then could be the true cause of the children's higher incidence of
aggression. Finally, it is also possible that people who are already high aggressive choose
to watch shows with high aggressive content because they are aggressive. Clearly, then
any number of causal sequences are possible-none of which can be ruled out by
correlational research.
The inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and - effect
relationship is a crucial drawback to its use. There is however, an alternative technique
that does establish causality; (i.e.) the experiment.

2.4.6 Experimental research

The only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships through
research is by carrying out an experiment. In a formal experiment, the relationship
between two variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable
in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
In an experiment, then, the conditions required to study a question of interest are
created by an experimenter, who deliberately makes a change in those conditions in
order, to observe the effects of that change.
The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation is called the
experimental manipulation. Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationship
between different variables.
Several steps are involved in carrying out an experiment, but the process typically
begins with the development of one or more hypotheses for experiment to test. Recall,
for example, the hypothesis derived by Latane and Barley to test their theory of helping
behaviour. The more people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely it is
that any of them will help the victim. We can trace the way these researchers designed
an experiment to test this hypothesis.
Their first step was to operationalize the hypothesis by conceptualizing it in a way
that could be tested. Doing so required that Latane and Barley took into account the
fundamental principle of experimental research mentioned earlier. Experimenters must
manipulate at least one variable in order to observe the effects of the manipulation on
another variable. However, the manipulation cannot be viewed by itself, in isolation; if a
cause- and - effect relationship is to be established, the effects of the manipulation must
be compared with the effects of no manipulation or a different kind of manipulation.
Experimental research requires, then, that the responses of at least two groups be
compared with each other. One group will receive some special treatment the
manipulation implemented by the experimenter-and another will receive either no
treatment or a different treatment. Any group receiving a treatment is called an
experimental group; a group that receives no treatment is called a control group. (In
some experiments there are multiple experimental and control groups, each of which is
compared with another.
By employing both experimental and control, groups in experiment researchers
are able to rule out possibility that something other than the experimental manipulation
produced the results observed in the experiment. With no control group, we couldn‘t be
sure that some other variable, such as the checked ten days later. Only if there is a
difference between experimental and control groups, can the effectiveness of the
medicine be assessed. Through the use of control groups, then, researchers can isolate
specific causes for their findings and draw cause and effect inference temperature at
the time we were running the experiment, the colour of the experimenter’s hair, or
even the more passage of time, wasn't causing the changes observed.
For example, consider a medical researcher who thinks she has invented a
medicine that cures the common cold. To test her claim, she gives the medicine one day
to a group of twenty people who have cold, and finds that ten days later all of them are
cured. Eureka? Not so fast-An observer viewing this flawed study might reasonably
argue that psychologically the people would have got better even without the medicine.
What the researcher obviously needed was a control group consisting of people with
colds who don't get the medicine, and whose health is also bad.
Check Your Progress - II

A. Match the following

1 Archival Research a Directly asking a sample of people

questions about their behaviour

2 Naturalistic observation b Examining existing records to test a

hypotheses
3 Survey research c Looking at the behaviour it's true setting
without intervening in the setting
4 Case study d In-depth investigation of a person or
small group

B A friend tells you. “Anxiety about speaking in public and performance are negatively
correlated. Therefore, high anxiety must cause low performance." Is this statement true
or false. and why?

C. The group in experiment that receives no treatment is called the ____________group

2.5 Psychological Testing

This is an important research instrument in contemporary psychology; it is used to
measure all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes, personality and intelligence. Tests
enable the psychologists to obtain large quantities of data from people with minimal
disturbance of their daily routines and without elaborate laboratory equipment. A test
essentially presents a uniform situation to a group of people who vary in aspects
relevant to the situation such as intelligence, manual dexterity, anxiety, and perceptual
skills. An analysis of the results then relates variations in test scores to variations among
people. The construction of tests and their use are not simple matters. They require
many steps in item preparation, scaling and establishing norms.
Psychological test results like the result of surveys can be distorted by respondents
who answer in a socially desirable direction or attempt and aggravate problems. For
these reasons, some commonly used items psychologists have built into the test are
called validity scales. Validity scales are groups of test items that suggest whether or not
the test results measure what they are supposed to measure. Validity scales are
sensitive to misinterpretations and alert the psychologists when the test may be
deceptive.
2.6 Summary

The scientific method is an approach psychologists use to understand the

unknown, it consists of three steps identifying questions of interest, formulating an
explanation, and carrying out research that is designed to support the explanation.
Research in psychology is guided by theories and hypotheses the various research
methods used by psychologists are archival naturalistic observation, survey, case study,
correlational and experimental. Psychological testing and its significant uses were dealt
with towards the end.

2.7 Activity
Design a correlational study to test one of your hypotheses using any one of the
correlational methods (archival research, naturalistic observation, survey research, Case
study) in your study

2.9 Key Words

Theories : Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of

interest.
Hypotheses : A prediction stemming from theory, stated in a way that allows it
to be tested.
Experimental group : Any group receiving treatment in an experiment.
Control group : A group that receives no treatment in an experiment.
Case study : An in depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group
of people.

2.10 Answers Check Your Progress

1. Appropriate, properly 2. Theory 3. Hypotheses.

A. 1-b 2-c 3-a 4-d

B. True. C. Control.
2.11 Model Questions

1. What is the Scientific method? How do psychologists use theory and research to
answer questions of interest?

2. What are the different research methods employed by psychologists?

3. Explain the psychological testing and its uses.

 LESSON - 3

BIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOUR

3.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the biological structures of the body that are of interest to
bio psychologists i.e. psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which
biological structures and functions of the body affect behaviour. Initially, we discuss the
structure and main divisions of the nervous system, explaining how they work to control
voluntary and involuntary behaviour. We then discuss the nerve cells called neurons,
which allow messages to travel through the brain and body. Neurotransmitters, an
important link between the nervous system and behaviour and necessary for
maintaining vital brain and body functions are looked at next. The spinal cord, its
functions and role are also reviewed. Next we consider the brain itself, examining it‘s
major structures and how these affect behaviour. Finally, we examine the chemical
messenger system of the body, the endocrine system and its functions.

3.2 Objective

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to

 Understand the nervous system
 Comprehend the structure and functioning of neurons
 Analyse the role of the spinal cord and it's functions
 Identify the brain‘s structure and function
 Examine the endocrine system.

Plan of study

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Objectives

3.3 Nervous System

3.4 Spinal Cord and its Functions

3.5 Brain and its Functions

3.6 Endocrine Systems and its Functions

3.7 Summary

3.8 Activity

3.9 Key Words

3.10 Answers to check your Progress

3.11 Model Questions

Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral and central nervous systems

The nervous system is divided into two main parts: a central nervous system and
peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and
spinal cord. Which lie within the bony cases of the skull and spine. The parts of the
nervous system outside the skull and spine make up the peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
The peripheral nervous system consists largely of nerve fibers, or axons, which (1)
Carry nerve impulses from the sensory-receptors of the body inward to the central
nervous systems and (2) Carry nerve impulses for the movement of muscles and the
excitation of certain glands outward from the central nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
In the somatic nervous system, motor fibers activate the striped muscles of the
body, such as those that move the arms and legs, while the sensory fibers of this system
come from the major receptor organs of the body the eyes, the ears, the touch
receptors, and so on. In the autonomic nervous systems, motor fibers activate the
smooth muscles of such bodily organs as the stomach, cause secretion from certain
glands such as the salivary glands, and regulate activity in the special type of muscle
found in the heart. It is thus a smooth muscle, glandular, and heart-muscle system.
Sensory fibres in the autonomic system carry information from the internal bodily
organs that is perceived as pain, warmth, cold, or pressure.
The autonomic system (ANS), in its turn, has two subdivisions: the sympathetic
system and the parasympathetic system. In general, the sympathetic system is active in
states of arousal and in stressful situations, and the parasympathetic system is active in
resting and quiet states.

Main ideas

1. Two kinds of cells compose the nervous system neurons and glia. Only the neurons
transmit impulses from one location to another.

2. The structure of a neuron is somewhat plastic throughout life. The fibers of a neuron
can increase or decrease their branching pattern as a function of experience, age, and
chemical influences.

3. Many molecules in the blood stream are free to enter the brain.

4. The nerve impulse, known as an action potential, is an electrical charge across the
membrane of a neuron, caused by the sudden flow of sodium ions into the neuron
followed by a flow of potassium out of the neuron.

5. Myelin is an insulating sheath that increases the velocity of transmission in certain

vertebrate neurons.

6. Many small neurons convey information without action potentials, through graded
electrical potentials that vary in intensity.

Check Your Progress - l

Fill in the blanks

1. The central nervous system is composed of the and the ________ and the ________.

2. In the peripheral nervous system, the ___________ division controls voluntary

movements, whereas the ____________division controls organs that keep us alive
and function without our awareness.

3. Geetha saw a young boy run into the street and get hit by a car. When she got to the
fallen child, she was in a state of panic. She was sweating and her heart was racing. Her
biological state resulted from the activation is which division of nervous system?
4. The increasing complexity and hierarchy of the nervous system-over millions of years
is the subject of study for researchers working in the field of _________.

5. The emerging field of _____________studies how our genetic inheritance predisposes

us to behave in certain ways.

3.3.2 Structure of a neuron

A neuron contains a nucleus, a membrane, mitochondria ribosomes, and the other
structure typical of animal cells. What sets a neuron apart from other cells is its shape.
From the central body of the neuron, many small thin fibers may emanate some of
those fibers extend great distances: some branch widely. The size and shape of neurons
vary almost endlessly. The distindire shape of a given neuron determines its connections
with other neurons and thereby determines how it will contribute to the overall
functioning of the nervous systems. For example, certain neuron: send axon branches to
wide areas of the brain transmitting the same message to great many calls. Others
neurons have widely branching dendrites, which enable them to receive and compare
input from many sources. Still other neurons with shorter axons and dendrites exchange
information with fewer sources.
Figure shows on example of a neuron, a motor neuron that has its call body in the
spinal cord and one fiber extending to a muscle it would be misleading to call this a
"typical" neuron; neurons vary so widely in their shape that no one neuron is typical of
all others and more neuron contains all the parts found in other neurons.
Most neurons have three major components: the Cell body, Dendrites, and an
Axon. The cell body, or soma, contains the nucleus, some ribosomes and mitochondria.
In addition, other structures found in most cells, much of the metabolic work of the
neuron occurs here cell bodies of neurons range in diameter form 0.005mm to 0.1mm in
mammals and up to full millimeter in certain invertebrates, such as the squid.

The Dendrites are thin, widely branching fibers that get narrower as they get far
there from the cell body. The dendrites surface is lined with specialized junctions, called
synapses, at which the dendrite receives information from other neurons. The greater
the surface area of a dendrite, the more information it can be received. Some dendrites
branch widely and therefore have a large surface area. Some also contain dendrite
spines, short out growths. The specialized synapses that form on dendrite spines
apparently play an important role in the formation of learning and memory.

The Axon is a single fiber thicker and longer than the dendrites. The term axon
comes from a Greek work meaning axis in some ways it resembles a long axis extending
from one pole of the neuron. Mature neurons have either one axon or none. In contrast,
a neuron may have any number of dendrites. However, an axon may have many
branches. Generally near the tip of the axon and remote from the cell body.

In large neurons, a swelling of the some known as the axon hillock marks the point
where the axon begins. The hillock is the point at which impulses or action potentials,
begin. The axon maintains a constant diameter along its entire length. Generally, an
axon carries an impulse from the cell body towards other cells. Some axons are a meter
and more in length for example the axon going from your spinal cord to your feet. A
neuron without an axon can convey information only to other neurons immediately
adjacent to it.

The axon of a motor neuron is covered with an insulating material called myelin
sheath myelin covers some, but not all, vertebrate axon; Invertebrate axons do not have
myelin sheaths.

Each branch of an axon swells at its tip forming a pragmatic terminal, or and bulb.
This is the point from which the axon releases chemicals that cross through the synapse
(the suction between one neuron and the next) and influence the next cell. The
synthesis, release, and reuptake of these chemicals requires considerable energy;
consequently. The pre synaptic terminals have many mitochondria.

3.3.3 Variations among neurons

For some purpose, it is useful to distinguish among three types of neurons

receptor neurons motor neurons and inter neurons. A receptor or sensory neuron is
specialized to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation such a light, sound
waves, touch, or certain chemicals. As a rule, each receptor is highly sensitive to one
kind of stimulus and relatively insensitive to most others. For example, a few molecule
of an airborne chemical can excite the olfactory receptors in the nose but not the
receptors in eye. A single photon of light can affect receptor in the eye but not the
olfactory receptors. However, this selectivity is not absolute; all receptors can be
stimulated by electricity and other intense stimuli.
Anatomical distinctions between Dendrites and Axons

Dendrites Axons
1. A neuron may have many Neurons may have one axons or none.
dendrites, each with many An axon may have many branches.
branches.
2. Usually shorter than the axon some May be any length, in some cases up to
neurons have along “apical" dendrite 1 meter or longer.
with branches.
3. Diameter usually tapers toward the Diameter usually constant over the
periphery of the dendrite. length of the axon until the presynaptic
terminal.
4. No hiIIock Relatively large axons join the cell body
at a distinct swelling called the axon
hillock.
5. Usually branch at acute angles Usually branch perpendicular to the
main trunk of the axon.
6. Seldom covered with myelin Often covered with myelin. (among
(an insulating sheath) vertebrates only}
7. Usually have ribosome's Usually have few ribosomes or none.

A motor neuron receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses
from its soma in the spinal cord to muscle or gland cells, inter neurons receive
information from other neurons and send it to either motor neurons or inter neurons.
Many inter neurons connect only to other inter neurons, not to receptor or motor
neurons. Most of the neurons in the human nervous system are inter neurons.
 Some other terms that you may encounter are efferent, afferent and intrinsic. An
efferent axon carries information away from information into a structure. Every axon
that is efferent from one structure is afferent to some other structure. An intrinsic
neuron is one whose axons and dendrites are all confined within given structure. For
example, an intrinsic neuron of the cerebral cortex has no dendrites or axons that
extend beyond the borders of the cortex.
Glia: Besides neurons, the other major components of the nervous system are
glia. The term glia is derived from a Greek word meaning glue.
On the average, a glial cell is about one-tenth the sizes of a neuron, Glia are
about ten times more numerous than neurons in the human brain. Somewhat less in the
brains of most other species. Thus in the human brain, glia occupy about the same total
space as the neurons.
Because neurons are large than glia investigators can measure the electrical and
other activities of neurons much more easily than they can with glia. Consequently, our
knowledge of glia is less complete. In contrast to neurons, glia does not transmit
information from one cell to another. They perform a variety of other functions.
Glia probably perform other functions besides those just listed, including guiding
the plasticity of neurons structures and synapses, removing old structure and guiding
the formation of new structure, future research may identify additional functions.

3.3.4 Synapses and their functions

The axon tips of a neuron make functional connection with the dendrites or cell
bodies of other neurons at synapse. A narrow gap, called the synaptic cleft, separates
the neurons; pictures taken with the electron microscope reveal the complexities of
synapses. A number of small bulbs called boutons are found at the ends of the axons of
the transmitting, Or presynaptic, neurons. Boutons have in them small bodies, or
vesicles that contain the neurotransmitters. These chemicals are released from the
vesicles into the synaptic cleft when a nerve impulse reaches the boutons of the
transmitting cell. The neurotransmitter then combines with specialized receptor
molecules in the receptor region of the receiving cell.
 The effect of a neurotransmitter on the receiving cell is either to increase its
tendency to fire nerve - impulses - excitation - or to decrease this tendency-inhibition. It
is easy to see the significance of excitation and the firing of nerve impulses along axons
but it is not so easy to see the significance of inhibition. In fact, inhibition is crucial for
the functioning of the nervous system. Example - Suppose you bend your arm and if is
contracted, it pulls your arm up towards your nose if the other set is contracted. It pulls
your arm down. The neurons controlling the muscles that pull your arm down must be
inhibited when you are trying to reach up to your nose: if they are not, you will have
difficulty in bending your arm.

3.3.5 Neurotransmitters and its functions

Pharmacologists and neuro chemists have identified a number of the chemical
substances that act as neurotransmitters at synapses in the nervous system and at
sanction between nerves and muscles-the neuromuscular junction.
A number of steps are involved in the chemical transmission of information cross
synapses from neuron to neuron.
1. The transmitting, or presynaptic, neuron manufactures or synthesizes. The
neurotransmitter molecules from simpler molecules derived from the foods we eat and
from other sources.
2. The manufactured neurotransmitter is stored in the bouton vesicles of the
transmitter neuron.
3. Nerve impulse reaching the boutons initiates a process, which causes some of the
vesicles to move to the synaptic cleft, where they discharge their stored
Neurotransmitter.
4. The neurotransmitter rapidly diffuses across the near row synaptic cleft and combines
with specialized receptor molecules on the membrane of the receiving or postsynaptic.
neuron.
5. The combination of neurotransmitter and receptor initiates changes in the receiving
neuron that lead to excitation or inhibition.
6. The combined neurotransmitter is rapidly deactivated, as there is excess
neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft, to make the postsynaptic cell ready to receive
another message.

One method of deactivation is by catalysts, called enzymes, which trigger

chemical reactions that break up the neurotransmitter molecules: another way of
deactivation occurs by the process of reuptake. In reuptake, the transmitting, or
presynaptic, boutons take back the released neurotransmitter and store it in vesicles for
use another time, In brief. The stages in synaptic transmission are neurotransmitter
manufacture, storage, release, diffusion, combination with the receptor, and
deactivation.
The drugs that affect behaviour and experience and deactivation drugs-generally
work on the nervous system by influencing the flow of information across synapses. For
instance, they may interfere with one or several of the stages in synaptic transmission
that we have just outlined or they may have actions like the natural neurotransmitter
and thus excites or inhibit receiving cells.

3.3.6 Communication in the nervous system

Neurons are cells specified for receiving, processing and moving information. They
are made up of a cell body, an axon, and one or more dendrites.
Action potentials are rapid changes in the electrical properties of the cell
membranes of neurons. They constitute a mechanism by which information travels
through the nervous system. Gradea potentials occur within a neuron in response to a
physical stimulus or stimulation by another neuron; they weaken quickly and their
strength is directly proportional to the intensity of the physical stimulus that produced
them. Neurons communicate by means of neurotransmitters across the tiny gaps
(Synapses) that separate them.
When a neuron “fires" the action potential that is produced travels along the
membrane of the axon to the axon terminals. Within the axon, terminals are many
structures known as synaptic vesicles. Arrival of the action potential causes these
vesicles to approach the cell membrane, where they fuse with the membrane and then
empty their contents into the synapse. The chemicals thus released known as
neurotransmitters-travel across the tiny synaptic gap until they reach specialized
receptor sites in the membrane of the other cell.
These receptors are complex protein molecules into whose structure
neurotransmitter substances fit like chemical keys into a lock. Specific neurotransmitters
can deliver signals only at certain locations on cell membrane, there by introducing
precision into the nervous system's complex communication, system upon bringing to
their receptors; neurotransmitters either produce their effects directly, or function
indirectly through the interaction of the neurotransmitter and its receptor with other
substances.

What happens to neurotransmitters after they cross the synapse from one
neuron to another? Either they are taken back in the axon terminals of the neuron that
released them, a process known as reuptake, or they are broken down by various
enzymes present at the synapse in sense, chemically deactivated.
Most neurons actually form synapses with many others-ten thousand or more in
some cases. Thus, at any given moment most neurons are receiving a complex pattern
of excitatory and inhibitory influences from many neighbors.
Whether a neuron conducts an action potential or not, then, depends on the
total pattern of this input; for example, whether excitatory or inhibitory input
predominates, further, the effects of excitatory and inhibitory input can be cumulative
over time, in part because such effect do not dissipate instantaneously. Thus, if a
neuron that has recently been stimulated, but not sufficiently to produce an action
potential is stimulated again soon after wards the two sources of excitation may
combine so that an action potential is generated.
In one sense then, neurons serve as tiny decision-making mechanisms firing only
when right. The fact that individual neurons affect and are, in turn affected by many
others strongly suggests that it is the total pattern or network of activity in the nervous
system that is crucial. As we will see in later discussion, it is this intricate web of neural
excitation that generates the richness and complexity of our conscious experience.

Check Your Progress - II

Fill in the blanks

1. The ____________ is the fundamental element of the nervous system.

2. Neurons receive information through their _______________ and they send

messages through their _______________

3. Just as electrical wires have an outer coating, so axons are insulated by a coating
called the _______________ ______________

4. The gap between two neurons is bridged by a chemical connection called the _______

5. Endorphins are one kind of ________________the chemical "messengers' between

neurons.

3.4 Spinal Cord and its Functions

The spinal cord is the part of the CNS that communicates with the sense organs
and muscles below the level of the head. It is a segmented structure, with each segment
having both a sensory nerve and a motor nerve on its left and right sides. It is a rope -
like structure made up of bundles of long, round nerve fibers. The inside of the spinal of
the spinal cord has a grayish colour while outside the covering of myelin sheaths gives it
a whitish appearance. Functions of spinal cord is twofold. In the first place, it works as a
channel of communication from and to the Brain. For example, the action like closing of
the eyelid when something threatens the eyes and the withdrawal of the hand when
something hot or cold touches it is known as reflex action. Such reflex acts are
automatic in nature. They are controlled by spinal cord. Normally the messages are
conveyed to the brain by the spinal cord and it is the brain that takes the decision.
However, there are times when an immediate action is needed. Then the spinal cord
gets the emergency signal and instead of receiving orders from the brain, it, directs the
motor nerves to run the muscles for necessary movement. The spinal cord helps in
exercising reflex movement.

The sensory nerves enter the spinal cord on the dorsal [back] side; the axons of the
motor nerves leave on the ventral [stomach] side. The Bell-Magendie law refers to the
observation that the dorsal roots of the spinal cord carry sensory information and the
ventral roots carry motor information to the muscles and glands. The cell bodies of the
sensory neurons are located outside the cord in the dorsal root ganglia. (A ganglion is a
cluster of neurons outside the CNS) Cell bodies of the motor neurons are located within
the spinal cord.

3.4.1 Spinal pathways

The sensory nerves that enter a segment of the spinal cord make synapses with
interneurons within the spinal cord. These in turn make synapses with other
interneurons and with motor neurons. In the cross-section through the spinal cord the
H-shaped gray matters are in the center of the cord is densely with few myelinated
axons. Many of the interneurons’ axons form branchs that leave the gray matter and
travel toward the brain in the white matter. The white matter is composed mostly of
myelinated axons, which are white.

Each segment of the spinal cord contains neurons that communicate with a
particular region of the body; it also contains spinal paths conveying message between
the segments above it and below it. If the spinal cord is cut, the brain loses sensation
from and control over all parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the cut.

3.4.2 Role of the spinal cord

Have you ever heard the expression “running around like a chicken with its head
cut off"? A rather gruesome image, but a chicken with its head out off can run around
for a little while. Naturally, it does not run toward anything or away from anything; it
just runs. Nevertheless, it maintains its balance even while running on bumpy ground or
up or down a slope. In short, the spinal cord can control walking and running.
In fact, the spinal cord largely controls walking and running even when the brain
is intact, even in humans. That is the motor program for walking is located in the spinal
cord. The Spinal cord and medulla also have motor programs for chewing, swallowing,
breathing, and a number of other common behaviour (Shik & Orlovsky 1976). The
cerebral cortex does not direct the individual muscle contraction necessary for such
movement; it merely turns on the appropriate motor programs.

Check Your Progress - III

A. State True or False

1. The spinal cord is part of the Central nervous system

2. The spinal cord cannot convey messages to the brain to facilitate decision making
3. The spinal cord can control walking and running.

B. Fill in the blanks

1. If you should put your hand on a red-hot piece of metal, the immediate response of
pulling it away would be an example of an _____________

2. If the spinal cord is ____________ the brain loses sensation and __________over all
parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the cut.

3.5 Brain and its Functions

3.5.1 Structure of the brain

The structure of human brain is composed of three concentric layers. (a) A central
core (b) The limbic system (c) The cerebral hemisphere, also known as cerebrum.

The central core includes most of the brain stem. The first slight enlargement of
the spinal cord as it enters the skull is the medulla, a narrow structure that controls
breathing and some reflexes that help the organism maintain and up from the spinal
cord cross over so that the right side of the brain is connected to the left side of the
body and the left of the brain to the right side of the body.

1. Cerebellum : Attached to the rear of the brain stem, slightly above the medulla is a
convoluted structure, the cerebellum. The cerebellum is concerned primarily with the
coordination of movements. Specific movements may be initiated at higher levels, but
then smooth coordination depends on the cerebellum. Any damage to the cerebellum
results in jerky, uncoordinated movements.
2. Thalamus and hypothalamus : Two egg shaped groups of nerve cell nuclei located
just above the brain stem inside the cerebral hemisphere are called thalamus. One
region acts as a relay station and directs incoming information to the cerebrum from the
sense receptors for vision, hearing, touch and taste. Another region of the thalamus
plays an important role in the control of sleep and wakefulness.

The hypothalamus is a much smaller structure, located just below the thalamus;
the hypothalamus regulates endocrine activity and maintains homeostasis. You should
know what is meant by homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the normal level of
functioning characteristic of the healthy organism, namely, body temperature, heart
rate and blood pressure. Homeostasis is disturbed and processes are set into motion to
correct the disequilibrium under stress condition. We perspire when we are too warm,
and it we are too cool, we shiver. Both of these processes tend to restore normal
temperature and are controlled by the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus also plays an important role in emotion and in our response to
stress—producing situations. Mild electrical stimulation of certain areas in the
hypothalamus produces feelings of pleasure, whereas stimulation of adjacent regions
produces sensations that are unpleasant and painful. By its influence on the pituitary
gland, which lies just below it, the hypothalamus control the endocrine systems and in
tum the production of hormones. This control is particularly important when the body
must mobilize a complex set of physiological processes (the tight or flight response) to
deal with emergencies. The hypothalamus has been called the ‘stress center" in
recognition of its special role in mobilizing the body for action.

3. Reticular system: A network of neural circuits that extends from the lower brain stem
up to the thalamus, traversing through some of the other control core structures, is the
reticular system. This system controls our state of arousal. For example, when an
electric current of a certain voltage is sent through electrodes implanted in the reticular
system of a cat or dog, the animal goes to sleep and stimulation by a current with a
more rapidly changing waveform awakens the sleeping animal.
The reticular system also plays a role in our ability to focus our attention on
particular stimuli. All of these sensory receptors have nerve fibers that feed into the
reticular system. The system appears to act as a filter, which allows sensory message to
pass to the cerebral cortex while blocking other. Thus, our state of consciousness at any
moment appears to be influenced by filtering process in the reticular system.

4. Limbic system: This system is closely interconnected with the hypothalamus and
appears to impose additional controls over some of the instinctive behaviour regulated
by the hypothalamus and brain stem. The limbic system is also involved in emotional
behaviour. For example, monkeys with lesions in some regions of the limbic system
react with rage at the slightest provocation, which suggested that the destroyed area
was exerting an inhibiting influence.

3.5.2 Localization of brain functions

As we know there are a number of mental function that are performed by our
brain whether a specific function is performed by a specific part of the brain or not and
how far our mental functions are dependent on several different areas of the brain. This
problem concerning localization of psycho function in the brain has been a matter of
considerable research and experimentation.
Framz and Lashley have provided two distinct laws on cerebral localization based
on their experiments, namely the law of action are the law of equi-potentiality.
The law of mass action means that the learned habits disintegrate in the ratio in
which the cortex nerve fibres are destroyed and the law of equi-potentiality asserts that
every point of cortex has equal potential. The potentiality of the cortex destroys in the
ratio the potentiality destroys.
Further studies and extensive research in this area have given enough evidence
to prove that in human beings all other acts of simple or higher mental functioning are
copied out by the different areas of the cerebral cortex.

Let us now consider the localization in brief:

1. Motor area: Motor area of the cerebral cotex lie in the form of narrow strips just in
front of the center fissure (that is, a long fold that extends from the top of the head to
ears). These areas belonging to each hemisphere control the movements of the body of
its opposite side by telling the muscles and glands what to do movements of the toes,
feet, legs are controlled by the centres lying at the top of this motor region. Movements
of the parts the body set paralysed due to some reason or other. The associated motor
area suffers extirpation destruction.

2. Bodily sensory area: The parietal lobes of the brain are connected to localization of
the brain function with body sensation such as temperature, pain, and the feel of
objects. The function of the centres located in this area is similar to that of the motor
areas, that is, the centres located in the upper region controls the sensation of the lower
part of the body and the centres located in the lower region control the sensation of the
upper parts of the body.
 3. Visual area: The visual centres responsible for vision are located in the occipital
lobes at the very back of each hemisphere. These centres help the individual in the
matter of discriminating and identifying shape size, distance and colour of the
environmental objects. Destruction of this area in an individual may cause complete
blindness in him.

4. Auditory area: Auditory centres are located at the side of each hemisphere in the
temporal lobes. They are responsible for providing various auditory experiences in
terms of identification and discrimination of various sounds stimuli present in the
environment.

5. Association area: The largest of the association areas is located in the frontal lobes of
the brain, just under the forehead. They are concerned with higher cognitive function
like thinking and problem solving. A man's ability to order his behaviour and direct it
towards a goal depends especially on these areas.
The brain has many parts including the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and
cerebellum. It is important to understand that the brain functions as a whole by
interrelating its component parts and therefore to understand the rehabilitation
process.

Cerebral Cortex

1. Frontal lobe: Most anterior, right under the forehead.

Functions
 How we know what we are doing within our environment (Consciousness).
 How we initiate activity in response to our environment.
 Judgments we make about what occurs in our daily activities.
 Controls our emotional response.
 Controls our expressive language.
 Assigns meaning to the wards we choose.
 Involves word associations.
 Memory for habits and motor activities.

Damage to this may result in

 Loss of simple movement of various body parts (Paralysis).
 Inability to plan a sequence of complex movements needed to complete multi—
stepped tasks, such as making coffee (Sequencing).
 Loss of spontaneity in interacting with others.
  Loss of flexibility in thinking.
 Persistence of a single thought (Perseveration).
 Inability to focus on task (Attending).
 Mood changes (Emotionally Labile).
 Changes in social behaviour.
 Changes in personality.
 Difficulty with problem solving.
 Inability to express language (Broca’s Aphasia).

2. Parietal lobe: near the back and top of the head.

Functions
 Location for visual attention.
 Location for touch perception.
 Goal directed voluntary movements.
 Manipulation of objects.
 Integration of different senses that allows for understanding a single concept.
 Damage to this area may result in
 Inability to attend to more than one object at a time.
 Inability to name an object (Anomia).
 Inability to locate the words for writing (Ag rapt-its).
 Problems with reading (Alexia). a
 Difficulty with drawing objects.
 Difficulty in distinguishing left from right.
 Difficulty with doing mathematics (Dyscalculia).
 Lack of awareness of certain body parts and or surrounding space (Apr-axis) that
 Leads to difficulties in self-care.
 Inability to focus visual attention.
 Difficulties with eye and hand coordination.

3. Occipital lobes: Most posterior, at the back of the head.

Functions
Vision
Damage to this area may result in
 Defects in vision (Visual Field Cuts).
 Difficulty with locating objects in environment.
 Difficulty with identifying colours (Colour Agnosia).
 Production of hallucinations
  Visual illusions - inaccurately seeing objects.
 Word blindness - inability to recognize words.
 Difficulty in recognizing drawn objects.
 Inability to recognize the movement of an object (Movement Agnosia).
 Difficulties with reading and writing.

4. Temporal lobes: Side of head above ears.

Functions
 Hearing ability
 Memory acquisition
 Some visual perceptions
 Categorization of objects.

Damage to this area may result in

 Difficulty in recognizing faces (Prosopagnosia).
 Difficulty in understanding spoken words (Wemicke'e Aphasla).
 Disturbance with selective attention to what we see and hear.
 Difficulty with identification of, and verbalization about objects.
 Short—term memory loss.
 Interference with long—term memory
 Increased or decreased interest in sexual behaviour.
 Inability to categorize objects (Categorization).
 Right lobe damage can cause persistent talking.
 Increased aggressive behaviour.

5. Brain stern: Deep in Brain, leads to spinal cord.

Functions
 Breathing
 Heart Rate
 Swallowing
 Reflexes to seeing and hearing (Startle Response).
 Controls sweating, blood pressure, digestion, temperature (Autonomic Nervous
System).
 Affects level of alertness.
 Ability to sleep.
 Sense of balm W Function).
Damage to this area may result in
 Decreased vital capacity in breathing, important for speech.
 Swallowing food and water (Dysphagia).
 Difficulty with organization/perception of the environment.
 Problems with balance and movement.
 Dizziness and nausea (Vertigo).
 Sleeping difficulties (Insomnia, sleep apnea).

6. Cerebellum: Located at the base of the skull.

Functions

 Coordination of voluntary movement

 Balance and equilibrium
 Some memory for reflex motor acts.

Damage to this area may result in

 Loss of ability to coordinate fine movements.
 Loss of ability to walk.
 Inability to reach out and grab objects.
 Tremors.
 Dizziness (Vertigo).
 Slurred Speech (Scanning Speech).
 Inability to make rapid movements.

Obtaining a general understanding of the brain and its functions is important to

understanding the rehabilitation process. It is very important, however, to understand
that the rehabilitation professional is concerned with the whole person. The
identification of individual problems gives the rehabilitation team areas in which to
focus treatment plans. All of these plans are designed to work toward the rehabilitation
of the whole person. Each problem area affects other areas and many times resolving
one problem has a major impact on other problems. For example, reestablishing
postural balance and eliminating dizziness greatly enhances concentration and
attention, which allows for improved cognition and problem solving.

3.5.3 Perception, behavioral sequences, reflexes, instincts, emotions, thinking and

other integrative activities.
The many nuclei, circuits, systems and networks, which make up the brain, provide
animals with numerous functional repertoires. Brains evolved complex sets of circuits
that allow them to detect and evaluate the relevance of myriad physical energies in the
environment and to plan and execute appropriate reactions to them.
Because most major neural circuits present in mammals also exist in other
Vertebrates, it seems that the basic adaptive neural functions had been worked out
early in vertebrate evolution. Thus, there exist in all vertebrates: 1. Selection and
perception of five general types of physical energy. 2. Organized and integrated postural
and locomotor activities, 3. Instincts, reflexes and fixed-action patterns related to
procreation of young, ingestion and elimination, escape and defense, and maintenance
of homeostatic esquilibria. 4. Selective attention and orientation toward specific
environmental stimuli. 6. Learning and forgetting. 7. Capabilities for multi-tasking and
parallel processing, 8. Elaborate social repertoires. and 9. Timed ontogenetic
development of the behavioral repertoire.

The senses; sensation, detecting features of the external & internal environments:

 Olfaction (smell)
 Sight (vision)
 Touch
 Hearing (auditory)
 Taste
 Pain

Basic integrated postural and locomotor movement sequences:

Diversity and complexity of musculature, and the structure and importance of the
skeleton and its components.

 Basic instincts and emotions

 Hunger
 Love, lust and sex
 Anger, hate & fear
 Territoriality, possessiveness
 Dominance/submissiveness; Irritability and serenity.
 Sociality, parenting & family ties
 Growth of emotions during ontogeny

Cognitive capabilities
Arousal, Attention, Thinking, Evaluating, insight, Abstraction, Creativity, Choice,
Purpose, Seeking, Planning, Generalization, Judgment, introspection, Programming,
Interest, Preference, Discrimination, Learning, Habituation, Memory, recognition,
retention, Knowledge.

Basic behavioral repertoire

 Reflexes
 Basic Action sequences
 Instincts; integrated action sequences
 Learned and experientially modified percepts and action sequences.
 Play
 Exploratory behaviour
 Goal Directed behaviors

All the terms listed above refer to brain functions express able by the circuitry of
the brain of any mammal. The jobs of neuroscientists involve identifying which brain
components, circuits and networks are responsible for every function that can be
defined.

Check Your Progress - IV

1. A surgeon places an electrode on a portion of your brain and stimulates it. The
doctor has most likely stimulated a portion of the _____________ area of your
brain.

2. The _______________ its corresponding space within the cortex, the more
sensitive area of the body is.

3. Each hemisphere controls the ________________ side of the body.

4. Nonverbal realms, such as emotions and music, are controlled primarily by the
hemisphere of the brain, whereas the _________________ hemisphere is more
responsible for speaking and reading.

5. The left hemisphere tends to consider information ______________. whereas the

right hemisphere tends to process information _________________

3.6 Endocrine Systems and its Functions

3.6.1 Endocrine systems chemical regulators of bodily processes

 The nervous systems are our primary systems for moving and processing
information for responding to the world around us and to our own internal states.
Another system exists as well, however the endocrine systems, which consists of a
variety of glands. Endocrine glands release chemicals called hormones directly into the
bloodstream. These hormones exert profound effects on a wide range of processes
related to basic bodily function, of special interest to psychologists are neurohormones,
hormones that interact with and affect the nervous systems. Neurohormones, like
neurotransmitters. Influence neural activity, because they are released into the
circulatory systems rather than into synapses however, they exert effects more slowly,
at a greater distance, and often for longer periods than neurotransmitters.
One major part of the endocrine system is the pituitary gland, it is sometimes
described as the master gland of the body, for the hormones, it releases control and
regulate the action of other endocrine glands. This gland is also closely connected to
important regions of the brain that play a role in emotion.
The pituitary is really two glands in one, the posterior pituitary and the anterior
pituitary. The posterior pituitary releases hormones that regulate absorption of water
by the kidneys and in, females, the production and release of milk. If is the anterior
pituitary that releases the hormones that regulate the activity of other endocrine
glands. One such hormone, ACTH stimulates the outer layer of the adrenal gland, the
adrenal cortex, causing it to secrete cortisone. Cortisone, in turn, affects in many parts
of the body. The pituitary also secretes hormones that influence sexual development,
govern the functioning of the sexual gland (regulating the amount of hormones they
release), and help control basic bodily functions relating to metabolism and excretion.
Another important part of the endocrine system is the adrenal glands, which sit on
top of the kidneys. In response to message from the autonomic nervous system. The
adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as adrenaline and
noradrenaline). These hormones help the body handle emergencies- increasing heart
rate, blood pressure, and sugar in the blood.

3.6.2 Thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck just below the larynx or voice
box, it produces one primary hormone namely thyroxin. Thyroxin plays a leading role in
controlling the process of oxidation of food. It regulates the body's oxygen consumption
and the rate of metabolism, the deficiency of thyroxin causes under— activity of the
gland, which reforms the growth of the body and also causes mental retardation and
disorders. Over secretion of the hormone produces hypothyroidism, a condition
characterized by nervousness. High blood pressure and fatigue. Anterior and posterior
lobe. The anterior lobe is situated towards the front of the gland, it is controlled by the
functioning of the body through the secretion of different hormones. It secretes
thyrotropin a thyroid stimulation hormone that controls metabolic rate or the ability of
the body to adjust to temperature changes, it produces somato trophic hormones,
which exercises great influence on the growth of bones. Under secretion of this
hormone causes incomplete development and will result in dwarfism. Over secretion of
the hormone results in gigantic growth, it also produces adrenoconicotrophic hormone,
which help in supplementing the activities of other glands like adrenal glands.

3.6.3 Parathyroid gland

These glands are located in the back surface of the thyroid and are four in number.
They secrete a hormone known as parathormone, which controls the level of calcium
and phosphate in the blood and tissues and this helps in counter balancing the exciting
activities of thyroxin. Under activity of the gland leads to muscles spasms and
excitability whereas over activity leads to muscle weakness, fatigue, lethargy and poor
physical coordination.

3.6.4 Adrenal gland

These glands are two in number and are situated on top of the two kidneys. Each
gland has two parts, an inner core known as adrenal medulla and on outer covering
called the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex is known to secrete at least twenty
hormones: some of which keep the pituitary gland to control metabolism particularly in
stress situation Adrenal cortex along with Gonads produces androgen, a male hormone
present in but sexes. The over secretion of the hormone androgen might result in
increased masculine characteristics.
Adrenal medulla secretes adrenalin and non-adrenalin hormones that assist the
body in its reaction to emergency situations especially at the time of intense fear or
anger

3.6.5 Pancreas
The pancreas gland is situated between the stomach and the small intestine. It
secretes two hormones namely insulin and glycogen which work against each other to
maintain a balanced level of sugar in the blood. Over secretion and under secretion of
the hormones result in the excess or deficiency in the blood sugar level. Excess of sugar
causes diabetics.
The functioning of the Endocrine glands exercise great influence on the growth
and development of Personality. The biological make up of an individual is responsible
for all characteristics of 'How' and 'Why’ of the Behaviour. Thus, endocrine glands along
with the cooperation of nervous system play an important role in the development of
Personality.
Check Your Progress - V

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Endocrine glands release chemicals called ___________ directly into the

bloodstream.

2. The ______________ gland is also termed as the master gland of the body.

3. _________ plays an important role in controlling the process of oxidation of food.

4. Parathormone controls the level of ______________ and _____________ in the

blood and tissues.

5. _______________ secretes insulin and glycogen, which work against each other
to maintain a balanced level of sugar in the blood.

B. Match the following

A. Medulla 1. Activates other parts of the brain to produce

general bodily arousal.
B. Pons 2. Controls bodily balance
C. Cerebellum 3. Coordinates and integrates muscle
movements
D. Reticular formation 4. Maintains breathing and heartbeat

3.7 Summary
A full understanding of the human behaviour requires knowledge of the biological
influences underlying that behaviour. A study of the human nervous system is thus
essential. Neurons are the basic elements of the nervous system and they allow nerve
impulses to pass from one part of the body to another, information generally follows a
route that begins with the dendrites, continues into the cell body, and leads ultimately
down the tube like extension, the axon. Most axons are protected by a coating called
the myelin sheath. The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (the
brain and the spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the remainder of the
nervous system). The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic division.
Which controls voluntary movements and the communication of information to and
from the sense organs, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary functions
such as those of the heart, blood vessels and lungs. The autonomic division is further
divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division
prepares the body in emergency situations, and the parasympathetic division helps the
body return to typical resting state.
The spinal cord is a segmented structure, a part of the Central nervous system that
communicates with the sense organs and muscles below the level of the head. It works
as a channel of information forward to the brain and helps in exercising the reflex
movement. If the spinal cord is cut, the brain loses sensation from and control over all
parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the cut. The spinal cord can control
walking and running.
The structure of the human brain is composed of the (a) a central core (b) the
limbic system (c) the cerebral hemisphere. The central core of the brain is made up of
the medulla, the pons, the cerebellum, the reticular formation, the thalamus and the
hypothalamus. This part of the brain is called the ‘old brain‘. The cerebral cortex - the
'new brain’ - has areas that control voluntary movement. The limbic system, found on
the border of the old and new brains, is associated with eating, reproduction, and the
experiences of pleasure and pain. The brain is divided into left and right halves. Or
hemispheres each of which generally controls the opposite side of the body. The left is
best at verbal tasks such as logical reasoning, speaking and reading; the right is best at
nonverbal tasks, such as pattern recognition and emotional expression.
The endocrine system secretes hormones, allowing the brain to send messages
throughout the nervous system via the blood stream. A major component is the
pituitary‘s gland, which affects growth.

3.8 Activity

Make a visit to biology laboratory, observe the models for neurons, spinal cord, and
brain parts.

3.9 Key Words

Central Nervous System : The system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: Made up of long axons and dendrites, reaches the
extension of the body branching out from spinal cord.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that carry messages across the synapses to
the dendrites of a receiver neuron.
Reticular formation: The part of the brain that can immediately activate
other parts of brain to produce general bodily arousal.
Limbic system: Controls aggression and reproduction.
Hormones: Chemicals that circulate through the blood and affect
the functioning.

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

I. 1. brain; spinal cord 2. somatic; autonomic 3. Sympathetic nervous system

4. Evolutionary psychology 5. behavioral genetics

ll. 1. Neuron 2. Dendrites : axons 3. Myelin sheath

4. synapse 5. neurotransmitter

III. A. 1. true 2. False 3. True

B. 1. reflex 2. Cut : control

IV. 1. motor 2. Greater 3. opposite

4.right; left 5. Sequentially ; globally

V. A. 1. hormones 2. Pituitary 3. thyroxin

4. calcium; phosphate 5. pancreas

B. a - 4 b-3 c-2 d-1

3.11 Model Questions

1. What are the basic elements of the nervous system?

2. How does the nervous system communicate electrical and chemical messages
from one part to the other?
3. What are the major parts of the brain. In addition, for what behaviors is each part
responsible?
4. Write short notes on :
a) Neurons
b) Spinal cord and its functions
c) Parts of the brain
d) Endocrine system
e) Central nervous system
 LESSON - 4

SENSORY PROCESS

4.1 Introduction.
The sensory organs are the means through which we gain information about the
world. Vision, hearing, smell, and touch are the so-called five sense. But the number of
human senses is closer to ten than five. In addition to touch, the skin contains separate
warmth, cold, and pain senses. Furthermore, sense organs in the muscles, tendons. And
joints tell us about the position of our limbs and the state of tension in the muscles.
They serve the sense called kinesthesis. The vestibular sense informs us about the
movement and stationary position of the head; it is the key sense in maintaining
balance.
Each sensory system is a kind of channel, consisting of a sensitive element (the
receptor), nerve fibers leading from this receptor to the brain or spinal cord, and the
various relay stations and processing areas within the brain. When a sensory channel is
stimulated, we have a sensation that is characteristic of that channel.

4.2 Objectives

By the end of this check if you can

 Explain the characteristics of senses
 Elucidate on absolute threshold
 Describe the five senses.

Plan of study
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Characteristics of the Senses
4.4 Absolute Threshold
4.5 Five Senses
4.6 Summary
4.7 Activity
4.8 Key Words
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.10 Model Questions
4.3 Characteristics of the Senses

We do not recognize or react to all the stimuli at all times. Only at certain level of
intensity of light or sound we will be able to detect it. A certain minimum level of
stimulation of specific sense organs is required before any sensory experience namely
recognizing and interpreting the stimuli is evolved.
The minimum physical energy necessary to activate a given sensory system is
known as the absolute threshold. In a soundproof room, a sound must reach a minimum
amount of intensity before it can be heard. While driving in the night, a spot of light on
the road must reach some measurable intensity before you recognize it.
It is possible to measure the absolute threshold for any of the sensory stimulus for
an individual. Presenting the stimulus of a given intensity the subject is asked to detect
it. Gradually the intensity is increased. At some point of intensity, the subject always
reports detecting it.

4.4 Absolute Threshold

A basic way of assessing the sensitivity of a sensory modality is to determine the
Absolute threshold: the minimum magnitude of a stimulus that can be reliably
discriminated from no stimulus all-for example, the weakest light that can be reliably
extremely sensitive to the presence of, or a change in, an object or event. For five of the
senses. Table 4-1 provides an estimate of the minimal stimulus they can detect. The
most noticeable aspect of these minimums is how low they and how sensitive the
sensory modalities are.
These values were determined by using psychophysical procedures. Experimental
techniques for measuring the relation between the physical magnitude of some
stimulus (such as the physical intensity of a light) and the resulting psychological
response (how bright the light appears to be), in one common psychophysical
procedure, the experimenter first selects a set of stimuli whose magnitudes vary around
the threshold. Example, a set of dim lights whose intensities vary from invisible to barely
visible). Over a series of trials, the stimuli are presented one at a time in random order.
And the observer is instructed to say yes if the stimulus appears to be present and no if
it does not. Each stimulus is determined for each stimulus magnitude
 Table 4—1
Minimum Stimuli
Approximate minimum stimuli for various senses. (Galanter. E. (1962).
“Contemporary Psychophysics. ‘from Roger Brown 5 collaborators (eds)! Mew
Directions in psychology. Vol. 1. Reprinted by permission of Roger Brown.)
Sense Minimum Stimulus
1.Vision A candle flame seen at 30 miles a dark,
clear night.
2. Hearing The tick of a clock at 20 feet under quiet
conditions.
3. Taste One teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of
water.
4. Smell One drop of perfume diffused into the
entire volume of six rooms.
5. Touch The wing of a fly falling on your cheek from
a distance of 1 centimeter.
Table 4-1 psychophysical function from a detection experiment

Table 4.1 depicts hypothetical data from this kind of experiment: a graph called a
psychophysical function, which shows performance as a function of stimulus intensity.
Here, the percentage of yes responses rises smoothly as stimulus intensity (defined here
in terms of hypothetical ‘units') increases. When performance is characterized by such a
graph, psychologists have agreed to define the absolute threshold as the value of the
stimulus at which it is detected 50% of the time. For the date displayed in Table 4-1, the
stimulus is detected 50% of the time when the stimulus's intensity is about 28 units, so
28 units is defined to be absolute threshold.
Plotted on the vertical axis is the percentage of times the particular responds. 'Yes,
detect the stimulus"; on the horizontal axis is the measure of the magnitude of the
physical stimulus, such a graph may be obtained for any stimulus dimension to which an
individual is sensitive.
A classic and particularly elegant experiment of this sort was reported by Hecht.
Schlaer. and Pirenne (1942), who endeavored to determine the absolute threshold for
vision and, in the process, demonstrated that human vision is nearly as sensitive as is
physically possible. As every physics student knows, a photon is the smallest unit of light
energy.
Hecht and his colleagues showed that a person could detect a flash of light that
contains only 100 photons, a fact that is impressive in and of itself. On a typical day,
many billions of photons are entering your eye every second. What is even more
impressive is that Hecht and his colleagues went on to show that only 7 of these 100
photos actually contact the critical molecules in the eye that are responsible for
translating light into the nerve impulses that correspond vision and the rest are
absorbed by other parts of the eye. Furthermore, each of these 7 photons affects a
different molecule. The critical receptive unit of the eye (a molecule), therefore, is
sensitive to a single photon. This is what it means to say that 'human vision is as
sensitive as is physically possible.”
Another kind of threshold: Detecting changes in intensity Measuring absolute
threshold entails determining by how much stimulus intensity must be raised from zero
in order to be distinguishable from zero. By how much must stimulus intensity be raised
from some standard, defined to be some arbitrary level, to distinguish the new, higher
level from the base level. This is measurement our sensory modalities are extremely
sensitive in detecting the presence of an object — even the faint light of a candle in a
distant window. On a clear night, a candle flame can be seen from 30 miles away!
Of change detection: in a typical change - detection study, observers are presented
with a pair of stimuli. One of them is the standard to which other stimuli are compared.
The others are comparison stimuli. On each presentation of the pair, observers are
asked to respond to the comparison stimulus with “more” or "less”. What is being
measured is the difference threshold or just noticeable difference (jnd), the minimum
difference in stimulus magnitude necessary to tell two stimuli apart.

4.5 Five Senses

4.5.1 Sensory process - vision

The eye is sensitive to that portion of electromagnetic energy travelling through
space that we call light. The eye will respond to forms of stimulation other than light
waves. Pressure on the eyeball or electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain will
produce the sensation of light. These observations point out the fact that the
experience of light is a quality produced in the visual system. The visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum is called light because it is what usually produces that
sensation.
Structure of human eye: Light enters the eye through the transparent corner. The
pupil regulates amount of light. Lens focuses the light on sensitive surface, which is
called retina. Construction and dilation of pupil is controlled by the autonomic nervous
system.
The retina has 3 main layers:

1. The rods and cons

2. The bipolar cells
3. The ganglion cells.

The rods and cons are photosensitive cells that convert light energy into nerve It
impulses. Bipolar cells are responsible for synaptic connectors with rods and cons. The
ganglion cells are the fibers, which form the optic nerve.
The light waves have to pass through the lens, liquids that fill the eyeball. Penetrate the
network of blood vessels, bipolar and ganglion cells that lie inside the eye before
reaching the photoreceptors where light is converted into nervous impulses.
The most sensitive portion of the retina is the fovea. This area plays a major role in
perception. The fovea is the part of retina that we use in looking at objects we wish to
see clearly, insensitive area called the blind spot is the region of retina where the optic
nerve fibers leave and where blood vessel enter and leave retina; it is called optic disc.
The optic fibers from each eye lead the impulses to the cortical areas in the brain
(occipital lobes) where the vision is represented.
Some of the optic fibers go from each eye directly to each hemisphere (left and
right) of the brain. Whereas other fibers cross over at the junction called the optic
chasm and 'go to the opposite hemispheres. Damage to the occipital lobes of one
hemisphere can result in blind areas in both eyes.
Rods and cones: Rods are cylindrical photoreceptors in the eyes. The cones are
more bulbous. The cones are active only in daylight vision. The aid in seeing both
achromatic colours like white, black, intermediate greys, and chromatic colour like red
and green etc.
The rod functions under reduced illustration and permit us to see only achromatic
colours.
More than 6 million cones and 100 million rods are distributed in the retina. The
fovea: contains only cones (approximately 50.000 packed in a square mm). The number
of cone: decreases from center of the retina to periphery.
Rods and cones in—groups are contracted to the one optic fiber. Our vision is
more acute when light waves strike fovea where cones are defused. At night, the rods
are active we see objects with instinct outlines and details.
The brightness by different objects is seen differently in different illumination
because of rods on cones.
Dark adaptation: A sudden change in the conditions of light to dark and vice versa can
create temporary confusion when we need time for cones and rods to adapt to new
stimulation. For example, we find it difficult to find our seats when we enter a dark
theatre. However, after sometime we will be able to notice many people around us
even though the illumination has not changed. This process is adaptation period where
the rods take over from cones. Similarly, people driving at dark may find it difficult to
see the oncoming vehicles because of the transition phase where both cones and rods
are equally ineffective.

Colour vision: We are able to see colour of different wavelengths. The elementary
colours are called psychological primaries. They are red, yellow, green and blue,
between them are secondary colours, in which the primary components are still
identifiable. Example: orange, yellow, green, blue-green etc.
The three psychological dimensions used to perceive colours are Hue, Brightness
and Saturation.

Hue: This refers to what we ordinarily think of as the “name" of the colour of example,
red, green etc.

Brightness: Physical basic of brightness is the primary energy of the light source, which
corresponds to the amplitude of the wave.

Saturation: Apparent purity of the colour is its saturation. Highly saturated colours
appear to be pure, hues, without any gray colours of low saturation appear close to
gray. A light-wave composed of only one or few different wavelengths will produce the
most highly saturated colour, Light waves composed of many components result in
colour of low saturation.

Colour blindness: Normal eye has capacity to discriminate three systems of colour; light
dark, yellow-blue, and red-green. Colour blindness results from a deficiency in one or
two of these systems. The person with normal colour vision is called a trichromatic. A
person lacking one system but uses the other two is called a dichromate. A dichromate
is partially colour blind. Finally the person with only light-dark system is a
monochromatic and totally colourblind. The most common form of colour blindness is
red-green blindness. This deficiency affects some 7 percent of men but less than 1
percent of women. Total colour blindness and yellow—blue-blindness is a rare
occurrence.

Images and colour contrast: it is possible for us to experience negative after image of
complementary colours. After looking at 'red circle' for sometime when you shift the
gaze to a gray surface. You will see a green circle as an after image, which is
complementary to red. Not always one sees the complementary colour though it is
common fact. Similarly, when two complementary colours are placed side by side, each
colour appears more highly saturated than when they are placed along non-
complementary colours. This effect is called as simultaneous contract.

4.5.2 Sensory process - hearing

The ear is the sense organ, which is sensitive to mechanical energy and pressure
changes along the molecules in the atmosphere. A vibrating object such as a tuning fork
causes successive waves of compression and expansion among the air molecules
surrounding it. The sound waves generated by the vibration of molecules (viz, air, water
or other medium) are the stimuli for hearing. Sound cannot travel except through a
medium.
Sound waves are graphically represented as Sine functions. The two main
characteristics of such a wave are its frequency and its amplitude. Frequency is
measured in number of vibrations per second i.e. number of times per second the
complete cycle is repeated. The unit Hertz (Hz) is used to denote cycles per second.
Amplitude represents the amount of compression and expansion, as represented by the
amount by which the curve is displaced above or below the baseline.
The psychological correlate of frequency is pitch. The amplitude of the sound wave
determines the intensity, which correlates with the loudness. We can hear frequencies
that range from about 20 to 20,000 Hz. Not all the organisms can hear the same range
of frequencies. Scientists from Bell Telephone Laboratories have contributed to the
measurement of sound intensity by formulating a convenient unit by which to convert
the physical pressures at the eardrum into an understandable scale. The unit is called a
decibel (db.).
At about 120db, sound intensity becomes painful. The loudness of normal
conversation is about 60db. Exposure to sound intensities of 90db or above for
extended periods can result in permanent deafness.
If one compares the dimension of tone with those of colour, the following
correspondences hold approximately

Dimension of colour Dimension of tone

Hue Pitch (function of frequency)
Brightness Loudness (function of amplitude)
Saturation Timbre (function of mixture)

When sounds are mixed, they do not lose their identity as colours do. But, they may
lead to a fusion that is heard as consonant (pleasant) or as dissonant (unpleasant).
 A noise is a sound composed of many frequencies not in harmonious relation to
one another.
Structure of human ear: The ear has three principal parts: the External ear which
connects to the auditory canal leading to the eardrum and which collects the energy.
This is a movable diaphragm activated by the sound waves entering the ear, the middle
ear. Which transmits the energy; the inner ear, where the transduction of energy into
nerve impulses actually occurs.
The cochlea is the auditory portion of inner ear. The oval window sets into motion
the fluid inside the cochlea. This pressure is relieved at round window at the other end
of the fluid filled channel that runs through the cochlea. Pressure changes in the fluid
displace the basilar membrane in the cochlea, upon which the organ of Corti rests and
this displacement stimulates the sensitive elements in the hair cells of the organ of
Corti, which are connected to the auditory nerves.
The pathways of the auditory nerves resemble those optic nerves. From each ear,
the fiber travels to both cerebral hemispheres. They terminate at temporal lobes. Thus,
destruction of one temporal lobe will not cause complete deafness in either ear.
Other senses: If vision and hearing are considered as, "higher senses' the other
senses such as odors, tastes and touches are also important for survival. But they are
not, as rich of pattening and organized as vision or hearing.

4.5.3 Sensory process - smell

It is through smell, of course, that we detect and experience many of the events in
the chemical world surround us. The volatile molecules given off by a substance are the
stimuli for smell. The molecules leave the substance, travel through the air, and enter
the nasal passage. The molecules must also be soluble in fat, because the receptors for
smell are covered with fat like substance.
The olfactory system is the receptor in the nasal passage, certain regions of the
brain, and the interconnecting neural pathways. The receptors for smell are located high
in nasal cavity. When the cilia of these receptors come into contact with volatile
molecules, and electrical impulse results. This is the transduction process. This impulse
travels along nerve fibers to the olfactory bulb, a region of the brain that lies just below
the frontal lobes. The olfactory bulb in turn is connected to the olfactory cortex on the
inside of the temporal lobes. There is a direct connection between the olfactory bulb
and the part of the cortex known to be involved in the formation of long-term
memories.
4.5.4 Sensory process -taste
Taste is another primary sense, which we experience in terms of sour, salt and
bitter. The taste receptors are found in taste buds on the edges and toward the back of
the tongue, a few are located elsewhere in the soft palate. Number of taste buds
decreases with age. Hence, older people are less sensitive to taste than children are.
The stimulus for taste is a substance that is soluble in saliva. The gustatory system
includes taste receptors that are located on the tongue, throat, and roof of mouth, as
well as parts of the brain and interconnecting neural pathways. The taste receptors
occur in clusters, called taste buds, on the bumps of the tongue and around the mouth.
At the ends of the taste buds are short hair like structures that extend outward and
make contact with the solutions in the mouth. The contact results in an electrical
impulse, the transduction process. The electrical impulse then travels to the brain.
Sensitivity to sweet is greatest at the tip of the tongue, to salt on the tip of sides.
To sour on the sides and to bitter on the back. Taste buds are quickly replenished and
every 7th day they reproduce themselves. The taste preference of lower order animals
varies widely which explains many of their food preferences.

4.5.5 Sensory process - skin senses

Skin has four sensations: touch, pain, warm and cold, all of which are felt through
distinct kinds of sensitive spots on the skin surfaces. All other skin sensations we
commonly describe such as itch, tickle, etc., are variations of four basic sensations.
Nerve fibers at the base of hair follicles serve as receptors for touch or light
pressure. Free nerve endings that terminate in the epidermis are involved in hair
reception.

4.5.6 Kinesthesis and equilibrator senses

Our position and movement of the body is related to sense of kinesthesis. Position
and movement are detected by sense organs in the joints. Sense organs in the muscles
and tendons tell us whether a muscle is stretched or contracted and help to adjust
muscular tension to the load upon it.
Without kinesthesis, we would have great difficulty in maintaining posture,
walking, climbing, and controlling voluntary movements like reaching, grasping, and
manipulating.
Cooperating with kinesthesis is equilibratory senses, which deal with total body
position in relation to gravity and with motion of the body as a whole. The relation of
bodily parts to one another and to external objects is the responsibility of kinesthesis.
The orientation of the body in space is the responsibility of quilibratory senses.
Check Your Progress -l

A. Fill in the blanks

1. The term absolute threshold refers to the _______________ intensity of a stimulus

that must be present for the stimulus to be detected.

2. The retina has three layers (a) __________. (b)__________ and (C) __________

3. Normal eye has capacity to discriminate three systems of colour, True or false?

4. The characteristics of a sound wave are ____________ and _____________

5. The __________ is the receptor in the nasal passage.

6. The number of taste buds decreases with age. True or false?

7. The four main sensations for skin are touch, pain __________ and __________

8. Without __________ we would have great difficulty in maintaining posture, walking

or climbing.

B. Match each type of visual receptor with its function

a. Rods 1 Used for dim light, largely insensitive to colour light

b. Cones 2 Detect colour, good in bright light

4.6 Summary
In this chapter, we have focused on the physical structure and internal workings of
the individual senses - vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. We have discussed the
characteristics of each sense and its relative impedance. We have thus learnt how
external stimuli evoke sensory responses and how our different senses process the
information contained in those responses.

4.7 Activity
Of all the senses described in this lesson, express your opinion about a particular
sense without which our functions would be very difficult.
4.8 Key Words

Sensation : The process by which our sense organs receives information.

Stimulus : Energy that produces a response in a sense organ.
Adaptation : An adjustment in sensory capacity following prolonged exposure
to stimuli.
Skin senses : The sense that include touch, pressure, temperature and pain.
Absolute threshold: The smallest intensity of a stimulas that must be present for
the stimulus to be detected.

4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

l. A 1. Smallest 2. The rods and cons; the bipolar cells; the ganglion cells.
3. True 4. Frequency and amplitude
5. Olfactory system 6. True
7. Warm; cold 8. Kinesthesis
B. a - 1 b—2

4.10 Model Questions

1 What basic processes underlie the sense of vision?

2 What role does the ear play in the senses of sound, motion and balance?
3. What are the skin senses?
4 write short notes on:
a) Absolute threshold
b) Kinesthesis sense
c) Structure of the human eye
d) Olfactory system
e) Sensory process - taste
 Lesson- 5

PERCEPTION AND ATTENTION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter begins initially with the definition of perception and the organization
of perceptual process as presented by the Gestalt school of psychology. The various
features of perception are also examined along with the approaches to perception. An
understanding of the ecological view on perception is also provided for us. The lesson
then moves onto attention, the approaches to attention and the theoretical
interpretation of the same.

5.2 Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to

 Describe perception
 Elaborate upon the constructional view of perception
 Explain the several features of perception
 Throw light on the approaches to perception.
 Elucidate the concept and approaches of attention

Plan of study
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 What is Perception?
5.4 Constructional View of Perception
5.5 Feature Perception
5.6 Approaches to Perception
5.7 Ecological View of Perception
5.8 Attention
5.9 Psychophysics
5.10 Summary
5.11 Activity
5.12 Key Words
5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.14 Model Questions
5.3 What is Perception?
Perception is the process by which we organize, integrate, and recognize the
various patterns of stimuli. When any stimulus is presented, the individual experiences a
set of sensations for e.g. A picture evokes visual sensations; we move close to it &:
touch it and infer many properties of the picture, Example it is a beautiful oil painting of
a landscape. The same is true for the various categories of stimuli touch as auditory
(sound) tactual (touch sensation) etc., Thus not merely experiencing the sensation, and
also recognizing the properties of the object and making inferences automatically and
unconsciously, eventually a person may not even notice the sensations on which the
inference is based.

5.4 Constructional View of Perception

According to Gestalt Psychologists, perception is the process of organization of
elements of a stimulus, the relative among elements of a stimulus is best demonstrated
by two examples. That is Figure - ground relationship and perceptual grouping. Consider
the picture for a moment is it a vase or profile of two people. The interpretation of
these stimuli can shift back and forth between a vase or profile depending on how you
organize the figure against the background. Figure is the object you perceive and the
background is the space within the object.
This suggests that we do not passively respond to stimuli, we actively organize and
make sense and meaning of what we see, hear, touch etc.

Perception in thus organizing the elements and features of a stimulus in a meaningful

way. Thus, perception is a constructive process, because we go beyond the stimuli that
are presented to us through different senses and make a meaningful interpretation of
the situation.
There are many principles that underlie the way we organize bits and pieces of
information into a meaningful wholes. These are known as Gestait Laws of Organisation.
 These laws were outlined by a group of German Psychologists (Wertheimer)
Koafka kohler during beginning of this century who studied patterns or gestalts. The
laws which are applicable to visual (to some extent auditory) stimuli were discovered.
The perceptual organization depends on the elements of stimuli, some of the
principal are
1. Closure: Groupings (organizing) is after made in terms of enclosed or complete
figures rather than open Ones. We tend to ignore breaks and focus on overall form.

2. Proximity: Elements of stimulus, which are together, are grouped together. For E.g.,
we see pair of dots rather than row of dots

.. .. .. .. ..

3. Similarity: Elements that are similar in appearance are grouped together.




4. Simplicity: the gestalt principle of simplicity overrides all other features. The most
straightforward basic force is perceived i.e. a square between lines rather than W or M
Just opposed

The gestalt principles explain that perception of environment goes well beyond
the individual elements that are seemed by the sensory apparatus. The bits and pieces
of sensations are put together to form altogether something more meaningful than the
separate elements. And thus, perception is an active and constructive process.
The principles that we use to organize the sensations & construct percepts based
on elements of sensations were outlined.
Perceptual integration, basically involves features of a stimulus. This process is
best manifested in perception of distance, motion perception, constancies and illusions.

5.5 Feature Perception

Feature Analysis involves perceiving a shape, pattern, object or scene by first

noticing the individual elements. These are used to understand the overall nature of
what is being perceived. A stimulus presented evokes sensations in the respective field
(visual, Auditory or kinesthetic). Then the perceptual processing system in the brain,
which is sensitive to specific spatial configuration (angles, shapes etc.) or sound & notes
(pitch etc.) will respond to the features of the stimulus. Each of these parts of element is
compared with information about the components stored in memory. When the
information matches with the stimulus, the individual makes the decision and arrives at
a response a perceptual response. The following example demonstrates this process of
feature analysis in perception.

Perceptual features are best demonstrated in the ability to perceive constancies,

Depth perception, Distance and motions illusions.

5.5.1 Perceiving distance

An element in stimulus that is related to distance in a scene that evoke the percept
is called distance cue artists use different such cues to depict the depth of two
dimensioned surface or in photographs they use different size, positioned at difference
level, gradient of feature (light & shade) superimposition and heights of pictures.
These cues can be the important features of stimulus that help in organizing a
depth in the visual perception, they can be classified as monocular cues or Binocular
cues depending on whether they involve one or two eyes. Positioning of both eyes
provides an advantage for perceiving depth. This is called stereoscopic vision Two
binocular cues are available in stereo scoping viewing - Binocular Parallax and Binocular
Disparity. These two cues help is understanding the distance of the object from the
perceive and the distance between two objects.
5.5.2 Perception of motion
When a light is flashed on-in darkness and a milliseconds later another is flashed at
same location. We perceive as if the light is moving. The perception of motion depend
on the space and time between two flashes E.g. motion picture i.e. cinema. This visual
system is very sensitive to real motion (movements of objects). The threshold for the
motion perception is low when the background features of the stimulus is stable and
when the object in moving is seen, we are able to see the relative motion.

5.5.3 Perceptual constancies

We are able to perceive objects remaining relatively constant regardless of change
in light condition, position, or distance. This phenomena of constancy is not perfect,
some features of this process is more stable than others. We know due to variations in
distance, the retinal image becomes smaller despite this variations we tend to perceive
stimulus as constant.
Colour constancy, shape and size are some examples of perceptual constancies.
Which in determined to a large extent by the different objects present in the
environment. When the moon appear in horizon it is seen larger, when it rises up it is
perceived smaller.
 This is because of the other objects like, trees, and terrain intervene and thus
when we look up later, there are no intervening stimulus elements except open sky and
we perceive it to be smaller. Thus, back ground features to a large extent determine the
constancy of perception.

5.5.4 Illusions in perception

Visual illusions are physical stimuli that constantly produce errors in perception.
These are called physical illusions. The perceptual illusions are consequences of
processes in perceptual system Geometrical illusions are one such large clan of
perceptual illusions.
Thus, we are aware of many percepts depend on the relations among features of a
stimulus, which are organized at higher level in the Brain, where different neurons are
sensitive to cues and facilitates the process of Perception. This higher level processing
and organizing integration makes the perceptual phenomenon more constructive rather
than passive filtering of stimulus.

Check Your Progress - I

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Perception is the process by which we organize ___________. And _________

the various patters of stimuli.

2. The constructional view of perception involves the __________, __________

relationship and ______________ grouping.

3. An element in stimulus that is related to distance in a scene that evoke the percept is
called distance ___________

4. When a light is flashed on in darkness and a millisecond later, another is flashed at

same location, we perceive as if the light is ________

5. Perceptual constancies are ______________ and size constancy.

6. When a car passes you on the road and appears to shrink as it gets farther away. The
phenomenon _______________ of permits you to realize that the car is not in fact
getting smaller.

B. State True or False

1. The principles of perceptual organisation are closure, proximity, similarity and
simplicity. True or False?

2. Feature analysis involves perceiving a shape, pattern, object or scene by first

noticing the elements as a whole. True or False?

3. Visual illusions are physical stimuli that constantly produce errors in perception.
True or False?

5.6 Approaches to Perception

Psychologist Anne Treisman presents two stages in process to perception. That is
pre attentive stage where there are only physical features of a stimulus such as size,
shape, colour, direction or movement. The next stage is founded attention stage where
attention to particular features of the object, which were initially considered separately,
is integrated.
Another approach helps us to understand the perceptual process in Top-Down and
Bottom-up processing
In the top - down processing, perception is guided by higher - level knowledge,
experience, expectations and motivation. This also implies that context also determine
how perceive objects. Many times we fill in the gaps in ambiguous stimuli by using our
own knowledge & experiences. Bottom-up—processing consists of recognizing and
processing information about individual components of the stimuli sometimes the
patterns and features of letter to a large extent determine the perception.
Bottom up processing permits us to process the fundamental characteristics of
stimuli (shape, colour, size, place etc.) whereas; top down processing allows bringing
our experience (prior knowledge, expectations, and motivation) to bear on perception.
However, brain continuously helps to interpret the information and integrate &
permits us to make appropriate responses to the environment.

5.7 Ecological View of Perception

Context: A context effect refers to the perception of stimulus, as it is influenced by
the “meaning" of other stimuli near it in time and space when the context is one in
which the stimulus usually occurs, the effect of context in facilitator, it enhances the
speed and accuracy of perception of the stimulus is ambiguous, blurred and there are
many difficulty. In the absence of context, recognition may fail to occur and one might
commit error. When the stimulus is ambiguous, but the context is present, then the
percept is more dependent on context. Context to a large extent influences the
recognition of ambiguous stimulus the needs, emotions, motives also form the context
in which the unfamiliar stimulus is interpreted. This is the underlying principle in eliciting
responses to Rorschach's tests.

5.8 Attention
We are bombarded by number of stimuli at once and we do not perceive all of
them only some of them enter our consciousness, no matter what we do and it is
possible for us to select what we want to perceive Attention is a process of readiness for
response. In physiological terms it is called orienting reflex, when neuron is actuated
usually what we select depends on what is important to us at the moment, but in a
given moment certain salient stimuli is perceived. We call this “selective attention".
Factors that influence this process of selection of stimuli are intensity (loud noise, bright
light), size (a big letter among group of words), contrast (unusual patterns) movement
(sudden movement of door etc.), and novelty (new stimulus, novel situation)
Selective seeing, selective bearing can be assured following the eye movements,
eye fixation and also the message that we hear among commotion of sounds (as in a
crowd, party etc.)
We selectively attend to the stimuli that impinge upon one sense. However,
perceptual system retains non-attended stimuli for a brief period and filters them out to
some extent thus, processing is to proceed selection.
The contemporary theory proposes that conscious perception and recognition
occurs when the response of a specific neuron in the brain reaches a certain level of
activation. This is recognition threshold. There are three kinds of input: stimulus input,
attentional set and selective attention. Stimulus input depends on the intensity and
sensitivity of stimulus - sensitive of the neuron to the stimuli.
Attentional set is an internal input to the neuron i.e. momentary context,
expectations, motives etc. This either excitates or inhibits the neurons.
Finally, the selective attention is a decision process where active neuron suppress
the activity of other competing neurons.
Reading is an all-important cognitive skill, which helps us to understand how we
selectively attend to the letters, words & their meaning. Eye movement’s studies while
reading helps us to understand the process of visual attention. Likewise there are many
cognitive tasks which are used to measure not only attention process, but also how we
respond to the different kinds of stimulus materials (verbal and non—verbal, auditory,
visual, kinesthetic etc. and also the simple tasks and complex tasks).
 Attention is thus one’s ability to focus on a task or concentrate. This varies from
individual to individual and across different conditions three, different aspects of
attention is selective attention, divided attention and Automacity.

It is difficult to attend to more things at a given time trying to attend to one stimuli
over another requires selective attention.

 Selective attention is best measured by classic stoop task.

 Slower to name colour when word says a different colour than to name the
colour of a coloured square why this happen?
 Reading is an automatic process
 Colour naming is controlled process
 Automatic process of reading interfere with our ability to selectively attend to ink
colour

Selective attention (auditory) dichotic listening : In a typical dichotic listening task, we

hear two messages simultaneously, one message to one ear & one message to another.
As they are listening, they are asked to “shadow“. One of the messages (i.e. repeat back
the words from one message only). They can tell whether it was human voice or a noise.
They can tell whether voice was of a male or female sometimes the ink is limited. They
cannot tell the language spoken and cannot report any words spoken, even if the same
words are repeated again & again.
Theoretically, it is difficult to attend to two things at once, however we can tell
what can draw attention such as your name in the unattended ear, but when your
attention get drawn to the unattended ear, you lose information from the “attended"
ear.
Bottle neck and fitter theories are proposed by Broadbent. Bottleneck is a
mechanism that limits the amount of information to be attended to.
What gets through? In what is selected early selection - Broadbent (1958)
proposed that physical characteristics of messages are used to select one message for
further processing and all other are lost.
Attention: Treisman (1964) proposed that physical characteristics are used to
select one message for full processing and other messages are given partial processing
Late selection: Deutsch & Deutsch (1963) proposed that all messages get through
but only one response can be made
5.8.1 Divided attention and dual task performance
Difficult to attend to more than one thing at same time trying to attend to two
stimuli, at once and making multiple responses rather than making one response to one
stimuli (interference).

5.8.2 Theoretical interpretation of divided attention

Capacity Theories : limited amount of resource available to conduct tasks.
Multiple resources, only one cognitive process can occur at a time.
Automaticity: automatic processing. Does not require attention, driving cars,
listening to radio, and reading. Sometimes controlled processing requires attention.
Feature Integration theory proposed by (Triesman & (Gelade 1980) states that
processing of a scene is parallel (simultaneous) sometime it is serial (one at time). The
former requires divided attention where automatic registration of features is parallel. A
more demanding kind of processing that is required when stimuli are complex involves
focused attention when stimuli has isolated feature or combination of feature are used
to study the two process.
Triesman and Gelade hypothesised that stimulus with isolated features involved
divided attention and targets can be identified in parallel with filters stimulus with
combination features involved focused attention and target could be identified serially
with the filters.

Check Your Progress - ll

1. Processing that involves higher functions such as expectations and motivations is

known as ___________. while processing that recognizes the individual components
of a stimulus is known as _________
2. Attention is a process for response and in psychological terms, it is called
_____________ reflex.
3. Perceive attention is best measured by test. ___________
4. Automacity refers to automatic _________________
5. Anne Treisman's two-stage process of perception includes __________and ________

5.9 Psychophysics
Psychophysics is the science, which tries to investigate the Quantitative
relationship between physical stimulus and resulting psychological experiences
Psychophysics mainly includes the experimental studies by E.H Weber and G.T. Feehner
who were physiologist & physicist respectively. These scientists were interested in the
measurement of various sensations, such as perception of temperature, pressure and
muscle senses. They developed the methods to measure the sensations and are
pioneers of Quantitative methods in psychology.

The weber’s experiment is the beginning of experimental research in sensation

and perception and his methods clearly demonstrated the quantification of
psychological functions.

The three psychophysical methods used by these experimentalists were:

1. Method of limits
2. Method of constant stimuli
3. Method of average error

Weber’s Experimentation related to psychophysics is presented briefly.

1. The first set of experiments is on temperature sense. Weber concluded after series of
Experiments that sensation of warm and cold did not directly result from actual
temperature stimulation, it resulted from change in the temperature of skin. Example
placing hand in water which is warm after sometimes we no longer feel the sensation of
warmth. Because our hand will adapt to the warm water When there is an increase in
temperature in water, a feeling of warmth will be noticed. This occurs due to change in
temperature of skin

2. The second category of webers experiment was on touch sense. There are three types
of sensation for touch namely, pressure, temperature and locality. Two –point threshold
of limen demonstrates that when two pin point of stimuli stimulates two skin types of
the subject, they tend to report two separate stimuli. When the distance between these
stimuli is gradually reduced, a point a point comes where the subject reports the feeling
of only one pin point, although the skin is being touched with two-pin points. This
distance between two points in known a two-point threshold.
A distance of two points is below this threshold the subjects reports one point
when the distance of two points (to be stimulated) is far greater than this threshold, the
subject would report two-point (separate) Weber concluded from his studies that the
threshold for sense of touch varies at different parts for body and also varies across
persons and at times with same individual.
3. Sense of muscles to discriminate weight other sets of psychophysical experiments
conducted by Weber to demonstrate subjective differences in perception of weight He
showed that muscle sense in addition to touch sense facilitated the perception weight
estimation Ability to discriminate, small difference in weight not only depends on the
intensity of stimuli (weight) but on a ratio of difference to the standard weight. This is
called weber's law weber has made it clear that there was not a one-to-one relationship
between magnitude of difference and the subjects ability to detect the discrimination.
Standard weight is 40 gms. and subject is asked to lift it and compare it
successively with other weight the subject is likely to detect an increase in weight
(Notice change in muscle serve) only when 10 gms. (Approximately ¼ of STD weight) is
added to the comparable weight. This value in called the “Just Noticeable Difference" or
JND. Another Ex. If standard weight is 20 gms is added. The ability to discriminate the
weight is dependent upon the ratio between the difference and standard weight similar
results are noticed for visual sensation an auditory stimuli. Though Fechner worked with
weber in experiments on weight discrimination, pitch discrimination and visual
Discrimination he was more interested in developing measurer to estimate the
differences in physical events (stimuli) and mental events (sensations)

5.9.1 Method of limits

Method of limits is also known as method of small perceptible differences or
method of just noticeable difference, in this method the intensity of stimulus is
increased gradual in a measured step until the subject report a change in the intensity of
sensation. Example. Hearer. Wonder, brighter etc., according to mode of stimulation).
First, the stimulus start: a lower level of intensity (weak stimuli) until it produces a
change in sensation. Next, the stimulus is gradually decreased from higher to lower
intensity. Averaging the result ascending and descending trails produce absolute
threshold or Reiz limen (Rh).

For calculating Differential Limen a standard stimuli is compared with a set 0-

comparison stimuli. The comparisons are varied until the subject does not perceive any
change or difference between standard stimuli and comparison stimuli. This is point
where subject report "no Difference". Averaging the result through many, trials give the
Differential Limen or threshold.

5.9.2 Method of constant stimuli

This is also known as method of right and wrong cases in this method Fechner
presented stimuli or stimulus differences in random manner. Taking each stimulus
difference as constant, he calculated relative frequency with which a specific judgment
was made for each stimuli. By plotting the judgment, he derived value for RL. and DL.

5.9.3 Method of average error

This is also known as method of adjustment and method of reproduction, were the
subjects are presented a standard stimuli for Example standard line of Muller - Oyer
Board and the subject is asked to manipulate the comparison stimulus till they perceive
no difference between comparison stimulus & standard line.
During many trials, the subjects either make it larger or smaller than standard. The
errors across the trials are averaged and the degree of error becomes the estimate of
threshold or Limen.
This method of estimation of perception was applied to all modalities of such as
sight, hearing, touch, temperature etc.
According to Fechner, if the intensity of physical magnitude of the stimulus
increases in geometrical order 1. 2, 4. B. 16. Etc. the result increase in the sensation
Magnitude of just noticeable difference takes place in arithmetical order like ‘1. 2. 3. 4.
5. Etc thus he demonstrated a logarithmic relation between intensity of stimuli and the
resulting intensity of sensation. This is known as ‘Fechner law. This contribution and
formulations which developed the experimental orientation to psychology has justly
honored Fectiner as Father of Psychophysics.
Check Your Progress - lll

Fill in the blanks

1. Psychophysics is the science, which tries to investigate the quantitative relationship

between physical stimulus and resulting
2. The three psychophysical methods used by these experimentalists were method of
__________and.________limits.

5.10 Summary
Perception is the process by which we organize, integrate and recognize the various
patterns of stimuli. Qeslalt psychologists maintained that perception is the process of
organization of elements of a stimulus and explained the figure — ground principle and
perceptual grouping. Perception his hence a constructive process the principles of Won
are (a). Closure (b) proximity (c) similarity (d) simplicity. Feature analysis pertains to how
we consider a shape, pattern, object or scene in terms of the individual elements that
make it up An element in stimulus the t is related to distance in a scene that evoke the
percept is called distance cue The perception of motion depends upon the space and
time between two flashes. Perceptual constancy permits us to perceive stimuli as
unvarying and consistent, despite changes in the environment or the appearance of the
objects being perceived. Visual illusions are physical stimuli that constantly produce
errors in perception. The two process to perception as given by Anne Treisman is the
Pre attentive and founded attention stage. Processing of perceptual stimuli occurs both
in a top - down and a bottom up fashion, in top, down processing, perception is guided
by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations and motivations. In bottom - up
processing perception involves recognizing and processing information about the
individual components of stimuli. Attention is a process for readiness for response.
Factors that influence the process of selective attention are intensity, size, contrast and
novelty. The three aspects of attention are selective attention, divided attention and
automacity. Psychophysics is the science, which tries to investigate the quantitative
relationship between physical stimulus and resulting psychological experiences. The
three methods use is (1) method of limits (2) method of constant stimuli (3) method of
average error.

5.11 Activity
Can you think of examples of the combined use of top down and bottom - up
Processing in everyday life? Is one type of processing superior to the other?
5.12 Key Words
Perception : The sorting out, interpretation, analysis and integration of stimuli involving
our sense organs and brain.
Psychophysics : The study of the relationships between the physical aspects of stimuli
and our psychological experience of them.
Gestalt laws of : A series of principles that describe how we organize organization bits
and pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
Top-down processing: Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience,
expectations and motivations.
Bouomarp processing: Perception that consists or recognising and processing
information shot the individual components of the stimuli.

5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

I. A 1. Integrate; recognize 2. Figure - ground relationship; perceptual
3. Cue 4. Moving
5. Colour constancy; shape 6. Perceptual constancy

B. 1. True 2. False
3. True

1. a. Top down, b. Bottom - up 2. Readiness. Orienting

3. Classic stoop 4. Processing
5. Pre attentive stage; founder attentive stage

1. Psychological experience 2. Constant stimuli average error.

5.14 Model Questions

1) Define perception and explain the constructional view of perception.
2) Explain perceptual integration.
3) What is attention? Elucidate on the aspects of attention.
4) What are the psychophysical methods used? Explain in detail.
5) Write short notes on :
a) Weber's experimentation
b) Ecological view of perception
c) Illusions in perception
 LESSON — 6
LEARNING

6.1 Introduction
We begin this chapter by examining the type of learning that explains various
responses such as a dog salivating when it hears its owner opening a can of dog food.
We then discuss other theories that consider how learning is a consequence of
rewarding circumstances. Behaviour modification and the several techniques are also
explained to throw light on behaviour change program. Finally, we examine approaches
to cognitive aspects of learning.

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this lesson check if you can
 Define learning
 Explain the concepts of classical conditioning
 Elucidate operant conditioning
 Examine cognitive learning and its processes
 Elaborate on observational learning
 Clarify behaviour modification and its steps

Plan of study
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Definition of Learning
6.4 Basics of Classical Conditioning
6.5 Operant Condition
6.6 Cognitive Social Approaches to Learning
6.7 Cognitive Processes in Classical and Instrumental Learning
6.8 Observational Learning; Learning Through imitation
6.9 Behaviour Modification
6.10 Summary
6.11 Activity
6.12 Key Words
6.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.14 Model Questions
6.3 Definition of Learning
Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as the result of experience. Behaviour changes that are due to maturation or to
temporary conditions of the organism (such as fatigue or drug - induced states) are not
included. Not all cases of learning are the same, though. There are two basic kinds of
teaming: non associative learning and associative learning. Nonassociative learning
involves Learning about a single stimulus, and it includes habituation and sensitization.
Habituation is a type of nonassociative learning that is characterized by a decreased
behavioral response to an innocuous stimulus. For example, the sound of a horn might
startle you when you first hear it. But if the horn toots repeatedly in a short time, the
amount that you startle to each sound progressively decreases. In contrast, sensitization
is a type of nonassociative learning whereby there is an increase in a behavioral
response to an intense stimulus. Sensitization typically occurs when noxious or fearful
stimuli are presented to an organism. For example, the acoustic startle response to a
horn is greatly enhanced if you enter a dark alley right before the loud sound. Both
habituation and sensitization are relatively short - lived, lasting for minutes to hours.
However, providing many spaced presentations of stimuli can yield longer - lasting
learning.

6.4 Basics of Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist never intended to do psychological research. In 1904

he won the Nobel Prize for his work on digestion, testimony to his contribution to that
field, Yet Pavlov is remembered not for his physiological research, but for his
experiments on basic learning processes that he began quite accidentally.
Pavlov had been studying the secretion of stomach acids and salivation in dogs in
response to the ingestion of varying amounts and kinds of food. While doing so, he
observed a curious phenomenon: Sometimes stomach secretions and salivation would
begin in the dogs when they had not yet eaten any food. The mere sight of the
experimenter who normally brought the food, or even the sound of the experimenter’s
footsteps, was enough to produce salivation in the dogs. Pavlov‘s genius was his ability
to recognize the implications of this discovery. He saw that the dogs were responding
not only based on a biological need (hunger), but also as a result of learning — or, as it
can to be called, classical condition. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus (such as the experimenter's footsteps) comes to bring about a response
after it is paired with a stimulus (such food) that naturally brings about that response.
To demonstrate and analyze classical conditioning, Pavlov conducted a series of
experiments. He attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, which would allow him
to measure precisely the dog's salivation. He then rang a bell and, just a few seconds
later, presented the dog with meat. Each time exactly the same amount of time elapsed
between the presentation of the bell and the meat. At first, the dog would salivate only
when the meat itself was presented, but soon it began to salivate at the sound of the
bell. In fact, even when Pavlov stopped presenting the meat, the dog still salivated after
hearing the sound. The dog had been classically conditioned to salivate to the bell.
Before conditioning, there are two unrelated stimuli: the ringing of a bell and meat. The
bell is called the neutral stimulus. The meat is considered an unconditioned stimulus, or
UCS, because food placed in a dog's mouth automatically causes salivation to occur. The
response that the meat elicits (salivation) is called an unconditioned response, or UCR -
a natural innate response that is not associated with previous learning. When
conditioning is complete, the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to what is now
called a conditioned stimulus, or CS Salivation that occurs is CR. After conditioning, then,
the conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.
Although the terminology Pavlov used to describe classical conditioning might at
first seem confusing, the following summary rules can help make the relationship
between stimuli and responses easier to understand and remember.

 An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response

 Unconditioned stimulus-unconditioned response pairing is unlearned and
untrained.
 During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the
conditioned stimulus.
 A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned
stimulus—conditioned response pairing is a consequence of learning and
training.
 An unconditioned response and a conditioned response are similar (such as
salivation in the example described earlier) but the conditioned response is
teamed, whereas the unconditioned response occurs naturally.

6.4.1 Applying conditioning principles to human behaviour

Although the initial conditioning experiments were carried out with animals,
classical conditioning principles were soon found to explain many aspects of everyday
human behaviour. Recall, for instance, the earlier illustration of how people might
experience hunger pangs at the sight of Mc Donald‘s golden arches. The cause of this
reaction is classics conditioning. The previously neutral arches have become associated
with the food inside the restaurant (the unconditioned stimulus), causing the arches to
become conditions: stimulus that brings about the conditioned response of hunger”
Emotional responses are particularly likely to be learned through classical
conditioning processes. For instance, how do some of us develop fear of mice, spiders,
and other creatures that are typically harmless? In a now-famous case study deigned to
show that classical conditioning was at the root of such fears, an 11-month old infant
named Albert, who initially showed no fear of rats, heard a loud noise just as he was
shown a rat (Watson &Rayner, 1920). The noise (the unconditioned stimulus) evoked
fear (the unconditioned response). After just a few pairings of noise and rat, Albert
began to show fear of the rat by itself. The rat, then, had become a CS that brought
about the CR, fear, Similarly, the pairing of the appearance of certain species (such as
mice or spiders) with the fearful comments of an adult may cause children to develop
the same fears their parents have (By the way, we don't know what happened to the
unfortunate Albert, and Watson, the experimenter, has condemned for using ethically
questionable procedures.)
Learning via classical conditioning also occurs during adulthood. For example, you
might not go to a dentist as often as you should because of prior associations of dentists
and pain. Or you might have a particular fondness for the smell of a certain perfume or
aftershave lotion because the feelings and thought of an early lover come rushing back
whenever you encounter it. Classical conditioning, then explains many of the reactions
we have to stimuli in the world around us (Woodmtf-Pak 1999.)

Check Your Progress -I

A. Fill in the blanks

1. ____________involves changes brought about by experience, whereas maturation
describes changes to biological development.
2. ____________ is the name of the scientist responsible for discovering the Learning
phenomenon known as ___________ conditioning, in which an organism learns a
response to a stimulus to which it would not normally respond.

B. Refer to the following passage to answer the questions given below:

The last three times little Theresa visited her Doctor for checkups; he administered a
painful preventive immunization that left her in tears. Today, when her mother takes
her for another checkup. Theresa begins to sob as soon as she comes face - to - face
with her doctor even before he has had a chance to say hello.
1. The painful shot that Theresa received during each visit was a (n) _______. Which
elicited the ___________? Her tears.
2. The Doctor is upset because his presence has become a ___________for Theresa‘s
crying.
3. Fortunately, the Doctor gave Theresa no more shots for some time. Over that time
she gradually stopped crying and even came to like him.__________ had occurred
4. __________________occurs when a stimulus that is fairly similar to the conditioned
stimulus produces the same response.
5. On the other hand, __________________occurs when there is no response to a
stimulus that is slightly different from the conditioned stimulus.

6.5 Operant Conditioning

Operant is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. Unlike classical conditioning,
in which the original behaviors are the natural, biological operant conditioning applies
to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately, to produce a
desirable outcome, the term operant emphasizes this point; the organism operates on
its environment to produce some desirable result. For example, operant conditioning is
at work when we team that toiling industriously can bring about a raise, or that studying
hard results in good grades.
As with classical conditioning, the basis for understanding operant conditioning
was also laid by work with animals.

6.5.1 Reinforcing desired behaviour

Reinforcing is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability a
preceding behaviour will be repeated. A reinforce is any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behaviour will occur again. Hence, food is a reinforce
because it increases the probability that the behaviour of pecking the key (formally
referred to as the response of pecking) will take place.
What kind of stimuli can act as reinforces. Bonuses, toys, and good grades can
serve as reinforces—if they strengthen the probability of the response that occurred
before their introduction. In each case, it is critical that the organism learn that the
delivery of the reinforce is contingent on the response occurring in the first place.
A primary reinforce satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless
of a person's prior experience. Food for the hungry person, warmth for the cold person,
and relief for the person in pain would all be classified as primary reinforces. A
secondary reinforce, in contrast, is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its
association with a primary reinforce. For instance, we know that money is valuable
because we have learned that it allow us to obtain other desirable objects, including
primary reinforces such as food and shelter. Money thus becomes a secondary
reinforce.
What makes something a reinforce depends on individual preferences? Though an
ice cream could act as a reinforce for one person, an individual who dislikes chocolate
might find 75 more desirable. The only way we can know its stimulus is a reinforce for a
given organism is to observe whether the frequency of a previously occurring behaviour
increases after the presentation of the stimulus.

6.5.2 Positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, and punishment

In many respects, reinforcers can be thought of in terms of reward; both a
reinforce and a reward increase the probability that a preceding response will occur
again. But the term reward is limited to positive occurrence, and this is where it differs
from a reinforce- for it turns out that reinforces can be positive or negative.
A positive reinforce is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an
increase in a preceding response. If food, water, money, or praise is provided following a
response, it is more likely that response will occur again in the future. The paycheck that
workers get at the end of the week, for example, increases the likelihood that they will
return to their jobs the following week.
In contrast, a negative reinforce refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal
from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response
in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future, For example.
If you have cold symptoms (an unpleasant stimulus) that are relieved when you take
medicine, you are more likely to take the medicine when you experience such
symptoms again. Taking medicine, then, is negatively reinforcing, because it removes
the unpleasant cold symptoms. Similarly, if the radio volume is so loud that it hurts your
ears, you are likely to find that turning it down relieves the problem. Lowering the
volume is negatively reinforcing and you are more apt to repeat the-action in the future.
Negative reinforcement, than teaches the individual that taking an action removes a
negative condition that exists in the environment. Like positive reinforcers, negative
reinforces increase the likelihood that preceding behaviors will be repeated.
There are two types of punishment positive punishment and negative punishment,
just as there is positive and negative reinforcement. (In both cases, "positive" means
adding something, whereas “negative" means removing something) positive
punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus. For
instance, spanking a child for misbehaving or ten years in jail for committing a crime is
positive punishment. In contrast, negative punishment consists of the removal of
something pleasant. For instance, when a teenager is told she is “grounded" and will no
longer be able to use the family can because of her poor grades. or when an employee is
informed that he has been demoted with a cut in pay because of poor job evaluation,
negative punishment is being administered. Both positive and negative punishment
result in a decrease in the likelihood that a prior behaviour will be repeated.
The distinction between the two types of punishment, as well as positive and
negative reinforcement, might seem confusing initially, but the following rules can help
you to distinguish these concepts from one another.

 Reinforcement increases the frequency of the behaviour preceding it;

punishment decreases the frequency of the behaviour preceding it.
 The application of a positive stimulus brings about an increase in the frequency of
behaviour and is referred to as positive reinforcement; the application of a
negative stimulus decreases or reduces the frequency of behaviour and is called
positive punishment.
 The removal of a negative stimulus that results in an increase on the frequency of
behaviour is termed negative reinforcement; the removal of a positive stimulus
that decreases the frequency of behaviour is called negative punishment.

When we refer to frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired

behaviour, we are talking about schedules of reinforcement. Behaviour that is
reinforced to every time it occurs is said to be a continuous reinforcement schedule; if it
is reinforced some but not all of the time, it is on a partial reinforcement schedule.
Although learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement schedule,
behaviour lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial
reinforcement schedule.

6.5.3 Discrimination and generalization in operant conditioning

It does not take a child long to learn that, a red light at an intersection means stop
and a green light indicates that it permissible to continue. Just as in classical
conditioning, that just as in classical conditioning, that, Operant learning involves the
phenomena of discrimination and generalization.
The process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli is known as stimulus
control training. In stimulus control training, behaviour is reinforced in the presence of a
specific stimulus, but not in its absence. For example, one of the most difficult
discriminations many people face is determining when someone's friendliness is not
mere friendliness, but a signal of romantic interest. People learn to make the
discrimination by observing the presence of certain nonverbal cues— such as increased
eye contact and touching-that indicate romantic interest. When such cues are absent,
people learn that no romantic interest is indicated. In this case, the nonverbal cue acts
as a discriminative stimulus, one to which an organism learns to respond during stimulus
control training. A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement will
follow a response. For example, if you wait until your behaviour can be said to be under
stimulus control because you can discriminate between her moods.
Just as in classical conditioning, the phenomenon of stimulus generalization in
which an organism learns a response to one stimulus and then applies it to other
stimuli, is also found in operant conditioning. If you have teamed that being polite
produces the reinforcement of getting your way in a certain situation, you are likely to
generalize your response to other situations. Sometimes, though, generalization can
have unfortunate consequences, such as when people behave negatively toward all
members of a racial group because they have had an unpleasant experience with one
member of that group.

1. Superstitious behaviour
When my son, a college senior, on the day of the exam, put on a tie. The reason;
Early in his college career, he took an exam wearing a tie (because he had an interview
later in the day) and he got an A Grade. From that time on, he wore a tie to every exam.
To learning psychologists such a ritual is an example of superstitious behaviors
Superstitions behaviour can be explained in terms of learning and reinforcement. As we
have seen, behaviour that is followed by a reinforce tends to be strengthened.
Occasionally, however, the behaviour that occurs prior to the reinforcement is entirely
coincidental. Still, an association is made between the behaviour and reinforcement.
For instance, imagine that a baseball player taps his bat against the ground three
times in a row just prior to getting a single. The hit is, of course, coincidental to the
batter's tapping the ground, but the player might see it as somehow related. Because
the player makes this association, he might tap the ground three times every time he is
at bat in the future. And because he will be at least partially reinforced for this
behaviour - batters us a superstitious behaviour (Van Ginkel, 1990; Matute, 1994, 1995).

2. Shaping; reinforcing what doesn't come naturally

Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behaviour by rewarding closer and
closer approximations of the desired behaviour. In shaping, you start by reinforcing any
Behaviour that is at all similar to the behaviour you want the person to learn. Later, you
Reinforce only responses that are closer to the behaviour you ultimately want to teach.
Finally, you reinforce only the desired response. Each step in shaping, then, moves only
slightly beyond the previously teamed behaviour, permitting the person to link the new
step to the behaviour learned earlier.
 Shaping allows even lower animals to learn complex responses that would never
occur naturally. Ranging from lions jumping through hoops to dolphins rescuing divers
lost at sea. Shaping also underlies the learning of many complex human skills. For
instance, the organization of most textbooks is based on the principles of shaping.
Typically. Information is presented so that new material builds on previously learned
concepts or skills.

Check Your-Progress - II
A 1. _________ Conditioning describes learning that occurs as a result of reinforcement.

B. Match the type of operant learning with its definition:

1. An unpleasant stimulus is presented a. Positive reinforcement
to decrease behaviour
2. An unpleasant stimulus is removed b. Negative reinforcement
to increase behaviour
3. An pleasant stimulus is presented to c. Positive punishment
increase behaviour
4. An pleasant stimulus is removed to d. Negative punishment
decrease behaviour

C. Kumar had a rough day, and his son's noisemaking is not helping him relax. Not
wanting to resort to scolding, Kumar told his son in a very serious manner that he
was very tired and would like the boy to play quietly for an hour. This approach
worked. For Kumar, the change in his son's behaviour was
a. Positively reinforcing b. Negatively reinforcing

6.6 Cognitive - Social Approaches to Learning

Not all learning is due to operant and classical conditioning. In fact, examples like
learning to drive a car imply that some kinds of learning must involve higher-order
processes. In which people’s thoughts, memories, and the way process information
account for their responses. Such situation argues against regarding learning as the
unthinking. Mechanical and automatic acquisition of associations between stimuli and
responses, as in classical conditioning or the presentation of reinforcement, as in
operant conditioning.
6.6.1 Cognitive learning
Cognition refers to the processing of the information about the environment that
is received through the senses. Cognitive processes involve (1) the selection of
information (2) the making of alteration in the selected information, (3) the association
of items of information with each other, (4) the elaboration of information in though, (5)
the storage of information in memory and when needed, (6) the retrieval of stored
information. Learning as you know refers to relatively permanent changes in behaviour
as a result of experience, putting the terms cognition and learning together gives a
definition of cognitive Learning; a change in the way information is processed as a result
of experience a person or animal has, In other words, due to past experiences the
significance and meaning of events have been changed, new associations have been
formed and these changes have been stored in memory for future use. Obviously, much
learning is of the cognitive variety.

Latent learning
The word latent means “hidden,“ and thus latent Learning that occurs but is not
evident behaviour until later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable. Latent
learning is said to occur without reinforcement of particular responses and seems to
involve changes in the ways information is processed. Thus latent learning is as example
of cognitive learning.
Instead, some psychologists view learning in terms of the thought, processes, or
ignitions that underlie it-an approach known as cognitive—social leaning theory.
Although psychologists using the cognitive-social Learning perspective do not deny the
importance classical and operant conditioning, they have developed approaches that
focus on the seen mental processes that occur during learning, rather than
concentrating solely on external stimuli responses, and reinforcement.
Some of the most direct evidence regarding cognitive processes comes from a
series of experiments that revealed a type of cognitive-social learning called latent
learning. In latent learning a new behaviour is learned but not demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided for displaying it, in the studies, psychologists examined the
behaviour of rats in a maze such. In one representative experiment, a group of rats was
allowed to wander around the maze once a day for seventeen days without even
receiving any reward. Understandably, these rats made many errors and spent a
relatively long time reaching the end of the maze. A second group, however, was always
given food at the end of the maze. Not surprisingly, these rats learned to run quickly and
directly to the food box, making few errors.

A third group of rats started out in the same situation as the unrewarded rats, but
only for the first ten days. On the eleventh day, a critical experimental manipulation was
introduced. From that point on, the rats in this group were given food for completing
the maze. The results of this manipulation were dramatic. The previously unrewarded
rats, which had earlier seemed to wander about aimlessly, showed such reduction in
running time and declines in error rates that their performance almost immediately
matched that of the group that had received rewards from the start.
To cognitive—social theorists, it seemed clear that the unrewarded rats had
learned the layout of the maze early in their explorations; they just never displayed their
latent learning until the reinforcement was offered, instead the rats seemed to develop
a cognitive map of the mazes mental representation of spatial locations and directions,
People develop cognitive maps of their surroundings, based primarily on particular
landmarks. When they first encounter a new environment, their maps tend to rely on
specific paths-such as the directions we might give someone unfamiliar with an area;
"Turn right at the stop sign, make a left at the bridge, and then go up the hill.“ However,
as people become more familiar with an area, they develop an overall conception of it,
which has been called an abstract cognitive map. Using such a map, they are eventually
able to take shortcuts as they develop a broad understanding of the area (Garling,1989;
Galeet al, 1990; Plumert et al.1995).
The possibility that we develop our cognitive maps through latent learning
presents something of a problem for strict operant conditioning theorists. If we consider
the results of Tolrnan's maze experiment, for instance, it is unclear what the specific
reinforcement was that the permitted rats initially received no reward to learn about
the layout of the maze, because there was no obvious reinforce present. Instead, the
results support a cognitive- social view of learning in which Learning might have resulted
in changes in unobservable mental processes.

2. Insight learning
In a typical insight situation, a problem is posed, a period follows during which no
apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly. A learning curve of
insight learning would show no evidence of learned can also be applied easily to other,
similar situations; in other words there is great deal of generalization of insightful
solutions to similar problems.
Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually experience a good feeling
called an “aha experience." "Aha!” we say as we suddenly see the answer to the
problem. To illustrate insight learning, study the following series of numbers. What
numbers should follows these? Do not give up easily.

If you cannot solve the problem after a few minutes, go on to something else and
then come back to the problem. Try different arrangements, or perceptual organization.
of the numbers, if you solve the problem, you will have a pleasant “aha experience. “
Note that (1) your solution came suddenly after a period during which you tried various
response strategies; (2) perceptual rearrangement helped a great deal; and (3) the
solution, once you have it, can be generalized rather easily to other, similar number
problems. These are the three major characteristics of insight Learning. (If, after trying
hard, you still do not have the answer, you can get a partial “aha experience" from the
answer)
How does insight Learning occur? The cognitive answer to this question is that
insight involves a perceptual reorganization of elements in the environment such that
new relationships among objects and events are suddenly seen. Perhaps you experience
such perceptual reorganization when you solved the number-series problem. Perceptual
reorganization also seems to be the rule in insightful learning by animals such as
chimpanzees. Many years ago, the German psychologist Wolfgang Kohter carried out a
number of insight experiments on chimpanzees and summarized the findings in a book
entitled The Mentality of Apes. He set these animals to solving problems such as the
following.
A food morsel was placed outside the cage at a distance too far for the chimp to
reach, inside the cage there was a stick too short to reach the food but long enough to
reach another longer stick outside the cage. This longer stick could be used to take in
the food there was a period of trial-and-error fumbling, with little real progress toward a
solution. Then, Kohler reported, the chimp would suddenly stop what it was doing
visually survey the sticks and the food, and then, suddenly and smoothly-and without
any fumbling-solve the problem by using the shorter stick to take in the longer stick.
which could then be used to get the food.
In addition to the perceptual reorganization of the environment, there is often
carryover, or transfer, of things previously learned to insight situations. When you solve
the number-series problem, you carried over some things you had already learned an
applied them to the problem. Similarly, Kohter’s chimps carried over what they already
know about sticks and other simple tools to the insight situation. In the animal
experiments, it is possible that some of the elements carried over to the insight
situation were the result of previous learning in naturally occurring conditioning—like
situations. Thus, although the essence of insight learning is said to be perceptual
reorganization of the environment so that objects take on new meanings and new
relationships are seen among them what has been learned in more mechanical ways
may also play a role in insightful solutions.
3. Imitation
Another cognitive—learning situation—one that is very important in human
learning-occurs when we imitate another individual, or model out behaviour on that
someone else. We might formally define imitation as a response that is like the stimulus
triggering the response; a person or animal watches another do or hears another do or
say something, then responds in the same way.
What can be imitated seems to be a species-typical capacity. Some birds, like the
parrot can imitate human language. And some birds learn or perfect their calls by
imitating older members of their species. Children learn to say words partly through
hearing the words spoken by their parents and by other children.
For many years, psychologists tried to explain imitation and modeling in terms of
classical and instrumental conditioning principles. Modern psychologists have come to
the view that imitation and modeling are the result of an innate capacity possessed by
certain animal species, human beings included.

6.7 Cognitive Processes in Classical and instrumental Conditioning

In the 1930s, Edward C. Tolman developed an influential theory that stressed the
cognitive nature of all learning. This theory was later overshadowed by other theories
emphasizing the role of reinforcement in learning, in the past few years; however,
cognitive theories about learning have once again become permanent.
When describing classical conditioning earlier, we gave a cognitive interpretation
of it. This theory was later overshadowed by other theories emphasizing the role of
reinforcement in learning, in the past few years; however, cognitive theories about
Learning have once again become prominent.
When describing classical conditioning earlier, we gave a cognitive interpretation
of it. You may remember that classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned
stimulus (CS) begins to act as a signal to predict the occurrence of the unconditioned
stimulus (US). The cognitive interpretation is that as a result of the pairing of the CS and
US, the CS arouses the expectation that the US will soon occur, and the learner acts on
this expectation, in Pavlov‘s experiments, for example the bell (CS) is a signal for food
US). The dog expects food when the bell is rung and salivates in anticipation of it.
Expectation is also a key element in the cognitive interpretation of instrumental
conditioning. Consider an animal learning to press a lever in an operant chamber. The
animal may be learning to expect that a particular response, pressing a lever, will result
in a significant event, the reinforce. In avoidance learning, the warning stimulus may be
considered a signal for impending shock. Given the warning signal, the animal expects
shock and responds with a species typical defense reaction.
6.8 Observational Learning; Learning Through imitation
According to psychologist Albert Bandera and colleagues, a major part of human
learning consists of observational learning, which they define as learning through
observing the behaviour of another person called a model (Bandura, 1977). Bandura and
his colleagues demonstrated rather dramatically the ability of models to stimulate
learning. In what is now considered a classic experiment, young children saw a film of an
adult wildly hitting a 5-foot-tall inflatable punching toy called a Babe doll (Bandura,
Ross, 1963a 1963b). Later the children were given the opportunity to play with the Echo
doll themselves and, sure enough, most displayed the same kind of behaviour, in some
cases mimicking the aggressive behaviour almost identically.
Not only negative behaviors acquired through observation learning, in one
experiment, for example, children who were afraid of dogs were exposed to a model
dubbed the Fearless peer playing with a dog (Bandura, Grusec & Menlove, 1967).
Following exposure, children who had observed the model were considerably more
likely to approach a strange dog than children who had not viewed the Fearless Peer.
According to Bandura, observational learning takes place in four steps: (1) paying
attention and perceiving the most critical features of another person's behaviour; (2)
remembering the behaviour; (3) reproducing the action; and (4) being motivated to
learn and carry out the behaviour, Instead of Learning occurring through trial and error,
then, with successes being reinforced and failures punished, many important skills are
learned through observational processes Bandura, 1986)
Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills for which
shaping is inappropriate. Piloting an airplane and performing brain surgery, for example,
are behaviour that could hardly be learned using trial-and - error methods without grave
cost - literally-to those involved in the learning.
If we observe a friend being rewarded for putting more time into her behaviour
only results in her being stressed and tired. Models who are rewarded for behaving in a
particular way are more apt to be mimicked than models who receive punishment.
Observational Learning is central to a number of important issues relating to the
extent, which people learn by simply watching the behaviour of others. For instance, the
degree to which observation of aggression in the media produces subsequent
aggression on the part of viewers is a crucial—and controversial—question.
Check Your Progress - III

1. Cognitive — social learning theorists are concerned with only overt behaviour and not
with its internal causes. True or False?
2. In cognitive - social learning theory, it is assumed that people develop an __________
about receiving a reinforce when they behave a certain way.
3. In _____________learning , a new behaviour is learned but it is not shown until
appropriate reinforcement is given.
4. Bandura's theory of ____________learning states that people learn through watching
a ________________ another person displaying the behaviour of interest.

6.8.1 Does virtual aggression lead to actual aggression?

Blood flows freely as still-warm corpses lie on the ground. Potential victims beg for
mercy, while others moan in pain. Some people catch fire before they are mowed down,
falling to the ground, dead.
This is just some of the continual violence that characterizes the computer game
Postal. In the game, trigger—happy players act out the role of postal Dude who shoots
at everything - and everyone-in his path. Like Doom, a favorite game of one of the
Columbine High school of variety of weapons of carnage.
Postal and Doom are just two of many highly realistic, involving, and video games
now on the market. In fact, one survey found that almost 80 percent of the most
popular games involved aggression, with one - fifth of them involving violence against
woman (Dietz, 1998).
Can playing games like postal and Doom lead to actual aggression? Increasing
research evidence suggests that it might. According to a recent series of studies by
psychologists Craig Anderson and Karen Dill (2000), playing violent video games is
associated with later aggressive behaviour. In one study, for example, they found that
college students who frequently played violent video games were more likely to have
been involved in delinquent behaviour and aggression. Frequent players also had lower
academic achievement.
On the other hand, such results do not show that playing violent games causes
delinquency, aggression and lower academic performance; the research only found that
the various variables were associated with one another. To explore the question of
whether violent game play actually caused aggression, Anderson and Dill subsequently
conducted a short-term laboratory study. In it, they had participants in an experiment
play either a violent causal video game (Wolfenstein 3D) or one that was nonviolent
(Myst). The results were clear; Exposure to the graphically violent video game increased
aggressive thought and actual aggression.
The finding of a link between playing violent video games and aggressive
behaviour is consistent with findings from other studies, and it makes sense in light of
the research on the consequences of exposure to violence in the media. In fact, the
effects of playing video games could be even greater than the effects of merely
watching an aggressive television program. While research has shown that a link exists
between playing violent video games aggressive thoughts and behaviour, has not shown
that games playing causes delinquency, real-world aggression, or lower academic
achievement. Do you think a definite causal connection will ever be found, of course,
the media is not the only source of aggressive models. For example, many computer and
video games involve a significant amount of graphic violence. Does exposure to such
violence affect players?

6.9 Behaviour Modification

The techniques used by behaviour analysts are as varied as the list of processes
that modify behaviour. These include reinforcement scheduling, shaping, generalization
training, discrimination training, and extinction. Participants in a behaviour-change
program do, however, typically follow a series of similar basic steps. These steps
include.

 Identify goals and target behaviors : The first step is to define “desired
behaviour”. Is it an increase in time spent studying? Decrease in weight? An
increase in the use of language? A reduction in the amount of aggression
displayed by a child? The goals must be stated in observable terms and lead to
specific targets. For instance, a goal might be “to increase study time," with the
target behaviour "to study at least two hours per day on weekdays and an hour
on Saturdays. “
 Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data: To determine
whether behaviour has changed, it is necessary to collect data before any
changes are made in the situation. This information provides a baseline against
which future changes can be measured.
 Select a behaviour change strategy: The most crucial step is to select an
appropriate strategy, because all the principles of learning can be employed to
bring about behaviour change, a “package" of treatments is normally used. This
might include the systematic use of positive reinforcement for desired behaviour
(verbal praise or something more tangible, such as food), as well as a program of
extinction for undesirable behaviour (ignoring a child who throws a tantrum).
 Selecting the right reinforces is critical; it could be necessary to experiment a bit
to find out what is important to a given individual. It is best for participants to
avoid threats, because these are merely punishing and ultimately not very
effective in bringing about long— term changes in behaviour.
 Implement the program: The next step is to institute the program. Probably the
most important aspect of Program implementation is consistency. It is also
important to make sure that one is reinforcing the behaviour one wants to
reinforce. For example, suppose a, mother wants her daughter to spend more
time on her homework, but as soon as the child sits down to study, she asks for a
snack. If the mother gets one for her, she is likely to be reinforcing her daughter's
delaying tactic, not her studying. Instead, the mother might tell her child that she
will provide her with a snack after a certain time interval has gone by during
which she has studied thereby using the snack as a reinforcement for studying.
 Keep careful records after the program is implemented: Another crucial task is
record keeping. If the target behaviour is not monitored, there is no way of
knowing whether the program has been successful. Participants are advised not
to rely on memory, because memory lapses are all too frequent.
 Evaluate and alter the ongoing program: Finally, the results of the program
should be compared with baseline: pre-implementation data to determine its
effectiveness. If successful, the procedures employed can gradually be phased
out. For instance, if the program called for reinforcing picking up one’s clothes
from the bedroom floor, the reinforcement schedule could be modified to a
fixed—ratio schedule in which every third instance was reinforced. On the other
hand, if the program has not been successful in bringing about the desired
behaviour change, consideration of other approaches might be advisable.
Behaviour-change techniques based on these general principles have enjoyed wide
success and have proved to be one of the most powerful means of modifying behaviour
(Greenwood et al., 1992). Clearly, it is possible to employ the basic notions of learning
theory to improve our own lives.

Check Your Progress - IV

1. A man wishes to quit Smoking. Upon the advice of a psychologist, he begins a
Program in which he sets goals for his withdrawal, carefully records his progress, and
rewards himself for not smoking during a certain period of time. What type of
program is he following?
2. The processes used to modify behaviour include reinforcement-scheduling, ______
and ____________
6.10 Summary
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.
One major form of Learning is classical conditioning, which occurs when a neutral
stimulus- one that brings about no relevant response — is repeatedly paired with a
stimulus (called an unconditioned stimulus) that brings about a natural, untrained
response. A second form of learning is operant conditioning. According to B.F. Skinner,
the major mechanism underlying learning is reinforcement, the process by which a
stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated. Primary
reinforces involve rewards that are naturally effective without prior exposure because
they satisfy a biological need. Secondary reinforces begin to act as if they were primary
reinforces through frequent pairings with a primary reinforce. Positive reinforces are
stimuli that are added to the environment and lead to an increase in a preceding
response. Negative reinforces are stimuli that remove something unpleasant from the
environment, leading to an increase in the preceding response.
Punishment decreases the probability that a prior behaviour will occur. Positive
punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus,
while negative punishment weakens a response by the removal of something positive.
In contrast to reinforcement, in which the goal is to increase the incidence of behaviour,
punishment is meant to decrease or suppress the behaviour. Generalization and
discrimination operate in operant as well as classical conditioning. Superstitious
behaviour results from the mistaken belief that particular ideas, objects, or behaviour
will cause certain events to occur. Shaping is a process for teaching complex behaviors
by rewarding closer approximations of the desired final behaviour.
Cognitive - social approaches consider learning in terms of thought processes or
cognition. Latent Learning — a new behaviour is learned but nor performed until
reinforcement is provided for its performance. Behaviour modification is a method for
formally using the principles of learning theory to promote the frequency of desired
behaviors and to decrease or eliminate unwanted ones.

6.11 Activity
Can you think of some good examples of situations that require a behaviour
change? What are some practical methods for bringing about behaviour change. both in
ourselves and in others?
6.12 Key Words
Learning : A relatively permanent change in behaviour
Stimulus generalization: A response to stimuli that is similar
Stimulus discrimination : The ability to differentiate between stimuli
Latent learning : Learning in which a new behaviour is acquired but is not
demonstrated until reinforcement is provided

6.1 3 Answers to Check Your Progress

I. A. 1. Learning 2. pavlov, classical

B. 1. Unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response
2. Conditioned stimulus 3. Extinction
4. Stimulus generalization 5. Stimulus discrimination
II. A. Operant conditioning B. 3(a) 4(b) 1(c) 2(d)
C. (a)
III. 1. false 2. Expectation
3. Latent 4. Observational; model
IV. 1. behaviour modification 2. shaping
3. generalization training 4. discrimination training
5. extinction

6.14 Model Questions

1. What is learning? Explain the classical conditioning form of Learning as advocated by

Pavlov.
2. The major mechanism underlying Learning is reinforcement according to Skinner,
Illustrate on this statement giving examples.
3. What is the role of reward and punishment in Learning?
4. Clarify the importance of cognition and thought as given by the cognition - social
approaches in Learning.
5. Write short notes on :
a) Behaviour modification
b) Positive and negative reinforces
c) Punishment
d) Superstitious behaviour
e) Insight Learning
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Bangles A. Borstein, Psvcholowg

Boston: Miffin Company, 1991
Clifford 'I‘.Morgan, Introducing to Psychology
New Delhi: Mc Graw Hill international Edition. 1996.
Baron RA, Psychology.
New York: College publishers. 1995
Lotion, LA. Psychology.
Boston: Allyn & hi