TB Daffa

Dosen Pengampu:
Rahma Wardani, S.Pd., M.Pd
BUKU AJAR
MODUL BAHASA INGGRIS
Tim Penyusun:
Eva Triana Saputri
Ellia Nor Fitri
M. Daffa Ramzilla
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MAKALAH
BAHASA INGGRIS II
“BUKU AJAR MODUL BAHASA INGGRIS”
DISUSUN OLEH :
EVA TRIANA SAPUTRI 2263411030
M. DAFFA RAMZILLAH 2263411039
ELLIA NOR FITRI 2263411021
PROGRAM STUDI ADMINISTRASI BISNIS
POLITEKNIK KOTABARU
2022/2023
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas rahmat dan hidayahNya kami dapat
menyelesaikan Makalah berjudul “Modul Buku Ajar Bahasa Inggris”. Adapun
tujuan dari pembuatan modul ini adalah sebagai bahan ajar dan referensi bagi para
pembaca, khususnya mahasiswa. Mudah-mudahan buku ini dapat membantu para
pembaca yang berminat untuk mengembangkan diri, memperkaya wawasan dan
menambahkhasanah ilmu pengetahuan.
Kami menyadari bahwa penyelesaian buku ini tidak terlepas dari bantuan
berbagi pihak, dan masih banyak terdapat kekurangan dalam penulisan buku ini.
Oleh karena itu, kami mengharapkan kritik dan saran yang membangun dari
pembaca.
Kotabaru, 04 Juli 2023
I
DAFTAR ISI
KATA PENGATAR ....................................................................................... I
II
III
IV
BAB I
KONSEP DASAR BERBAHASA INGGRIS
1. Capaian Pembelajaran
Mata kuliah ini berisi integrasi berbagai materi yang terdapat dalam kaidah
berbahasa Inggris yang ditujukan untuk mahasiswa dan professional agar dapat
berkomunikasi pasif maupun aktif dengan bahasa Inggris, yang mencakup bahan
bacaan (reading comprehension), tata bahasa (structure and grammar), latihan
mendengar percakapan (listening) dan percakapan aktif (active conversation).
2. Kemampuan Akhir Yang Diharapkan
Mahasiswa diharapkan dapat memahami konsep, bahan dan kemampuan dasar yang
dibutuhkan dalam berbahasa inggris
3. Pokok Bahasan
Konsep Dasar Berbahasa Inggris
4. Sub Pokok Bahasan
• Bentuk dasar dan standar penulisan
• Dasar percakapan dan mendengarkan
• Formulasi dasar diskusi dan presentasi
5. Materi
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A. BENTUK DASAR DAN STANDAR PENULISAN
Proses Pembuatan Kalimat
Kalimat merupakan sesuatu yang kalian tulis dan bicarakan dalam kehidupan
sehari-hari. Sama halnya dengan bahasa Indonesia, di dalam bahasa Inggris, sebuah
kalimat mengandung subjek dan predikat. Misalnya pada kalimat “I sleep”, maka
subjek pada kalimat tersebut adalah “I” (saya) dan predikatnya adalah “sleep”
(tidur). Apabila kalian baru memulai belajar bahasa Inggris, maka tidak perlu
memikirkan kalimat yang rumit pada saat ingin membuat sebuah kalimat. Awalilah
dengan kalimat yang sederhana seperti contoh di atas.
Jika kalian sudah paham membuat kalimat yang sederhana, lanjutkan dengan
kalimat yang lebih kompleks dengan menambahkan objek. Misalnya “I sleep too
much yesterday” (Saya tidur terlalu lama kemarin). Dari kalimat kompleks yang
telah dibuat, kalian dapat mengembangkannya menjadi lebih panjang atau menjadi
sebuah paragraf. Kalian tinggal menghubungkan kalimat yang telah dibuat dengan
kata penghubung (conjunction) untuk membuat paragraf.
B. DASAR PERCAKAPAN DAN MENDENGARKAN
Conversation theory regards social systems as symbolic, language-oriented

systems where responses depend on one person's interpretation of another person's
behavior, and where meanings are agreed through conversations. But since
meanings are agreed, and the agreements can be illusory and transient, scientific
research requires stable reference points in human transactions to allow for
reproducible results. Pask found these points to be the understandings which arise
in the conversations between two participating individuals, and which he defined
rigorously.
Conversation theory describes interaction between two or more cognitive

systems, such as a teacher and a student or distinct perspectives within one
individual, and how they engage in a dialog over a given concept and identify
differences in how they understand it.
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Conversation theory came out of the work of Gordon Pask on instructional
design and models of individual learning styles. In regard to learning styles, he
identified conditions required for concept sharing and described the learning styles
holist, serialist, and their optimal mixture versatile. He proposed a rigorous model
of analogy relations. Conversation theory as developed by Pask originated from this
cybernetics framework and attempts to explain learning in both living organisms
and machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that learning occurs through
conversations about a subject matter which serves to make knowledge explicit.
Levels of conversation
Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels:
• Natural language (general discussion)
• Object languages (for discussing the subject matter)
• Metalanguages (for talking about learning/language)
Through recursive interactions called "conversation" their differences may be

reduced until agreement—that is, agreement up to a point which Pask called
"agreement over an understanding"—may be reached. A residue of the interaction
may be captured as an "entailment mesh", an organized and publicly available
collection of resultant knowledge, itself a major product of the theory as devotees
argue they afford many advantages over semantic networks and other, less
formalized and non-experimentally based "representations of knowledge".
From conversation theory, Pask developed what he called a "Cognitive

Reflector".This is a virtual machine for selecting and executing concepts or topics
from an entailment mesh shared by at least a pair of participants. It features an
external modelling facility on which agreement between, say, a teacher and pupil
may be shown by reproducing public descriptions of behaviour. We see this in essay
and report writing or the "practicals" of science teaching. Lp was Pask's
protolanguage which produced operators like Ap which concurrently executes Con,
the concept of a Topic, T, to produce a Description, D.Thus:
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Ap(Con(T)) => D(T), where => stands for produces.
A succinct account of these operators is presented in Pask Amongst many

insightshe points out that three indexes are required for concurrent execution, two
for parallel and one to designate a serial process. He subsumes this complexity by
designating participants A, B, etc.
In Commentary toward the end of Pask, he states:
The form not the content of the theories (conversation theory and interactions
of actors theory) return to and is congruent with the forms of physical theories; such
as wave particle duality (the set theoretic unfoldment part of conversation theory
is a radiation and its reception is the interpretation by the recipient of the
descriptions so exchanged, and vice versa). The particle aspect is the recompilation
by the listener of what a speaker is saying. Theories of many universes, one at least
for each participant A and one to participant B- are bridged by analogy. As before
this is the truth value of any interaction; the metaphor for which is culture itself.
Learning strategies
In order to facilitate learning, Pask argued that subject matter should be

represented in the form of structures which show what is to be learned. These
structures exist in a variety of different levels depending upon the extent of the
relationships displayed. The critical method of learning according to Conversation
Theory is "teachback" in which one person teaches another what they have learned.
Pask identified two different types of learning strategies:
Serialists – Progress through a structure in a sequential fashionHolists – Look

for higher order relations The ideal is the versatile learner who is neither vacuous
holist "globe trotter" norserialist who knows little of the context of his work.
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C. FORMULASI DASAR DISKUSI DAN PRESENTASI
Banter
"Banter" redirects here. For the BBC radio show, see Banter (radio show).
Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals.
Often banter uses clever put-downs and witty insults, misunderstandings (often
intentional), zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is each line
of banter should "top" the one before it and in short a verbal war of wit without any
physical contact.
Films that have used banter as a way of structure in conversations are:The Big Sleep
(1946)
His Girl Friday (1940) Bringing Up Baby (1938)
Important factors in delivering a banter is the subtext, situation and the

rapport with the person. Every line in a banter should be able to evoke both an
emotional response and ownership without hurting one's feelings. Following a
structure that the involved parties understand is important, even if the subject and
structure is absurd, a certain level of progression should be kept in a manner that it
connects with the involved parties.
Different methods of story telling could be used in delivering banter, like

making an unexpected turn in the flow of structure (interrupting a comfortable
structure), taking the conversation towards an expected crude form with evoking
questions, doubts, self-conscientiousness (creating intentional misunderstandings)
or layering the existing pattern with multiple anchors...etc. It is important to quit
the bantering with the sensibility of playground rules, both parties shouldn't obsess
on topping each other, continuously after a certain point of interest. It is as
Shakespeare said "Brevity is the soul of wit."
Discussion
One element of conversation is discussion: sharing opinions on subjects that

are thought of during the conversation. In polite society the subject changes before
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discussion becomes dispute or controversial. For example, if theology is being
discussed, no one is insisting a particular view be accepted.
Subject
Many conversations can be divided into four categories according to their major
subject content:
Subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding and awareness.

Objective facts, which may serve to consolidate a widely held view.
Other people (usually absent), which may be either critical, competitive, or

supportive. This includes gossip.
Oneself, which sometimes indicate attention-seeking behavior or can provide

relevant information about oneself to participants in the conversation. Practically,
few conversations fall exclusively into one category. Nevertheless, theproportional
distribution of any given conversation between the categories can offer useful
psychological insights into the mind set of the participants. This is thereason that
the majority of conversations are difficult to categorize.
Functions
Most conversations may be classified by their goal. Conversational ends may,

however, shift over the life of the conversation.
Functional conversation is designed to convey information in order to help achieve

an individual or group goal.
Small talk is a type of conversation where the topic is less important than the
social purpose of achieving bonding between people or managing personal
distance, such as 'how is the weather' might be portrayed as an example, which
conveys no practicality whatsoever.
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Presentation
Self-presentation is behavior that attempts to convey some information about

oneself or some image of oneself to other people. It denotes a class of motivations
in human behavior. These motivations are in part stable dispositions of individuals
but they depend on situational factors to elicit them. Specifically, self-
presentational motivations are activated by the evaluative presence of other people
and by others' (even potential) knowledge of one's behavior.
Two types of self-presentational motivations can be distinguished

(Baumeister, 1982a). One (pleasing the audience) is to match one's selfpresentation
to the audience's expectations and preferences. The other (selfconstruction) is to
match one's self-presentation to one's own ideal self.
The expression of the audience-pleasing motive varies across situations, especially

since different audiences have different preferences; one presents oneself
differently when attending church with one's parents than when attendinga party
with one's sorority or fraternity mates. The audiencepleasing motives can even
produce inconsistent or contradictory selfpresentations with different audiences.
Additionally, audience-pleasing selfpresentational motivations vary in strength as
a function of the audience's power and importance, particularly with regard to how
much the selfpresenter is dependent on the audience.
The self-construction motive is presumably a fairly stable disposition and

therefore it should lead to self-presentations that are essentially consistent across
different situations and different audiences. The strength of the selfconstruction
motive may vary as a function of the desire to claim a certain trait and with
uncertainty about whether one has it.
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BAB II
KONSEP DASAR BERBAHASA INGGRIS
Mahasiswa diharapkan memahami tentang structure dan grammar yang terdapat

dalam Bahasa inggris baik dalam bacaan maupun percakapan
3. Pokok Bahasan
Structure And Grammar
• Bentuk tenses dasar
• Tenses lanjutan
• Degree of comperatives
• Prepotition
5. Materi
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A. TENSES DASAR DAN TENSES LANJUTAN DALAM BAHASA
INGGRIS
Pengertian Tenses
Tenses merupakan suatu kata kerja dalam bahasa inggris yang bertujuan
untuk menunjukan waktu (sekarang, masa depan, atau masa lalu) serta terjadinya
suatu perbuatan atau peristiwa. Tenses sendiri dibagi menjadi 3 bagian besar, yaitu:
Past, Present, Future. Dan dalam bahasa indonesianya bermakna Dulu, Kini, dan
Nanti. Tenses sendiri di bagi menjadi 16 bentuk. 4 tense ada dalam past. 4 tense
dalam present dan 8 tense lagi ada dalam future.
Bentuk, Pengertian, Rumus, dan Contoh Tenses
1. Present
Present merupakan suatu kata kerja yang bisa dibilang menunjukan

waktu lebih tepatnya saat ini, present dibagi menjadi 4 tenses, yaitu present
tense, present continuous tense, present perfect tense dan present perfect
continuous tense.
a. Present tense
Present tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja yang digunakan

untuk menyatakan fakta, kebiasaan, kejadian, kegiatan, aktivitas dan
sebagainya yang terjadi pada saat ini. Present Tense juga digunakan
untuk menyatakan suatu Fakta, atau sesuatu yang tejadi berulang-ulang
dimasa KINI. Bentuk kata kerja ini paling sering diguanakan dalam
bahasa Inggris
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + V1 (s/es)
Negatif : S + DO/DOES + NOT + V1
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Tanya : DO/DOES + S + V1
Contoh:
(+) he drinks milk
(- ) he doesn’t drink milk
(?) does he drink milk ?
b. Present Continuous Tense
Present continuous tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja yang

digunakan untuk menyatakan, mengatakan, membicarakan aksi yang
sedang berlangsung sekarang (present) atau rencana di masa depan
(future). Karena dapat diguanakan dalam present atau future. Tense ini
sering diiringi adverb of time untuk memperjelasnya.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Tobe +Ving
Negatif : S +Tobe +Not + Ving
Tanya : Tobe + S + Ving
Contoh:
(+) We are studying now
(- ) We aren’t studying now
(?) Are you studying now ?
c. Present Perfect Tense
Present perfect adalah suatu bentuk kerja yang digunakan untuk

menyatakan suatuperbuatan atau peristiwa yang telah dikerjakan dan
masih berkaitan dengan masa sekarang
Rumusnya:
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Positif : S + Have/has + V3
Negative : S + Have/has Not + V3
Tanya : Have/has + S + V3
Contoh:
(+) I have lived here for 2 years
(- ) I haven’t lived here 2 years
(?) Have you lived here 2 years ?
d. Present perfect continuous tense
Present perfect continuous tense suatu bentuk kata kerja yang

diguanakan untukmenyatakan sebuah peristiwa atau kejadian yang baru
saja selesai.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Have/has + been + Ving
Negative : S + have/has + not + been + Ving
Tanya : have/has + S + been + Ving
Contoh:
(+) She has been eating
(-) She has not been eating
(?) Has She been eating?
e. Present Continuous Tense
Present continuous tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja yang

digunakan untuk menyatakan, mengatakan, membicarakan aksi yang
sedang berlangsung sekarang (present) atau rencana di masa depan
(future). Karena dapat diguanakan dalam present atau future. Tense ini
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sering diiringi adverb of time untuk memperjelasnya.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Tobe +Ving
Negatif : S +Tobe +Not + Ving
Tanya : Tobe + S + Ving
Contoh:
(+) We are studying now
(- ) We aren’t studying now
(?) Are you studying now ?
f. Present Perfect Tense
Present perfect adalah suatu bentuk kerja yang digunakan untuk

menyatakan suatuperbuatan atau peristiwa yang telah dikerjakan dan
masih berkaitan dengan masa sekarang
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Have/has + V3
Negative : S + Have/has Not + V3
Tanya : Have/has + S + V3
Contoh:
(+) I have lived here for 2 years
(- ) I haven’t lived here 2 years
(?) Have you lived here 2 years ?
g. Present perfect continuous tense
Present perfect continuous tense suatu bentuk kata kerja yang
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diguanakan untukmenyatakan sebuah peristiwa atau kejadian yang baru
saja selesai .
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Have/has + been + Ving
Negative : S + have/has + not + been + Ving
Tanya : Have/has + S + been + Ving
Contoh:
(+) She has been eating
(- ) She has not been eating
(?) Has She been eating ?
2. Past
Past merupakan suatu kata kerja yang bisa dibilang menunjukan waktu
lebih tepatnya dahulu/yang sudah lampau, past dibagi menjadi 4 tense, yaitu
past tense, past continuous tense, past perfecet tense dan past perfect
continuous tense
a. Past tense
Past tense merupakan tense yang digunakan untuk menyatakan

peristiwa yang telah “Lampau”. Lampau disini tak harus sudah terlalu
lama, yang penting sudah berlalu, sudah lewat. Itulah penekanannya.
Mungkin kemarin, satu jam lalu, 1 tahun yang lalu, 1 abad yang lalu,
dan sebagainya.
Rumusnya :
Positif : S + V2
Negative : S + did + not + V1
Tanya : Did + S + V1
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Contoh:
(+) He bought a pair of shoes yesterday
(- ) He didn’t buy a pair of shoes yesterday
(?) Did he buy a pair of shoes yesterday ?
b. Past continuous tense
Past continuous tense merupaka tense yang digunakan untuk

untuk menyatakan peristiwa yang sedang terjadi juga, tetapi sedang
terjadi sekarangg, melainkan sedang terjadi tetapi dulu, tetapi sudah
lewat.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + was/were +Ving
Negatif : S + was/were + not + Ving
Tanya : Was/were + S + Ving
Contoh:
(+) He was cooking
(- ) He was not cooking
(?) Was he cooking ?
c. Past perfect tense
Past perfect tense adalah bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk

menunjukan, menyatakaan sesuatu yang telah selesai dilakukan pada
saat itu (dimasa lampau/waktu yang telah lalu).
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + Had + V3
Negative : S + had + not + V3
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Tanya : had + S + V3
Contohnya:
(+) My parents had already eaten by the time i got home
(- ) Sam had not left when we got there
(?) When your son was in the junior high school, had you lived there ?
d. Past perfect continuous tense
past perfect continuous tense adalah bentuk yang digunakan

untuk menyatakan hal atau peristiwa yang sesuatu yang telah dan
sedang terjadi dimasa lampau.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + had + been + Ving
Negative : S + Had + not + been + Ving
Tanya : Had + S + been + Ving
Contohnya:
(+) She had been reading a novel
(- ) She had not reading a novel
(?) Had She been reading a novel ?
4. Future
Future merupakan suatu kata kerja yang bisa dibilang menunjukan

waktu lebih tepatnya Nanti/yang belum terjadi, dalam future dibagi menjadi
8 bentuk, yaitu : future tense, future continuous tense, future perfect tense,
future perfect continuous tense, past future tense, past future continuous
tense, past future perfect tense, dan past future perfecet continuous tense.
a. Future tense
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Future tense bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk untuk
menyatakan perbuatan atau peristiwa yang akan Terjadi. Future tense
adalah tentang Nanti. Sesuatu arti katanya Future yaitu masa depan.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + will + V1
Negative : S + will + not + V1
Tanya : Will + S + V1
Contoh:
(+) He wiil go to Bandung tomorrow
(- ) He will not go to Bandung tomorrow
(?) Will he go to Bandung tomorrow ?
b. Future continuous tense
Future continuous tense bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk

menyatakan suatu peristiwa yang akan Sedang Terjadi atau akan sedang
dilakukan di waktu tertentu di masa yang akan datang juga sebagaimana
Present Continuous Tense, tetapi bedanya dalam Future Continuous
Tense maka “Sedang” nya itu bukan sekarang melainkan besok, akan
datang, nanti.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + will + be + Ving
Negatif : S + will + not + be + Ving
Tanya : Will + S + be + Ving
Contoh:
(+) She will be reading at 8 p.m
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(- ) She will not be reading at 8 p.m
(?) Will she be reading at 8 p.m ?
c. Future perfect tense
Future perfect tense bentuk waktu yang digunakan untuk menyatakan

sesuatuyang akan selesai di masa depan yang sudah mulai di masa lalu.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + will + have + V3
Negative : S + will + not + have + V3
Tanya : will + S + have + V3
Contoh:
(+) Dika will have rented my house next month
(- ) Dika will not have rented my house next month
(?) Will Dika have rented my house next month ?
d. Future perfect continuous tense
Future perfect continuous tense adalah suatu bentuk kerja yang

digunakan untuk menyatakan bahwa suatu aksi akan sudah beralngsung
selama sekian lama pada titik waktu tertentu di masa depan atau
peristiwa yang akan, telah dan masih berlangung di masa datang.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + will + have + been + Ving
Negative : S + will + not + have + been + ving
Tanya : will + S + have + been + Ving
Contoh:
(+) The cat will have been sleeping long
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(- ) The cat won’t have been sleeping long
(?) Will the cat have been sleeping long ?
e. Past future tense
Past future tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja yang digunakan
untuk menyatakan peristiwa akan dilakukan tetapi di masa lampau
bukan saat ini.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + would + V1
Negative : S + would + not + V1
Tanya : would + S + V1
Contoh:
(+) You would work
(- ) You would not work
(?) would you wok ?
f. Past future continuous tense
Past future continuous tense adalah bentuk waktu yang digunakan

untuk menyatakan peristiwa yang akan sedang dilakukan, di waktu
tertentu di masa yang akan datang.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + would + be + Ving
Negative : S + would + not + be + Ving
Tanya : Would + S + be + Ving
Contoh:
(+) I would be taekwondo training at 6 yesterday.
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(- ) I would not be taekwondo training at 6 yesterday.
(?) Would you be taekwondo training at 6 yesterday ?
g. Past future perfect tense
Past future perfect tense merupakan tense yang digunakan

untuk menyatakan sesuatu yang Sudah terjadi, tetapi AKAN namun
posisinya pasti sudah berlalu.
Rumusnya:
Positif : S + would + have + V3
Negative : S + would + not + have + V3
Tanya : would + S + have + V3
Contoh :
(+) They would have driven home
(- ) They would not have driven home
(?) Would they have driven home ?
h. Past future perfect continuous tense
Past future perfect continuous tense merupakan tense yang

digunakan untuk menyatakan peristiwa yang akan, telah dan masih
berlangung di masa yang lalu, masa lampau. Past Future Perfect
Continuous Tense mengenai peristiwa atau hal yang akan telah sedang
terjadi di masa lampau.
Rumusnya :
Positif : S + would + have + been + Ving
Negative : S + would + not + have + been + Ving
Tanya : would + S + have + been + Ving
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Contoh :
(+) She would have been working there for 1 year
(- ) She would not have been working there for 1 year
(? ) Would she have been working there for 1 year?
B. DEGREE OF COMPARISON
Degree of comparison membahas mengenai perbandingan bisa pada

adjective (kata sifat) maupun adverb (kata keterangan). Artikel ini membahas
mengenai adjective degree of comparison. Perbandingan pada adjective
menunjukan seberapa besar, kecil, atau banyak kata benda atau kata ganti dalam
sebuah kalimat.
1. Jenis-jenis degree of comparison.
Terdapat tiga tingkat perbandingan yaitu positive degree, comparative degree,

dansuperlative degree.
a. Positive degree
Positive degree merupakan bentuk adjective secara sederhana dan tidak

membandingkan suatu hal.
I am handsome. (Saya tampan.) The girl is tall. (Gadis itu tinggi.)
Their family is bad. (Keluarga mereka buruk.)
b. Comparative degree
Comparative degree (lebih (more))Membandingkan dua orang atau hal.
I am more handsome than Roni. (Saya lebih tampan dari Roni.)
The girl is taller than her mother. (Gadis itu lebih tinggi dari ibunya.)
Their family is worse than our family. (Keluarga mereka lebih buruk dari
keluargakita.)
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c. Superlative degree (paling/ ter- (most))
Menunjukan ‘yang paling’, superlative degree ini digunakan ketika

terdapat lebih dari dua hal yang dibandingkan. Untuk bentuk dari superlative
degree harusdiawali dengan ‘the’ sebelum kata sifatnya.
I am the most handsome student in the class.
(Saya adalah siswa paling tampan dikelas.)
The girl is the tallest girl in the competition.
(Gadis itu adalah gadis tertinggi dikompetisi)
Their family is the worst family in the world.
(Keluarga mereka adalah keluarga terburuk di dunia.)
2. Bentuk-bentuk degree of comparison.
Terdapat bentuk-bentuk yang berbeda untuk setiap jenisnya, untuk

positive degreebentuknya tetap adjective sederhana, seperti, handsome tall,
bad, clever dan lain sebagainya. Sedangkan untuk comparative dan
superlative degree bentuknya lebihvariatif.
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a. Untuk kata sifat yang bersuku kata satu atau dua, pada
comparative degree tambahkan ‘+er’ pada setiap kata sifatnya,
sedangkan pada superlative tambakan ‘est’.
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C. PREPOTITION
Prepositions are words which link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other
words ina sentence. Prepositions usually describe the position of something, the
time when something happens and the way in which something is done, although
the prepositions "of," "to," and "for" have some separate functions.
Prepositions can sometimes be used to end sentences. For example, "What did you
put that there for?" Example 2: "A pen is a device to write with".
The table below shows some examples of how prepositions are used in sentences.
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BAB III
STRUCTURE AND GRAMMAR
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat memahami tentang

structure dan grammar yang terdapat dalam Bahasa inggris baik dalam bacaan
maupun percakapan
3. Pokok Bahasan
Structure And Grammar
• Kalimat pasif
• Clauses
• Modals
• Gerunds
5. Materi
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A. KALIMAT PASIF
Passive voice atau kalimat pasif bahasa Inggris adalah jenis kalimat yang
dilihat berdasarkan subjeknya. Contoh passive voice yaitu a magazine was read by
my mom yesterday. Passive voice biasa disebut juga dengan passive sentence.
Anyway, kalimat pasif bahasa Inggris biasanya dapat ditemukan dalam berbagai
contoh teks bahasa Inggris seperti explanation textdan juga news item text.
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CONTOH KALIMAT PASIF
Berikut beberapa contoh kalimat pasif bahasa Inggris yang dikemas dalam berbagai
tenses. Perhatikan dengan saksama, okay?
1. The red car is driven by my mother everyday. (Mobil merah itu

dikendarai oleh ibuku setiap hari.)
2. The lime is being squeezed by Rara. (Jeruk nipis itu sedang diperas oleh
Rara.)
3. Pancake has been cooked by my girlfriend. (Pancake telah dimasak oleh

kekasihku.)
4. Wakanda Forever movie has been being watched by many Marvel

addict. (Film Wakanda Forever telah ditonton oleh banyak pecandu
Marvel.)
5. The cheese was stolen by a mouse in the kitchen yesterday. (Keju itu
dicuri oleh tikus di dapur kemarin.)
6. The english course was being attended by MBA student last week.
(Kursus bahasa Inggris diikuti oleh mahasiswa MBA minggu lalu.)
7. Singapore Airlines had been used by my family for Europe trip.

(Singapore Airlines telah digunakan oleh keluarga saya untuk
perjalanan Eropa.)
8. Japanese language had been being learned by my partner since 2013.

(Bahasa Jepang telah dipelajari oleh pasangan saya sejak tahun 2013.)
9. Holiday will be announced by head of the class.( Hari libur akan

diumumkan oleh ketua kelas.)
10. The journal will be being analyzed by Intan at this time the day after
tomorrow. Jurnal tersebut akan (sedang) dianalisa oleh Intan pada
waktu ini nanti lusa.)
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11. The presentation will have been delivered by me at 1 pm today.
(Presentasi akan (sudah) disampaikan oleh saya pada jam 1 siang hari
ini.)
12. The spaghetti will have been buying by my brother. (Spaghetti akan
dibeli oleh kakak saya.)
13. Before leaving my mother yesterday, my room would have been tidied
up by me. (Sebelum meninggalkan ibuku kemarin, kamarku pasti sudah
dirapikan olehku.)
14. Research methodology would have been being studied by us for a

semester by the end of this month. (Metodologi penelitian akan kami
pelajari selama satu semester pada akhir bulan ini.)
15. The article must be created by Azka, he needs lots of inspiration.

(Artikel itu harus dibuat oleh Azka, dia butuh banyak inspirasi.)
16. Bali might be visited by Joe Biden in G20 event. (Bali mungkin akan
dikunjungi Joe Biden di acara G20.)
17. Japan have to be visited by me for student exchange. (Jepang harus saya
kunjungi untuk pertukaran pelajar.)
18. The letters are going to be delivered by courier. (Surat-surat itu akan
dikirim melalui kurir.)
B. CLAUSES
In language, a phrase is the smallest grammatical unit that can express an

incomplete proposition.[1] A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate,[2]
the latter typically a verb phrase, a verb with any objects and other modifiers.
However, the subject is sometimes not said or explicit, often the case innull-subject
languages if the subject is retrievable from context, but it sometimes also occurs in
other languages such as English (as in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses).
A simple sentence usually consists of a single finite clause with a finite verb
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thatis independent. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. Main
clauses (matrix clauses, independent clauses) are those that can stand alone as a
sentence. Subordinate clauses (embedded clauses, dependent clauses) are those that
would be awkward or incomplete if they were alone.
In language, a phrase is the smallest grammatical unit that can express an

incomplete proposition.[1] A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate,[2]
the latter typically a verb phrase, a verb with any objects and other modifiers.
However, the subject is sometimes not said or explicit, often the case innull-subject
languages if the subject is retrievable from context, but it sometimes also occurs in
other languages such as English (as in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses).
A simple sentence usually consists of a single finite clause with a finite verb
thatis independent. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. Main
clauses (matrix clauses, independent clauses) are those that can stand alone as a
sentence. Subordinate clauses (embedded clauses, dependent clauses) are those that
would be awkward or incomplete if they were alone.
Two major distinctions
A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between

main clauses (i.e. matrix clauses, independent clauses) and subordinate clauses (i.e.
embedded clauses, dependent clauses).[3] A main clause can stand alone, i.e. it can
constitute a complete sentence by itself. A subordinate clause (i.e. embedded
clause), in contrast, is reliant on the appearance of a main clause; it depends on the
main clause and is therefore a dependent clause, whereas the main clause is an
independent clause.
A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-
finite clauses. A finite clause contains a structurally central finite verb, whereas the
structurally central word of a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb. Traditional
grammar focuses on finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen
much later in connection with the modern study of syntax. The discussion here also
focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite clauses are considered
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further below.
Argument clauses
A clause that functions as the argument of a given predicate is known as an

argument clause. Argument clauses can appear as subjects, as objects, and as
obliques. They can also modify a noun predicate, in which case they are known as
content clauses.
That they actually helped was really appreciated. - SV-clause functioning as the
subject argument
They mentioned that they had actually helped. - SV-clause functioning as the
object argument
What he said was ridiculous. - Wh-clause functioning as the subject argumentWe

know what he said. - Wh-clause functioning as an object argument
He talked about what he had said. - Wh-clause functioning as an oblique object

argument
The following examples illustrate argument clauses that provide the content of a
noun. Such argument clauses are content clauses:
the claim that he was going to change it - Argument clause that provides the
content of a noun (i.e. content clause)
1. the claim that he expressed - Adjunct clause (relative clause) that

modifies anoun
2. the idea that we should alter the law - Argument clause that
provides thecontent of a noun (i.e. content clause)
3. the idea that came up - Adjunct clause (relative clause) that modifies a
noun The content clauses like these in the a-sentences are arguments.
Relative clausesintroduced by the relative pronoun that as in the b-
clauses here have an outwardappearance that is closely similar to that
of content clauses. The relative clauses are adjuncts, however, not
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arguments.
Adjunct clauses
Adjunct clauses are embedded clauses that modify an entire predicate-

argument structure. All clause types (SV-, verb first, wh-) can function as adjuncts,
althoughthe stereotypical adjunct clause is SV and introduced by a subordinator
(i.e. subordinate conjunction, e.g. after, because, before, when, etc.), e.g.
1. Fred arrived before you did. - Adjunct clause modifying matrix clause
2. After Fred arrived, the party started. - Adjunct clause modifying matrix
clause
3. Susan skipped the meal because she is fasting. - Adjunct clause

modifying matrix clause
These adjunct clauses modify the entire matrix clause. Thus before you did in
the first example modifies the matrix clause Fred arrived. Adjunct clauses can also
modify a nominal predicate. The typical instance of this type of adjunct is a relative
clause, e.g.
1. We like the music that you brought. - Relative clause functioning as an

adjunctthat modifies the noun music
2. The people who brought music were singing loudly. - Relative clause
functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun people
3. That was when they laughed. - Predicative SV-clause, i.e. a clause that
functions as (part of) the main predicate
4. He became what he always wanted to be. - Predicative wh-clause,

i.e. wh-clause that functions as (part of) the main predicate
These predicative clauses are functioning just like other predicative

expressions, e.g. predicative adjectives (That was good) and
predicative nominals (That was the truth). They form the matrix
predicate together with the copula.
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5. They are waiting for some food that will not come. - Relative clause
functioning as an adjunct that modifies the noun food
Predicative clauses
An embedded clause can also function as a predicative expression.

That is, it canform (part of) the predicate of a greater clause.
C. MODALS
A modal verb is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality – that is:
likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestions, order and obligation,
and advice etc. They always take v1 form with them.[1] Examples include the
English verbs can/could, may/might, must, will/would and shall/should. In English
and other Germanic languages, modal verbs are often distinguished as a class based
on certain grammatical properties.
Function
A modal auxiliary verb gives information about the function of the main verb
that it governs. Modals have a wide variety of communicative functions, but these
functions can generally be related to a scale ranging from possibility ("may") to
necessity ("must"), in terms of one of the following types of modality:
epistemic modality, concerned with the theoretical possibility of propositions being

true or not true (including likelihood and certainty)
deontic modality, concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to

act (including permission and duty)
dynamic modality,[2] which may be distinguished from deontic modality in that,

with dynamic modality, the conditioning factors are internal – the subject's own
ability or willingness to act[3]
The following sentences illustrate epistemic and deontic uses of the English modal
verb must:
epistemic: You must be starving. ("It is necessarily the case that you are starving.")
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deontic: You must leave now. ("You are required to leave now.")
An ambiguous case is You must speak Spanish. The primary meaning would be the
deontic meaning ("You are required to speak Spanish.") but this may be intended
epistemically ("It is surely the case that you speak Spanish.") Epistemic
modals can be analyzed as raising verbs, while deontic modals can be analyzed as
control verbs.
Epistemic usages of modals tend to develop from deontic usages.[4] For

example, the inferred certainty sense of English must developed after the strong
obligation sense; the probabilistic sense of should developed after the weak
obligation sense; and the possibility senses of may and can developed later than the
permission or ability sense. Two typical sequences of evolution of modal meanings
are:
internal mental ability → internal ability → root possibility (internal or external

ability) → permission and epistemic possibility
obligation → probability
Modal Auxiliary
Auxiliary adalah kata kerja bantu. Modal adalah bagian dari auxiliary yang
merupakan sekelompok kata kerja bantu yang memberikan arti tambahan dalam
suatu kalimat. Yang harus diingat ialah modal selamanya diikuti kata kerja bentuk
ini nitive (Verb 1). Secara umum, terdapat dua macam Modal yang kita perlu
ketahui, yaitu Modal Auxiliary dan Modal Perfect. Selalu diikuti oleh ini nitive
(Verb 1).
Contoh:
1. May: Mrs. Lusi may become the best teacher this term. (possibility)
May I borrow your pen, please? (permission)
2. Can: I can swim well. (ability)
It can rain tomorrow. (possibility)1
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3. Shall: Shall I open the window? (asking
You shall go to the doctor. (advice)
4. Will: He will take some courses. (going to happen)
5. Must: Students must study hard. (necessity)
You look pale. You must be sick. (possibility)
6. Used to: I used to cry when my mother left me alone. (habitual action)
Modal Perfect
Selalu diikuti oleh Verb 3 dan menyatakan masa lampau.
Contoh:
• Could have + Verb 3
Menyatakan hal yang sebenarnya biasa saja dilakukan, tetapi tidak dilakukan di
masa lampau.
Contoh:
She could have asker her brother to life up the box. (she ligtend the box hersel
• Might have + Verb 3

Menyatakan suatu kemungkinan/praduga atas sesuatu yang telah terjadi di masa
Contoh:
His room was still very dirty, he might have forgtten to clean it
• Should have + Verb 3
Menyatakan suatu peristiwa yang contrary (berlawanan) dengan fakta.
Contoh:
John should have gone to his office this morning. (he didn’t go)
• Must have + Verb 3

Menyatakan suatu kesimpulan dari apa yang telah terjadi di masa lampau. Harus
diingat bahwa menyatakan keharusan di masa lampau hanya boleh menggunakan
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had to atau should have + Verb 3.
Contoh:
The grass is wet.it must have rained last nigt.
D. GERUNDS
A gerund (/ˈdʒɛrənd, -ʌnd/[1] abbreviated ger) is any of various nonfinite

verb forms in various languages, most often, but not exclusively, one that functions
as a noun. In English it is a type of verbal noun, one that retains properties of a verb,
such as being modifiable by an adverb and being able to take a direct object. The
term "-ing form" is often used in English to refer to the gerund specifically.
Traditional grammar made a distinction within -ing forms between present
participles and gerunds, a distinction that is not observed in such modern,
linguistically informed grammars as A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.
These functions could be fulfilled by other abstract nouns derived from verbs such
as vẽnãtiõ 'hunting'. Gerunds are distinct in two ways.
Every Latin verb can regularly form a gerund
A gerund may function syntactically in the same way as a finite verb.

Typically the gerund of a finite verb may be followed by a direct object e.g. ad
discernendum vocis verbis figuras 'for discerning figures of speech', hominem
investigando opera dabo 'I will devote effort to investigating the man'.
However, this was a rare construction. Writers generally preferred the

gerundive construction e.g. res evertendae reipublicae 'matters concerning the
overthrow of the state' (literally 'of the state being overthrown').
When people first wrote grammars of languages such as English, and based
them on works of Latin grammar, they adopted the term gerund to label non-finite
verb forms with these two properties.
Gerund function
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The function of the gerund in a sentence is seen from its position as noun. The
function of the gerund in action sentences as nouns in general. Based on that
gerunds can function as:
1. Subject
a. Running is healthy sport.
Running is a sport which is healthy.
b. Teaching is good work.
Teaching is a good job.
c. Playing is good for children.
Good play for kids.
d. Learning is a very important step to improve your abilities.
Learning is step which is important to improve your skills
e. Shopping in the market is very pleasant.
Shop at the market very pleasant.
Gerund as a subject in a sentence doesn't have to stand alone, but can

has its own object.
Example:
playing tennis, shopping jewelry, reading poetry.
2. Object
a. He likes swimming.
He likes swimming.
b. The boy admitted cheating in the test.
The boy admits cheating in tests
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c. My father avoided hit a stalled car
My father avoided hitting the stall car.
d. Have you finished writing your book?
Have you finished writing your book?
e. Stop eating.
Stop eating.
Not all verbs can be followed by gerund that acts as an object Verbs and
expressions followed by the gerund. Verbs followed by the gerund
include:
• advise = menasihati
• allow = menjijikan
• attemp = mencoba
• avoid = menghindari
• appriciate = menghargari
• begin = mulai
• cease = berhenti
• dislike = tidak suka
• dread = takut
• endure = menahan
• enjoy = menikmati
• escape = melarikan diri
• explain = menjelaskan
• fancy = membayangkan
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• feel = merasakan
• finish = menyelesaikan
• forgive = memaafkan
• give up = menyerah
• go on = meneruskan
• hate = membenci
• help = membantu
• imagine = membayangkan
• include = memasukkan
• intend = bermaksud
Example:
a. I can't help feeling sorry about that.
b. It is no use going in rain.
Gerunds that come after the verbs need, want, and deserv has a passive
meaning.
Example:
a. Our car needs repairing. Has the same meaning with sentences :
Our car to be repaired
b. Even he is stupid, he does not deserve punishing which has the

same meaning as the sentence:
Even he is stupid, he does not deserve to be punished.
Even though he's stupid, he shouldn't be punished.
c. The house wants painting.
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The house needs painting.
Which has the same meaning
The house wants to be painted.
The house needs painting.
The words bear, stand, and endure are usually followed by gerunds
negative form.
• Will not / does not / did not bear.
• Will not / does not / did not stand.
• Will not / does not / did not endure
Example:
a. He can't endure being disturbed
b. I did not bear waiting you
3. Objects After Prepositions (object of preposition)
Example:
a. They went on discussing
b. I am used to getting up early.
c. do not feel in rushing now.
d. She left without saying anything.
e. Mike is fond of dancing.
There are several patterns of using gerunds after the preposition,

namely:
Verb (verb) + preposition
(preposition) + gerund.
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Example:
a. We think of going to the beach.
b. He insisted on preparing it by himself.
Adjectives + prepositions + gerunds.
Example:
a. Antok is proud of winning the smart competition.
b. Adi is reponsible for breaking the toy.
Nouns + prepositions + gerunds.
Example:
a. They are happy to have the opportunity of visiting your country.
b. I hide my surprise at meeting her there.
c. The importance of studying will you feel in the exam period
Some patterns of nouns + prepositions
• method of = metode tentang ....
• chance of = kesempatan dari ....
• habit of = kebiasaan dari ....
• hope of = harapan dari ....
• process of = proses dari ...
• intention of = perhatian atas ....
• honour of = kehormatan ...
• means of = maksud dari ....
• fight of = hak atas ...
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• excuse for = maaf untuk ....
• plan for = rencana untuk ....
• objection to = keberatan pada…
• idea of = ide tentang ....
• experience in = pengalaman
4. Preposition (preposition) + gerund.
Patterns like this are known as gerund phrases gerund).
Example:
a. After returning the book to the library, I go home.
b. Without studying hard, you can not pass the exam.
In conjunction with tenses (time form), gerund had The 2 forms

of the sentence are the active form (active voice) and the passive form
(passive voice). For more details, see the following explanation There
are 2 kinds of active gerund forms, namely:
• Present Active Verb tambah ing
example: reading,running, eating, writing
The present active form is commonly used in a sentence as a noun

that can act a subject, and after the preposition as additional.
• Perfect Activ having + past participle III
example: having read, having run, having eaten, having written.
The gerund form is used to action that has been done done
before taking other actions. perfect form usually used in formal
writing, or the writing of book story In informal writing or speech,
this perfect active form more often written or pronounced in the
present tense (present tenses).
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Example:
• I understand the meaning of the letter after having read it

twice. (prefect active)
• I understand the meaning of the letter after reading it twice.

(present active)
Passive gerund form has 2 kinds of forms, namely:
a. Present Passive being + past participle (V III)
examples: They did not know the table being booked.
b. Perfect Passive having + been + past participle (V III)
Example :
• The story tells about a ship having been sunk in the ocean
• Having been spent our money, we decided to go home
Verbs that are followed by the gerund has a passive meaning, no longer
needed wear a pasha.
examples : want, need, require.
5. How to Form a Gerund
Basically the pattern of the gerund is verb + ing, but in formation, there
are several ways. Here's how to form gerund:
If the verb consists of one syllable, it ends with consonants preceded by

a vowel, then the consonants double before adding -ing.
Example:
a. swim – swimming
b. run – running
c. dig – digging
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d. sit – sitting
e. read – reading
f. rain – rainning
g. heal – healing
h. lead – leading
If the verb consists of one syllable, and ends in two consonants, then
immediately add -ing.
Example:
a. turn – turning
b. jump – jumping
c. tell – telling
d. send – sending
If the verb ends in the vowel -e, then the -e is added removed before
adding -ing.
Example:
a. make – making
b. have – having
c. come – comin
d. write – writing
If the verb consists of several syllables, it ends with consonants

where the sound stress is on the last syllable, then consonants are
doubled before adding -ing.
Example:
a. refer – referring
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b. admit – admitting
Because of the gerund pattern, verb + ing uses the gerund in the
sentence has similarities with some forms of grammar other. There is a
kind of confusion to recognize the gerund in sentences. The following
is an explanation of the comparison of gerunds and forms grammar that
has similarities and differences.Gerund and Present Participle Just like
the gerund, the present participle also has a pattern the same, namely:
verb (kata kerja) + ing lthough the form of the word pattern is the same,
there are some differences between gerund and present participle,
namely:
• Gerund functions as a noun
The gerund is used as the subject of a sentence.Hunting tigers is

prohibited. The gerund is used as a verbal noun (the verb whichdo the
job of the noun. Example: Her shouting awaken her baby.
• The present participle functions as a progressive verb
The present participle is used after the subject it refers to. People
driving in the rain have be. The present participle is used after an
undefined verb. Tony went playing with his friend The present
participle is used after an undefined verb. Tony went playing with his
friend. Used after nouns.This present participle describes what someone
or something do. I heard someone knocking at the door.
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BAB IV
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat
memahami tentang structure dan grammar yang terdapat dalam Bahasa inggris baik
dalam bacaan maupun percakapan
3. Pokok Bahasan Structure And Grammar
• Pronouns
• Adjective
5. Materi
49
A. PRONOUNS
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated pro) is a word that

substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. It is a particular case of a pro-form. Pronouns
have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern
theorists would not consider them to form a single class, in view of the variety of
functions they perform. Subtypes include personal pronouns, reflexive and
reciprocal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relative
pronouns, interrogative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.[1]:1–34[2]
The use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the
pronoun is dependent on an antecedent. This applies especially to third-person
personal pronouns and relative pronouns. For example, in the sentence That poor
man looks as if he needs a new coat, the antecedent of the pronoun he is the noun
phrase that poor man.
The adjective associated with pronoun is pronominal.[A] A pronominal is

also a word or phrase that acts as a pronoun. For example, in That's not the one I
wanted,the phrase the one (containing the prop-word one) is a pronominal.[3]
Types Personal
English personal pronouns[2]:52
Case
Person Number Subject Object
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Singular I Me
First Plural we Us
Singular
Second Plural You
he Him
she Her
Singular It
Third they Them
Plural they Them
Personal pronouns may be classified by person, number, gender and case. English
has three persons (first, second and third) and two numbers (singular and plural); in
the third person singular there are also distinct pronoun forms for male, female and
neuter gender. Principal forms are shown in the adjacent table (see also English
personal pronouns).
English personal pronouns have two cases, subject and object. Subject pronouns are
used in subject position (I like to eat chips, but shedoes not). Object pronouns are
used for the object of a verb or preposition (John likes me but not her).
Other distinct forms found in some languages include:
1. Second person informal and formal pronouns (the T-V distinction), like
tu and vous in French. There is no such distinction in standard modern
English, though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with thou
(singular informal) and you (plural or singular formal), and this is
preserved in some dialects.
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2. Inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns, which indicate
whether or not the audience is included, that is, whether "we" means
"you and I"or "they and I". There is no such distinction in English.
3. Intensive (emphatic) pronouns, which re-emphasize a noun or pronoun

that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as the
reflexive pronouns; for example: I did it myself (contrast reflexive use,
I did it to myself).
4. Direct and indirect object pronouns, such as le and lui in French.

English uses the same form for both; for example: Mary loves
him(direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).
5. Prepositional pronouns, used after a preposition. English uses ordinary

object pronouns here: Mary looked at him.
6. Disjunctive pronouns, used in isolation or in certain other special

grammatical contexts, like moi in French. No distinct forms exist in
English; for example: Who does this belong to? Me.
7. Strong and weak forms of certain pronouns, found in some languages

suchas Polish.
Some special uses of personal pronouns include:
1. Generic you, where second person pronouns are used in an indefinite

sense: You can't buy good old-fashioned bulbs these days.
2. Generic they: In China they drive on the right.
3. Gender non-specific uses, where a pronoun needs to be found to refer

to a person whose sex is not specified. Solutions sometimes used in
English include generic he and singular they.
4. Dummy pronouns (expletive pronouns), used to satisfy a grammatical

requirement for a noun or pronoun, but contributing nothing to
meaning: It is raining..
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5. Resumptive pronouns, "intrusive" personal pronouns found (for
example) in some relative clauses where a gap (trace) might be
expected: This is the girl that I don’t know what she said.
Reflexive and reciprocal
Main articles: Reflexive pronoun and Reciprocal pronoun
Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself, for
example, John cut himself. In English they all end in -self or -selvesand must refer
to a noun phrase elsewhere in the same clause. Reciprocal pronouns refer to a
reciprocal relationship (each other, one another). They must refer to a noun phrase
in the same clause. An example in English is: They do not like each other. In some
languages, the same forms can be used as both reflexive and reciprocal pronouns.
Possessive
Main articles: Possessive and Possessive determiner
Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession (in a broad sense). Some
occur as independent noun phrases: mine, yours, hers, ours, yours, theirs. An
example is: Those clothes are mine. Others act as a determiner (adjective) and must
accompany a noun: my, your, her, our, your, their, as in: I lost my wallet. (His and
its can fall into either category, although its is nearly always found in the second.)
Those of the second type have traditionally also been described as possessive
adjectives, and in more modern terminology as possessive determiners. The term
"possessive pronoun" is sometimes restricted to the first type. Both types replace
possessivenoun phrases. As an example, Their crusade to capture our attention
could replace The advertisers' crusade to capture our attention.
Demonstrative
Main article: Demonstrative pronoun
Demonstrative pronouns (in English, this, that and their plurals these, those)
often distinguish their targets by pointing or some other indication of position; for
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example, I'll take these. They may also be anaphoric, depending on an earlier
expression for context, for example, A kid actor would try to be all sweet, and who
needs that?
Indefinite
Main article: Indefinite pronoun
Indefinite pronouns, the largest group of pronouns, refer to one or more

unspecified persons or things. One group in English includes compounds of some ,
any-, every- and no- with -thing, -one and -body, for example: Anyone can do that.
Another group, including many, more, both, and most, can appear alone or followed
by of. In addition,
1. Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group

separately rather than collectively. (To each his own.)
2. Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things.

(Nobody thinks that.)
3. Impersonal pronouns normally refer to a person, but are not specific as

to first, second or third person in the way that the personal pronouns
are. (One does not clean one's own windows.)
Relative
Main article: Relative pronoun
Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, what, which and that) refer back to
peopleor things previously mentioned: People who smoke should quit now. They
are used in relative clauses.[2]:56
Interrogative
Main article: Interrogative word
Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. In reference to a

person, one may use who (subject), whom (object) or whose (possessive); for
54
example, Who did that? In colloquial speech, whom is generally replaced by who.
English non-personal interrogative pronouns (which and what) have only one form.
In English and many other languages (e.g. French and Czech), the sets of
relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is
that?(interrogative) and I know the woman who came (relative). In some other
languages, interrogative pronouns and indefinite pronouns are frequently identical;
for example, Standard Chinese 什么 shénme means "what?" as well as
"something" or "anything".
Archaic forms
Archaic personal pronouns[2]:52
Case
P Number
Subject Object
e
r
s
o
n
Singular thou thee
S
Plural ye You
e
c
o
n
d
Though the personal pronouns described above are the contemporary English
pronouns, older forms of modern English (as used by Shakespeare, for example)
use a slightly different set of personal pronouns as shown in the table. The
difference is entirely in the second person. Though one would rarely find these
Older forms used in literature from recent centuries, they are nevertheless
55
considered modern.
Antecedents
The use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun
is dependent on another referential element. The referent of the pronoun is often the
same as that of a preceding (or sometimes following) noun phrase, called the
antecedent of the pronoun. The following sentences give examples of particular
types of pronouns used with antecedents:
1. Third-person personal pronouns:
2. That poor man looks as if he needs a new coat. (the noun phrase that
poorman is the antecedent of he)
3. Julia arrived yesterday. I met her at the station. (Julia is the antecedent
ofher)
4. When they saw us, the lions began roaring (the lions is the antecedent
ofthey; as it comes after the pronoun it may be called a postcedent)
5. Other personal pronouns in some circumstances:
6. Terry and I were hoping no-one would find us. (Terry and I is the
antecedent of us)
7. You and Alice can come if you like. (you and Alice is the antecedent
ofthe second – plural – you)
8. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns:
9. Jack hurt himself. (Jack is the antecedent of himself)
10. We were teasing each other. (we is the antecedent of each other)
11. Relative pronouns:
12. The woman who looked at you is my sister. (the woman is the
antecedentof who)
56
Some other types, such as indefinite pronouns, are usually used without
antecedents. Relative pronouns are used without antecedents in free relative
clauses. Even third-person personal pronouns are sometimes used without
antecedents ("unprecursed") – this applies to special uses such as dummy pronouns
and generic they, as well as cases where the referent is implied by the context.
Theoretical considerations
Pronouns (antōnymía) are listed as one of eight parts of speech in The Art of
Grammar, a treatise on Greek grammar attributed to Dionysius Thrax and dating
from the 2nd century BC. The pronoun is described there as "a part of speech
substitutable for a noun and marked for a person." Pronouns continued to be
regarded as a part of speech in Latin grammar (the Latin term being pronomen,
from which the English name – through Middle French – ultimately derives), and
thus in the European tradition generally.
In more modern approaches, pronouns are less likely to be considered to be a

single word class, because of the many different syntactic roles that they play, as
represented by the various different types of pronouns listed in the previous
sections.[4]
Pronoun Determiner
Possessive ours our freedom
Demonstrative this this gentleman
Indefinite some some frogs
Negative none no information
Interrogative which which option
Certain types of pronouns are often identical or similar in form to determiners

with related meaning; some English examples are given in the table on the right.
This observation has led some linguists, such as Paul Postal, to regard pronouns as
determiners that have had their following noun or noun phrase deleted.[5] (Such
57
patterning can even be claimed for certain personal pronouns; for example, we and
you might be analyzed as determiners in phrases like we Brits and you tennis
players.)
Other linguists have taken a similar view, uniting pronouns and determiners
into a single class, sometimes called "determiner-pronoun", or regarding
determiners as a subclass of pronouns or vice versa. The distinctionmay be
considered to be one of subcategorization or valency, rather like the distinction
between transitive and intransitive verbs – determiners take a noun phrase
complement like transitive verbs do, while pronouns do not.[6] This is consistent
with the determiner phrase viewpoint, whereby a determiner, rather than the noun
that follows it, is taken to be the head of the phrase.
The grammatical behavior of certain types of pronouns, and in particular their

possible relationship with their antecedents, has been the focus of studies in
binding, notably in the Chomskyan government and binding theory. In this context,
reflexive and reciprocal pronouns (such as himself and each other) are referred to
as anaphors (in a specialized restricted sense) rather than as pronominal elements.
B. ADJECTIVE
In linguistics, an adjective (abbreviated adj) is a describing word, the main

syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information
about the object signified. Adjectives are one of the English parts of speech,
although they were historically classed together with the nouns.[2] Certain words
that were traditionally considered to be adjectives, including the, this, my, etc., are
today usually classed separately, as determiners.
Types of Use
A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of three

kinds of use:
Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they
modify;for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In some
58
languages, attributive adjectives precede their nouns; in others, they follow their
nouns; and in yet others, it depends on the adjective, or on the exact relationship of
the adjective to the noun. In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their
nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective ismodified
or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb. For example: "I saw three happy kids",
and "I saw three kids happy enough to jump up and down with glee." See also
Postpositive adjective.
Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to

the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in
"theyare happy" and in "that made me happy." (See also: Predicative expression,
Subject complement.)
Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns. One way this can happen is if a noun
is elided and an attributive adjective is left behind. In the sentence, "I read two
books to them; he preferred the sad book, but she preferred the happy", happy is a
nominal adjective, short for "happy one" or "happy book". Another way this can
happen is in phrases like "out with the old, in with the new", where "the old" means,
"that which is old" or "all that is old", and similarly with "the new". In such cases,
the adjective functions may function as a mass noun (as in the preceding example).
In English, it may also function as a plural count noun denoting a collective group,
as in "The meek shall inherit the Earth", where "the meek" means "those who are
meek" or "all who are meek"
59
BAB V
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat memahami tentang

structure dan grammar yang terdapat dalam Bahasa inggris baik dalam bacaan
maupun percakapan
3. Pokok Bahasan Structure And Grammar
• Adverbs
• Review reading strategies
5. Materi
60
A. ADVERB
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb,

determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner,
place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering questions such as
how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent?. This function is called
the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-
word expressions (adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses).
Adverbs are traditionally regarded as one of the parts of speech. However,

modernlinguists note that the term "adverb" has come to be used as a kind of "catch-
all" category, used to classify words with various different types of syntactic
behavior,not necessarily having much in common except that they do not fit into
any of the other available categories (noun, adjective, preposition, etc.)
Functions
The English word adverb derives (through French) from Latin adverbium,
from ad- ("to"), verbum ("word", "verb"), and the nominal suffix -ium. The term
implies that the principal function of adverbs is to act as modifiers of verbs or
verb phrases.[1] An adverb used in this way may provide information about the
manner, place, time, frequency, certainty, or other circumstances of the activity
denoted by the verb or verb phrase. Some examples:
She sang loudly (loudly modifies the verb sang, indicating the manner of singing)
We left it here (here modifies the verb phrase left it, indicating place)
I worked yesterday (yesterday modifies the verb worked, indicating time)
You often make mistakes (often modifies the verb phrase make mistakes,
indicating frequency)
He undoubtedly did it (undoubtedly modifies the verb phrase did it, indicating
certainty)
Adverbs can also be used as modifiers of adjectives, and of other adverbs, often to
61
indicate degree. Example
You are quite right (the adverb quite modifies the adjective right)
She sang very loudly (the adverb very modifies another adverb – loudly)
They can also modify noun phrases, prepositional phrases,[1] or whole clauses or
sentences, as in the following examples:
I bought only the fruit (only modifies the noun phrase the fruit)
She drove us almost to the station (almost modifies the prepositional phrase to the
station)
Certainly we need to act (certainly modifies the sentence as a whole)
Adverbs are thus seen to perform a wide range of modifying functions. The
majorexception is the function of modifier of nouns, which is performed instead
byadjectives (compare she sang loudly with her loud singing disturbed me; here
the verb sang is modified by the adverb loudly, whereas the noun singing is
modifiedby the adjective loud). However, as seen above, adverbs may modify noun
phrases, and so the two functions may sometimes be superficially very similar:
Even camels need to drink
Even numbers are divisible by two
The word even in the first sentence is an adverb, since it is an "external"

modifier, modifying camels as a noun phrase (compare even these camels ...),
whereas the word even in the second sentence is an adjective, since it is an "internal"
modifier, modifying numbers as a noun (compare these even numbers ...). It is
nonetheless possible for certain adverbs to modify a noun; in English the adverb
follows the noun in such cases,[1] as in:
The people here are friendly
There is a shortage internationally of protein for animal feeds
Adverbs can sometimes be used as predicative expressions; in English this applies
62
especially to adverbs of location:
Your seat is there.
When the function of an adverb is performed by an expression consisting of

more than one word, it is called an adverbial phrase or adverbial clause, or simply
an adverbial.
B. REVIEW READING STRATEGIES
Reading strategies
There are a variety of strategies used to teach reading. Strategies vary

according to the challenges like new concepts, unfamiliar vocabulary, long and
complex sentences, etc. trying to deal with all of these challenges at the same time
may be unrealistic. Then again strategies should fit to the ability, aptitude and age
level of the learner. Some of the strategies teachers use are: reading aloud, group
work, and more reading exercises.
Reciprocal teaching
In the 1980s Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar and Ann L. Brown developed a

technique called reciprocal teaching that taught students to predict, summarize,
clarify, and ask questions for sections of a text. The use of strategies like
summarizing after each paragraph have come to be seen as effective strategies for
building students' comprehension. The idea is that students will develop stronger
reading comprehension skills on their own if the teacher gives them explicit mental
tools for unpacking text.
Instructional conversations
"Instructional conversations", or comprehension through discussion, create

higher-level thinking opportunities for students by promoting critical and aesthetic
thinking about the text. According to Vivian Thayer, class discussions help students
to generate ideas and new questions. (Goldenberg, p. 317). Dr. Neil Postman has
said, "All our knowledge results from questions, which is another way of saying
63
that question-asking is our most important intellectual tool"[citation needed]
(Response to Intervention). There are several types of questions that a teacher
should focus on: remembering; testing understanding; application or solving; invite
synthesis or creating; and evaluation and judging. Teachers should model these
types of questions through "think-alouds" before, during, and after reading a text.
When a student can relate a passage to an experience, another book, or other facts
about the world, they are "making a connection." Making connections help students
understand the author's purpose and fiction or non- fiction story.
Text factors
There are factors, that once discerned, make it easier for the reader to
understand the written text. One is the genre, like folktales, historical fiction,
biographies or poetry. Each genre has its own characteristics for text structure, that
once understood help the reader comprehend it. A story is composed of a plot,
characters, setting, point of view, and theme. Informational books provide real
world knowledge for students and have unique features such as: headings, maps,
vocabulary, and an index. Poems are written in different forms and the most
commonly used are: rhymed verse, haikus, free verse, and narratives. Poetry uses
devices such as: alliteration, repetition, rhyme, metaphors, and similes. "When
children are familiar with genres, organizational patterns, and text features in books
they're reading, they're better able to create those text factors in their own writing."
Another one is arranging the text per perceptual span and the text displayfavorable
to the age level of the reader.
Non-Verbal Imagery
Media that utilizes schema to make connections either planned or not, more
commonly used within context such as: a passage, an experience, or one's
imagination. Some notable examples are emojis, emoticons, cropped and
uncropped images, and recently Imojis which are humorous, cropped images that
are used to elicit humor and comprehension.
Visualization
64
Visualization is a "mental image" created in a person's mind while reading
text, which "brings words to life" and helps improve reading comprehension.
Asking sensory questions will help students become better visualizers. Students can
practice visualizing by imagining what they "see, hear, smell, taste, or feel" when
they are reading a page of a picture book aloud, but not yet shown the picture. They
can share their visualizations, then check their level of detail against the
illustrations.
Partner reading
Partner reading is a strategy created for pairs. The teacher chooses two
appropriatebooks for the students' to read. First they must read their own book.
Once they have completed this, they are given the opportunity to write down their
own comprehensive questions for their partner. The students swap books, read
them out loud to one another and ask one another questions about the book they
read.
This strategy:
Provides a model of fluent reading and helps students learn decoding skills
by offering positive feedback. Provides direct opportunities for a teacher to
circulate in the class, observe students, and offer individual remediation.
Multiple reading strategies
There are a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs

and educators. Effective reading strategies may differ for second language learners,
as opposed to native speakers. The National Reading Panel identified positive
effectsonly for a subset, particularly summarizing, asking questions, answering
questions, comprehension monitoring, graphic organizers, and cooperative
learning. The Panel also emphasized that a combination of strategies, as used in
Reciprocal Teaching, can be effective. The use of effective comprehension
strategies that provide specific instructions for developing and retaining
comprehension skills, with intermittent feedback, has been found to improve
reading comprehension across all ages, specifically those affected by mental
65
disabilities.
Reading different types of texts requires the use of different reading strategies
and approaches. Making reading an active, observable process can be very
beneficialto struggling readers. A good reader interacts with the text in order to
develop an understanding of the information before them. Some good reader
strategies are predicting, connecting, inferring, summarizing, analyzing and
critiquing. There are many resources and activities educators and instructors of
reading can use to help with reading strategies in specific content areas and
disciplines. Some examples are graphic organizers, talking to the text, anticipation
guides, double entry journals, interactive reading and note taking guides, chunking,
and summarizing.[citation needed]
The use of effective comprehension strategies is highly important when

learning to improve reading comprehension. These strategies provide specific
instructions for developing and retaining comprehension skills across all ages.
Apply methods to attain an overt phonemic awareness with intermittent practice has
been found toimprove reading in early ages, specifically those affected by mental
disabilities.
Comprehension Strategies
Research studies on reading and comprehension have shown that highly

proficient readers utilize a number of different strategies to comprehend various
types of texts, strategies that can also be used by less proficient readers in order to
improvetheir comprehension.
Making Inferences: In everyday terms we refer to this as “reading between

the lines”. It involves connecting various parts of texts that aren’t directly linked in
order to form a sensible conclusion. A form of assumption, the reader speculates
what connections lie within the texts.
Planning and Monitoring: This strategy centers around the reader’s mental
awareness and their ability to control their comprehension by way of awareness. By
previewing text (via outlines, table of contents, etc.) one can establish a goal for
66
reading-“what do I need to get out of this”? Readers use context clues and other
evaluation strategies to clarify texts and ideas, and thus monitoring their level of
understanding.
Asking Questions: To solidify one’s understanding of passages of texts

readers inquire and develop their own opinion of the author’s writing, character
motivations, relationships, etc. This strategy involves allowing oneself to be
completely objective in order to find various meanings within the text.
Determining Importance: Pinpointing the important ideas and messages

within the text. Readers are taught to identify direct and indirect ideas and to
summarize the relevance of each.
Visualizing: With this sensory-driven strategy readers form mental and visual
images of the contents of text. Being able to connect visually allows for a better
understanding with the text through emotional responses.
Synthesizing: This method involves marrying multiple ideas from various

texts in order to draw conclusions and make comparisons across different texts;
with the reader’s goal being to understand how they all fit together.
Making Connections: A cognitive approach also referred to as “reading

beyondthe lines”, which involves (A) finding a personal connection to reading, such
as personal experience, previously read texts, etc. to help establish a deeper
understanding of the context of the text, or (B) thinking about implications that have
no immediate connection with the theme of the text.
Assessment
There are informal and formal assessments to monitor an individual's

comprehension ability and use of comprehension strategies.Informal assessments
are generally through observation and the use of tools, like story boards, word sorts,
and interactive writing. Many teachers use Formative assessments to determine if a
student has mastered content of the lesson. Formative assessments can be verbal as
in a Think-Pair-Share or Partner Share. Formative Assessments
67
an also be Ticket out the door or digital summarizers. Formal assessments are
district or state assessments that evaluates all students on important skills and
concepts. Summative assessments are typically assessments given at the end of a
unit to measure a student's learning.
68
BAB VI
READING COMPREHENSION AND LISTENING
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat mampu memahami buku

text,bacaan dan laporan dalam Bahasa inggris
3. Pokok Bahasan
Reading Comprehension And Listening
• Text structure
• Text analisis
• Reading test and assigment
5. Materi
69
A. TEXT STRUCTURE
Structured text
Structured text, abbreviated as ST or STX, is one of the five languages

supported by the IEC 61131-3 standard, designed for programmable logic
controllers (PLCs).[1] It is a high level language that is block structured and
syntactically resembles Pascal, on which it is based. All of the languages share
IEC61131 Common Elements. The variables and function calls are defined by the
common elements so different languages within the IEC 61131-3 standard can be
used in the same program.
B. TEXT ANALYSIS (CONTENT ANALYSIS)
Content analysis is a research method for studying documents and

communicationartifacts, which might be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or
video. Social scientists use content analysis to examine patterns in communication
in a replicable and systematic manner.[1] One of the key advantages of using
content analysis to analyse social phenomena is its non-invasive nature, in contrast
to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers.
Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between academic

disciplines. They all involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts
which are assigned labels (sometimes called codes) to indicate the presence of
interesting, meaningful pieces of content.[2][3] By systematically labeling the
content of a set of texts, researchers can analyse patterns of content quantitatively
using statistical methods, or use qualitative methods to analyse meanings of content
within texts.
Computers are increasingly used in content analysis to automate the labeling

(or coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive
data such as word frequencies and document lengths. Machine learning classifiers
can greatly increase the number of texts that can be labeled, but the scientific utility
of doing so is a matter of debate.
70
Goals
Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective

researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive
questions. That said, according to Klaus Krippendorff, six questions must be
addressed in every content analysis:[4]
Which data are analyzed?How are the data defined?
From what population are data drawn?What is the relevant context?
What are the boundaries of the analysis?What is to be measured?
The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers

unambiguous characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area
taken by a newspaper column, or the duration of a radio or television program.
Analysis of simple word frequencies is limited because the meaning of a word
depends on surrounding text. Keyword In Context routines address this by placing
words in their textual context. This helps resolve ambiguities such as those
introduced by synonyms and homonyms.
A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based

(quantitative)approaches and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches
set up a list of categories derived from the frequency list of words and control the
distribution of words and their respective categories over the texts. While methods
in quantitative content analysis in this way transform observations of found
categories into quantitative statistical data, the qualitative content analysis focuses
more on the intentionality and its implications. There are strong parallels between
qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis.
C. READING TEXT AND ASSIGNMENT
Reading comprehension is the ability to process text, understand its meaning,

and to integrate with what the reader already knows.[1][2] Fundamental skills
requiredin efficient reading comprehension are knowing meaning of words, ability
to understand meaning of a word from discourse context, ability to follow
71
organization of passage and to identify antecedents and references in it, ability to
draw inferences from a passage about its contents, ability to identify the main
thought of a passage, ability to answer questions answered in a passage, ability to
recognize the literary devices or propositional structures used in a passage and
determine its tone, to understand the situational mood (agents, objects, temporal
and spatial reference points, casual and intentional inflections, etc.) conveyed for
assertions, questioning, commanding, refraining etc. and finally ability to determine
writer's purpose, intent and point of view, and draw inferences about the writer
(discourse-semantics).[3][4]
An individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their skills and

their ability to process information. If word recognition is difficult, students use too
much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with
their ability to comprehend what is read. There are a number of reading strategies
to improve reading comprehension and inferences, including improving one's
vocabulary, critical text analysis (intertextuality, actual events vs. narration of
events, etc.) and practicing deep reading.
Homework, or a homework assignment, is a set of tasks assigned to students

by their teachers to be completed outside the class. Common homework
assignments may include required reading, a writing or typing project,
mathematical exercises to be completed, information to be reviewed before a test,
or other skills to be practiced.
The effect of homework is debated. Generally speaking, homework does not

improve academic performance among children[citation needed] and may improve
academic skills among older students, especially lower-achieving students.
Homework also creates stress for students and their parents and reduces the amount
of time that students could spend outdoors, exercising, playing, working, sleeping,
or in other activities.
Purposes
The basic objectives of assigning homework to students are the same as
72
schooling in general: to increase the knowledge and improve the abilities and skills
of the students, to prepare them for upcoming (or complex or difficult) lessons, to
extendwhat they know by having them apply it to new situations, or to integrate
their abilities by applying different skills to a single task. Homework also provides
an opportunity for parents to participate in their children's education. Homework is
designed to reinforce what students have already learned.
73
BAB VII
READING COMPREHENSION AND LISTENING
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat mampu memahami buku

text,bacaan dan laporan dalam Bahasa inggris
3. Pokok Bahasan
Reading Comprehension And Listening
• Listening strategies
• Listening conversation
• Listening report
• Listening speech/lecture
• \Listening test
5. Materi
74
A. LISTENING STRATEGIES
Listening strategies: The process of teaching hard of hearing persons common

andalternative strategies when listening with or without amplification to improve
theircommunication
Listening is the one skill that you use the most in everyday life. Listening
comprehension is the basis for your speaking, writing and reading skills. To train
your listening skills, it is important to listen actively, which means to actively pay
attention to what you are listening to. Make it a habit to listen to audio books,
podcasts, news, songs, etc. and to watch videos and films in the foreign language.
You should know that there are different types of listening:
Listening for gist: you listen in order to understand the main idea of the text.
Listening for specific information: you want to find out specific details, forexample
key words.
Listening for detailed understanding: you want to understand all the

informationthe text provides. Before you listen to a text, you should be aware of
these different types. You will have to decide what your purpose is. Becoming
aware of this fact will help you to both focus on the important points and reach your
goal.
Suggestions for improving your listening skillsBefore you listen
Think about the topic of the text you are going to listen to. What do you
already know about it? What could possibly be the content of the text? Which words
cometo mind that you already know? Which words would you want to look up?
If you have to do a task on the listening text, check whether you have understood
the task correctly.
Think about what type of text you are going to listen to. What do you know about
this type of text?
Relax and make yourself ready to pay attention to the listening text.While you are
75
listening
It is not necessary to understand every single word. Try to ignore those words that
you think are less important anyway.
If there are words or issues that you don't understand, use your general knowledge
as well as the context to find out the meaning.
If you still don't understand something, use a dictionary to look up the words or
ask someone else for help.
Focus on key words and facts.
Take notes to support your memory.
Intonation and stress of the speakers can help you to understand what you
hear. Try to think ahead. What might happen next? What might the speakers say,
whichwords might they use?
After listening
Think about the text again. Have you understood the main points?
Remember the speculations you made before you listened. Did they come true?
Review your notes.
Check whether you have completed your task correctly.
Have you had any problems while listening? Do you have any problems now to
complete your task? Identify your problems and ask someone for help.
Listen again to difficult passages.
B. LISTENING CONVERSATION
Listening Lessons have straight forward questions and answers but with
longer dialogs. If you listen, you should be able to clearly hear the answer from the
audiofile.
If you are still uncertain about the dialog, you can click on "Show Conversation
76
Dialog" to see the text. I recommend to not view the Conversation Dialog until you
really try to listen without reading.
Klik https://www.talkenglish.com/listening/lessonlisten.aspx?ALID=100
Materials and content allowing students to engage in ‘real’ communication,

or simulations of what conversations may sound like, should be a goal for many
language curriculums. Drills that develop into dialogues, which in turn pave the
way for roleplays, provide a rich repertoire of practice activities to nudge students
toward more meaningful, and consequently, less mechanical communication. In
fact, such activities can hold relevance for students at any level of their studies
whether they’re beginners, intermediate, or advanced language learners.
Although controlled by the teacher, meaningful drills allow students to

provide information in addition to the correct language form, give reason for
speaking, and as a result, are more engaging and motivating than mechanical drills.
Let’s differentiate three types of exercises often used in the classroom: drills,
dialogues, and roleplays, with each having their own subset of forms. Drills are a
vital part of language study. Simply put, a drill is a type of highly controlled
or mechanical written or oral exercise in which students respond to a given
cue. Drills often have no context and exist for the sole purpose of practicing
targeted skills. They can be practiced in any order without losing the logic of the
exercise. Drills are the easiest for teachers to set up and implement and the
exercises students are most likely to forget. Why? Because they’re often
mechanical and lack meaningfulness. In other words, students are on
autopilot. When working with drills, you’ll likely be using one of three types:
repetition, substitution, or transformation exercises.
Repetition drills focus on a specific target where the teacher’s language or

target text is repeated with no change; think flashcards and pronunciation drills.
Substitution drills give students practice in changing a target word or employ a
grammar structure in response to a prompt or cue.
1. Teacher: Blue.
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2. Student: I like blue.
Transformation drills involve changing the structure of a sentence.
1. Teacher: I like to eat cake.
2. Student: I like eating cake.
As necessary as they may be, drills don’t have to be boring or lack

meaningfulness! There are a variety of creative and fun ways to liven up your
flashcard drill work, making the activities more engaging and memorable for your
students. Check out my for lots of ideas to shake up your usual drill routines.
If you think of drills as a pathway to dialogues, it will significantly influence how

you prepare and implement both types of exercises.
While they can rely on the components found in drills, dialogues provide
context and, if unordered, lose their sense of logic. Dialogues usually present
spoken language in a natural or conversational tone and are typically longer than
drills. They’re beneficial for developing speaking and listening skills. Like drills,
dialogues are usually exercises for guided, rather than free language practice.
Dialogues can fall into two categories: standard dialogues and open
dialogues. Standard dialogues present students with an A B exchange. They are
useful for reading, listening, pronunciation, intonation, and other phonological
features. In open dialogues, the teacher provides only one half of the dialogue with
students creating the other half. Surveys are a perfect and extremely useful example
of an open dialogue format and give students practice in asking and answering
questions.
If you choose to write your own dialogues, keep these ideas in mind:
Use “natural” language as much as possible with idiomatic and sociolinguistic

phrases relevant to the students’ age and experiences. “Wassup!” may work well
with teens but not so much for retirees. Keep the dialogue exchanges short enough
78
so that students can easily remember, but long enough to provide context. Three to
five exchanges with salutations work well.
A simple dialogue can happen anywhere. Allow an extenuating or teacher-

directed circumstance like an emergency or other conflict to provide
urgency. Delivering the line, “Where’s my phone?” will be quite different in a
supermarket as opposed to coming upon an accident. Depict situations or reasons
for a dialogue that are relevant and useful to the learner. Think of how differently
young teens and adults may think and talk about a math test, making a reservation,
or a fistfight in the cafeteria. Allow for more meaningful practice with options for
substitution within the dialogue. Here are some ideas when presenting dialogues:
Before presenting the dialogue, introduce the topic of the dialogue by fielding
students’ interest or knowledge of the subject. Providing students with pictures that
may accompany or are similar to the dialogue, can warm students up with relevant
vocabulary or grammatical structures.Have students listen to the dialogue and
explore specifics about what they heard. If you have no recordings, set up two
students to read while the rest of the class listens. Give students only one side of the
dialogue and have students participate in reading and listening.Have students
reorder a dialogue that’s been cut up into its individual lines.
Try out your acting skills and use the dialogue as a telephone conversation
where students only hear one side of the exchange. Who was on the other end of
the conversation? Mother, teacher, or friend? What questions did they ask?
Perform the dialogue in fictional circumstances. How does the same dialogue
change in a library as opposed to a crowded cafeteria, or on a cold day in the park
as opposed to a sunny beach? You may be pleasantly surprised at the willingness of
students to play and the creativity they will exhibit if you mine dialogues for
expressive and more meaningful practice.
As students become more flexible and rely on fewer cues to initiate or carry them
through a given dialogue, they are ready to move into roleplaying.
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Roleplay is a way of bringing situations from real life into the
classroom. Dramatic scripts are simply extended dialogues grouped into
scenes! Semi-improvisational exercises where scenarios are presented with
specific outcomes but nonspecific language, are excellent roleplay activities. If
your students are ready, full improvisation is an especially enjoyable way of getting
students to explore a topic, take on specific roles, and employ learned language in
a meaningful and expressive way
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BAB VIII
DISCUSSION, CONVERSATION AND LISTENING
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat mampu

berkomuikasi secara aktif untuk Bahasa percakapan sederhana sehari-hari, mampu
elakukan diskusi dan pertemuan sederhana berbahasa inggris dan dapat
menyampaikan pendapat atau pidato ilmiah sederhana dalam Bahasa inggris
3. Pokok Bahasan
Discussion, Conversation And Speech
• Basic and daily conversation
• Greetings
• Congratulation
• Parting
• Excuses
• Thanks
5. Materi
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A. Basic and Daily Conversation
Do you feel nervous and forgetful when talking with English speakers?
When I was studying Spanish, basic conversational skills were the hardest
thing for me to learn. Whenever someone asked me a question, I would freeze up
and forget how to talk. When it came time to hold a Spanish conversation, I would
suddenly forget everything I studied. That’s when I realized that I had not been
practicing my conversational skills.
I spent six years studying the language at high school and college, but I never got
the opportunity chat with actual Spanish speakers.
The mistake that a lot of students, including myself, make when learning a
foreignlanguage is forgetting to practice real-world conversational skills. Instead,
we spend our time memorizing vocabulary words and doing workbook activities.
And while these exercises are also important, they don’t teach us how to speak
naturally.
What You Need to Hold a Basic English Conversation
Being able to have a basic English conversation isn’t hard—you just need to know
how to express yourself and start with brief, simple conversations.
To hold a basic conversation, you need to be able to:
Introduce yourself and share some personal information.Talk about your needs and
expectations.
Make future plans.
Talk about your career and your educational background.
Hold simple conversations with people you encounter in day-to-day activities, like
shopping, going to the bank or going to the doctor’s office.
Greetings, Congratulation, Parting, Excuses, Thanks
Do you want to say more than “Hi” and “How are you?”
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And would you like to sound like a native English speaker now (instead of
waiting until you reach the advanced level)?
You’re in the right place!
Below are 30 basic phrases that people use every day. They are useful phrases
that’ll also help your knowledge of English grow.
First, let’s look at a few ideas for how to learn these new phrases.
As you read each phrase below for the first time, say it aloud four times. Yes, four
times! (They’re short phrases.)
Then, print this list of phrases.
If you have a conversation partner, ask your exchange partner to say the
phrases while you record them on a smartphone, computer or recording device. That
way you can listen to the recording and practice the pronunciation by yourself at
home. Then, choose two phrases each day to focus on. Here’s what you could do
every
day to learn each phrase:
Picture a situation in your mind where you could use the phrase. Imagine the
other people in the scene and what they’re saying. See yourself saying the phrase.
Listen/look for the phrase while you watch TV, listen to the radio, read blogs, etc.
Then, use the phrase in casual writing. Write a tweet (on Twitter), a Facebook
post or an email to a friend.
Finally, use the phrase in 2-5 real conversations.
These first eight phrases can be used in many different situations.
1. Thanks so much.
This is a simple sentence you can use to thank someone. To add detail,
say:
Thanks so much + for + [noun] / [-ing verb].For example:
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Thanks so much for the birthday money.Thanks so much for driving me
home.
2. I really appreciate…
You can also use this phrase to thank someone. For example, you might
say:I really appreciate your help.
Or you can combine #1 and #2:
Thanks so much for cooking dinner. I really appreciate it.Thanks so

much. I really appreciate you cooking dinner.
3. Excuse me.
When you need to get through but there’s someone blocking your way,
say“Excuse me.”
You can also say this phrase to politely get someone’s attention. For
example:
Excuse me sir, you dropped your wallet. Excuse me, do you know what
time it is?
4. I’m sorry.
Use this phrase to apologize, whether for something big or small.

Use “for” to
give more detail. For example:
I’m sorry for being so late.
I’m sorry for the mess. I wasn’t expecting anyone today.
You can use “really” to show you’re very sorry for something:I’m really
sorry I didn’t invite you to the party.
What do you think?
When you want to hear someone’s opinion on a topic, use this question.
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I’m not sure if we should paint the room yellow or blue. What do you
think?
5. How does that sound?
If you suggest an idea or plan, use this phrase to find out what others
think.We could have dinner at 6, and then go to a movie. How does that
sound?
Let’s hire a band to play music, and Brent can photograph the event.
How does that sound?
6. That sounds great.
If you like an idea, you can respond to #6 with this phrase. “Great” can
be replaced with any synonym, such as “awesome,” “perfect,”
“excellent” or “fantastic.”
A: My mom is baking cookies this afternoon. We could go to my house

and eat some. How does that sound?
B: That sounds fantastic!
7. (Oh) never mind.
Let’s say someone doesn’t understand an idea you’re trying to explain.

If you’ve explained it over and over and want to stop, just say “oh, never
mind.” You can now talk about something else!
You can also use “never mind” to mean “it doesn’t matter” or “just
forget it.” In these situations, say it with a smile and positive tone,
though. Otherwise, when you say this phrase slowly with a falling low
tone, it can mean you’re bothered or upset.
A: Are you going to the grocery store today?
B: No, I’m not. But why—do you need something?
A: Oh, never mind. It’s okay, I’ll go tomorrow.
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Phrases for Learning English
As an English learner, you’ll need to tell others that English is not your
first language. You’ll also need to ask native speakers to repeat phrases
and words orto speak slower. The following phrases will be useful for
this.
8. I’m learning English.
This simple phrase tells people that English is not your native language.
If you’re a total beginner, add “just started” after I: “I just started
learning English.”
My name is Sophie and I’m learning English.
9. I don’t understand.
Use this phrase when you don’t understand what someone means.
Sorry, I don’t understand. The U.S. Electoral College seems very

confusing!
10. Could you repeat that please?
If you’d like someone to say a word, question or phrase again, use this
question. Since “to repeat” means “to say again,” you can also ask,
“Could you say that again please?”
We can say “please” either at the end of the question or right after “you,”
like this:
Could you please repeat that?Could you repeat that please?
11. Could you please talk slower?
Native speakers can talk very fast. Fast English is hard to understand!
This is an easy way to ask someone to speak more slowly.
Note: This phrase is not grammatically correct. However, it’s used often
in everyday (casual) speech. The grammatically correct question would
86
be, “Could you please talk more slowly?”
That’s because “slowly” is an adverb, so it describes verbs (like “talk”).

“Slower” is a comparative adjective, which means it should be used to
describe nouns (people, places or thing), not verbs. (For example: My
car is slower than yours.)
A: You can give us a call any weekday from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. at
five five five, two five zero eight, extension three three—
B: I’m sorry, could you please talk slower?
12. Thank you. That helps a lot.
After someone starts speaking more slowly for you, thank them with
this phrase.You can use it in many other situations, too.
A: Ben, could you please make the font bigger? It’s hard for me to read
the words.B: Sure! I’ll change it from size 10 to 16. How’s this?
A: Thank you. That helps a lot.
13. What does ~ mean?
When you hear or see a new word, use this phrase to ask what it means.
A: What does “font” mean?
B: It’s the style of letters, numbers and punctuation marks when

you type. A
common font in the USA is Times New Roman.
14. How do you spell that?
15. English spelling can be tricky, so make sure to learn this question. You
could also ask someone, “Could you spell that for me?”
A: My name is Robbertah Handkerchief.B: How do you spell that?
16. What do you mean?
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When you understand the words one by one, but not what they mean
together, use this question. You can ask it whenever you’re confused
about what someone is telling you.
A: The Smiths do have a really nice house, but the grass is always
greener on the other side.
B: What do you mean?
A: I mean that if we had the Smith’s house, we probably wouldn’t be

happier. We always think other people have better lives than us, but
other people have problems too.
Phrases for Introducing Yourself and Making Friends
Here are some phrases for introducing yourself when you meet new
people, and questions to learn more about them.
17. Hi! I’m [Name]. (And you?)
Here’s an informal greeting you can use when you meet new friends. If
the persondoesn’t tell you their name, you can ask “And you?” or “And
what’s your name?”
Hi! I’m Rebecca. And you?
18. Nice to meet you.
After you learn each other’s names, it’s polite to say this phrase.
A: Hi Rebecca, I’m Chad. B: Nice to meet you, Chad.A: Nice to meet

you too.
19. Where are you from?
Ask this question to find out which country someone is from. You
answer this question with “I’m from ~.”
Can you answer this question in English? Say both the question and
answer aloud right now. (Four times, remember?)
88
A: Nice to meet you, Sergio. So, where are you from?
B: I’m from Spain.
20. What do you do?
Most adults ask each other this question when they meet. It means what
do you dofor a living (what is your job).
I think this question is boring, so I ask other questions. But many

people will
probably ask you this, so it’s important to know what it means.
A: What do you do, Cathleen?
B: I work at the university as a financial specialist.
21. What do you like to do (in your free time)?
Instead of asking for someone’s job title, I prefer to ask what they
enjoy doing.
The responses (answers) are usually much more interesting!
A: So Cathleen, what do you like to do in your free time?
B: I love to read and to garden. I picked two buckets of tomatoes last

week!
22. What’s your phone number?
If you want to keep in contact with someone you just met, ask this
question to find out their phone number. You can replace “phone
number” with “email address” if you want to know their email address.
You might also hear people use the more casual “Can I get your ~?,” as
in, “Can I get your phone number?”
It would be great to meet up again sometime. What’s your phone

number?
89
23. Do you have Facebook?
Many people keep in touch (contact) through Facebook. Use this

question to find out if someone has a Facebook account. You might also
ask, “Are you on Facebook?”
Let’s keep in touch! Do you have Facebook?Phrases for at Work
Finally, here are seven basic phrases you might use at a job.
24. How can I help you?
If you work in customer service, you’ll use this phrase a lot. It’s also
a common
phrase when answering the phone.
[On the phone]: Hello, this is Rebecca speaking. How can I help you?
25. I’ll be with you in a moment.
When someone wants to see you, use this phrase if you need a minute
to finish something first. If a client is waiting at a store, you can also
use this phrase to show that their turn is next.
You can replace “moment” with “minute”: “I’ll be with you in (just) a
minute.”Another common phrase for this situation is “I’ll be right with
you.”
Good morning! I’ll be with you in a moment.
26. What time is our meeting?
You can use this question’s structure to ask the time of any event:
“What time is [event]?”
If you want to ask about a meeting on a certain day, add “on [day].” For
example, “What time is our meeting on Thursday?”
What time is our meeting on Wednesday?
90
27. Please call me (back) at…
When you want someone to call you or to call you back (to return your
call), use this phrase to give your phone number.
Hi, this is Cathleen from the financial office.
I’m wondering if you found those missing receipts.
Please call me back at 555-5555. Thanks!
25. (Oh really?) Actually, I thought…
When you disagree with someone, “Actually, I thought…” will make

you sound kinder and more polite than saying “No” or “You’re wrong.”
This phrase is usefulwhen you have a different idea than someone else.
A: So Sam’s coming in tonight at 8, right?
B: Actually, I thought he wasn’t working at all this week.A: Oh, ok. I’ll
have to look at the schedule again.
26. Actually, I [verb]…
Just like in #28, you can use “actually, I…” with many different verbs:
“heard,” “learned,” “am,” “can,” “can’t,” etc. You should use it for the
same situation as above: when you have a different idea than someone
else.
A: Did you finish the reports?
B: Actually, I am running a bit behind, but they’ll be done by noon!
C: When you type, always put two spaces between sentences. D:

Actually, I learned to put a single space between sentences.
27. I’m (just) about to [verb]…
When you’re going to start something very soon, you’re “just

about to” do
91
something.
I’m just about to send those faxes.
I’m about to go and pick up some coffee. Do you want anything?
B. INTRODUCTORY DAILY EXPRESSIONS
1. “Good”
Example:
a. Good morning : Selamat pagi.
b. Good afternoon : Selamat siang/sore.
c. Good evening : Selamat malam/petang
d. Good night : Selamat malam.
e. Good bye : Selamat tinggal.
f. Good Luck : Semoga berhasil.
2. “Happy”
Example:
a. Happy birthday : Selamat berulang tahun.
b. Happy Lebaran day : Selamat berlebaran.
c. Happy Christmas /Merry X’mas : Selamat Hari Natal.
d. Happy new year : Selamat Tahun Baru.
e. Happy holiday : Selamat berhari libur.
f. Happy Easter : Selamat Paskah.
g. Happy party : Selamat berpesta.
3. “Have”
92
Example:
a. Have a good time : Selamat senang-senang.
b. Have a nice holiday : Semoga liburan Anda menyenangkan.
c. Have a nice trip : Semoga perjalanan Anda menyenangkan.
d. Have a nice party : Selamat berpesta.
e. Have a nice day : Semoga hari Anda\menyenangkan.
4. Introduction
Examples:
a. How are you today?
Jawab : I’m fine, thank you.
I’m very well, thanks.
I’m alright, thanks
93
BAB IX
DISCUSSION, CONVERSATION AND SPEECH
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat mampu

berkomuikasi secara aktif untuk Bahasa percakapan sederhana sehari-hari, mampu
elakukan diskusi dan pertemuan sederhana berbahasa inggris dan dapat
menyampaikan pendapat atau pidato ilmiah
3. Pokok Bahasan
Discussion, Conversation And Speech
• Conversation Drills
• Discusion and Formal Discusion
• Speech, Presentation and giving talk
• Meeting exercise
5. Materi
94
C. DISCUSSION and CONVERSATION DRILLS
A discussion group is a group of individuals with similar interest who gather

either formally or informally to bring up ideas, solve problems or give comments.
The major approaches are in person, via conference call or website.[1] People
respond comments and post forum in established mailing list, news group or
IRC.[2] Other group members could choose to respond by posting text or image.
Small group of professionals or students formally or informally negotiate

about anacademic topic within certain fields. This implementation could be seen as
an investigation or research based on various academic levels. For instance, "one
hundred eighty college-level psychology students" breakdown into different groups
to participate in giving an orderly arrangement of preferred events.[15]
Nevertheless, discussion groups could support professional services and hold
events to a range of demographics; another distinguished example is from "The
London Biological Mass Spectrometry Discussion Group", which sustainably
operates by gathering "technicians, clinicians, academics, industrialists and
students" to exchange ideas on an academic level.[16] It attributes to the
development of participants' cognitive, critical thinking, and analytical skills.
B. SPEECH, PRESENTATION and GIVING TALK
Speech production (English) visualized by Real-time MRIPart of a series on
Linguistics OutlineHistoryIndexSubfields[hide]
Acquisition Anthropological Applied Computational Discourse analysis

Forensic Historical Lexicography Morphology Neurolinguistics Philosophy of
language Phonetics Phonology Pragmatics Psycholinguistics Semantics
Sociolinguistics Syntax
Grammatical Theories[hide]
Cognitive Constraint-based Dependency Functional Generative Stochastic

Topics[hide] Descriptivism Etymology Internet linguistics LGBT linguistics
Linguistic anthropology Origin of language Origin of speech Orthography
95
Prescriptivism Second-language acquisition Structuralism
Linguistics portalvte
Speech is human vocal communication using language. Each language uses

phonetic combinations of a limited set of perfectly articulated and individualized
vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English
words sound different from all French words, even if they are the same word, e.g.,
"role" or "hotel"), and using those words in their semantic character as words in the
lexicon of a language according to the syntactic constraints that govern lexical
words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different
intentional speech acts, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing,
and can use enunciation, intonation, degrees of loudness, tempo, and other non-
representational or paralinguistic aspects of vocalization to convey meaning. In
their speech speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social
position such as sex, age, place of origin (through accent), physical states (alertness
and sleepiness, vigor or weakness, health or illness), psychic states (emotions or
moods), physico-psychic states (sobriety or drunkenness, normal consciousness and
trance states), education or experience, and the like.
Although people ordinarily use speech in dealing with other persons (or
animals), when people swear they do not always mean to communicate anything to
anyone, and sometimes in expressing urgent emotions or desires they use speech as
a quasi-magical cause, as when they encourage a player in a game to do or warn
them not to do something. There are also many situations in which people engage
in solitary speech. People talk to themselves sometimes in acts that are a
development of what some psychologists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky) have maintained is
the use in thinking of silent speech in an interior monologue to vivify and organize
cognition, sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self
addressing self as though addressing another person. Solo speech can be used to
memorize or to test one's memorization of things, and in prayer or in meditation
(e.g., the use of a mantra).
96
Researchers study many different aspects of speech: speech production and
speech perception of the sounds used in a language, speech repetition, speech errors,
the ability to map heard spoken words onto the vocalizations needed to recreate
them, which plays a key role in children's enlargement of their.
Vocabulary, and what different areas of the human brain, such as Broca's area
and Wernicke's area, underlie speech. Speech is the subject of study for linguistics,
cognitive science, communication studies, psychology, computer science, speech
pathology, otolaryngology, and acoustics. Speech compares with written
language[1] , which may differ in its vocabulary, syntax, and phonetics from the
spoken language, a situation called diglossia.
The evolutionary origins of speech are unknown and subject to much debate
and speculation. While animals also communicate using vocalizations, and trained
apes such as Washoe and Kanzi can use simple sign language, no animals'
vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute
speech.
97
BAB X
WRITING
Setelah mengikuti pratikum mahasiswa diharapkan dapat menulis abstrak

kesimpulan, laporan teknisk sederhana, surat resmi dasar, surat untuk
korespondensi sederhana, surat lamaran, dan curuculum vitae dalam Bahasa inggris
3. Pokok BahasanWriting
• The process of writing
• Example and exercise of summary writing
5. Materi
98
A. The Process of Writing
The writing process is the series of actions required to produce a coherent written
text. It is a key term in the teaching of writing.
Approaches to the process
Cognitive process theory of writing (Flower–Hayes model) See also:

Cognitive and linguistic theories of composition Overview of cognitive model
Flower and Hayes extend Bitzer's rhetorical situation to become a series of
rhetorical problems, i.e., when a writer must represent the situation as a problem
to be solved, such as the invocation of a particular audience to an oversimplified
approach such as finding a theme and completing the writing in two pages by
Monday's class.[3]
In "The Cognition of Discovery" Flower and Hayes set out to discover the
differences between good and bad writers. They came to three results from their
study, which suggests that good writers envelop the three following characteristics
when solving their rhetorical problems:
Good writers respond to all of the rhetorical problems
Good writers build their problem representation by creating a particularly rich

network of goals for affecting a reader; and
Good writers represent the problem not only in more breadth, but in depth.[4]
Flower and Hayes suggest that composition instructors need to consider showing
students how "to explore and define their own problems, even within the
constraints of an assignment".[4] They believe that "Writers discover what they
want to do by insistently, energetically exploring the entire problem before them

and building for themselves a unique image of the problem they want to solve."
B. Example And Exercise Of Summary Writing
Criticism of cognitive model
Patricia Bizzell argues that even though educators may have an understanding
99
of "how" the writing process occurs, educators shouldn't assume that this
knowledge can answer the question "about 'why' the writer makes certain choices
in certain situations", since writing is always situated within a discourse community
(484[full citation needed]). She discusses how the Flower and Hayes model relies
on what is called the process of "translating ideas into visible language" (486[full
citation needed]). This process occurs when students "treat written English as a set
of containers into which we pour meaning" (486[full citation needed]). Bizzell
contends that this process "remains the emptiest box" in the cognitive process
model, since it de-contextualizes the original context of the written text, negating
the original. She argues that "Writing does not so much contribute to thinking as
provide an occasion for thinking..."
Social model of writing process
"The aim of collaborative learning helps students to find more control in their
learning situation. [5]
Even grammar has a social turn in writing: "It may be that to fully account for
the contempt that some errors of usage arouse, we will have to understand better
than we do the relationship between language, order, and those deep psychic forces
that perceived linguistic violations seem to arouse in otherwise amiable people".[6]
So one can't simply say a thing is right or wrong. There is a difference of degrees
attributed by social forces.[7]
Expressivist process theory of writing
According to the expressivist theory, the process of writing is centered on the

writer's transformation. This involves the writer changing in the sense that voice
and identity are established and the writer has a sense of his or her self. This theory
became popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s. According to Richard Fulkerson's
article "Four Philosophies of Composition", the focus of expressivism is for writers
to have "... an interesting, credible, honest, and personal voice". Moreover,
proponents of the expressivist process view this theory as a way for students to
become fulfilled and healthy both emotionally and mentally. Those who teach this
100
process often focus on journaling and other classroom activities to focus on student
self-discovery and at times, low-stakes writing. Prominent figures in the field
include John Dixon, Ken Macrorie, Lou Kelly, Donald C. Stewart and Peter Elbow.
Historical approaches to composition and process
An historical response to process is concerned primarily with the manner in

whichwriting has been shaped and governed by historical and social forces. These
forces are dynamic and contextual, and therefore render any static iteration of
process unlikely.
Notable scholars that have conducted this type of inquiry include media
theorists such as Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, Gregory Ulmer, and Cynthia
Selfe. Much of McLuhan's work, for example, centered around the impact of written
language on oral cultures, degrees to which various media are accessible and
interactive, and the ways in which electronic media determine communication
patterns. His evaluation of technology as a shaper of human societies and psyches
indicates a strong connection between historical forces and literacy practices.
Autistic autobiographies
As appealing as document sharing may be for students with autism in

particular,[8] being able to contextualize one's life story in the context of their
disability may prove the most powerful expression of the writing process overall.
Rose illustrates [8] that creating narrative identity in a conventional sense is quite
difficult for autistic students because of their challenges with interpersonal
communication. The narratives of autistic students can sometimes be troubling to
neurotypical peers with whom they share their work, as Rose notes in quoting
autistic autobiographer Dawn Price-Hughes, "Sometimes reaching out and
communicating isn’t easy–it can bring sadness and regret. Some of my family and
friends, after reading the manuscript for this book, were deeply saddened to learn
how I experienced my world."
101
Rose points to the well-known work of Temple Grandin and Donna Williams
as examples of autistic autobiographies and analogizes toward the usefulness of
women's autobiographies championed by Susan Stanford Friedman to show
women's inter-connectivity, suggesting the same can be learned through autistic
autobiographies. She writes that such works can minimize the "pathologisation of
difference" which can easily occur between autistic students and neuroytpical peers
can be broken down by such autobiographies. As Rose directly says, "I argue here
that awareness of the relationality of autistic life writing, and the recognition of its
corollary status as testimonio and attention to the material relations of the
production of these texts is particularly useful in assessing their social significance."
From a rhetorical perspective the use for students with disabilities (not just
autistic students) seems to be promising. It would appear to foster a sense of a
community among students with disabilities and helping these voices be brought in
from the margins similarly to the way Mike Rose refers to students from
disadvantaged backgrounds and their needs in Lives on the Boundary.
102
BAB XI
WRITING

• Abstrack writing
• Report writing
5. Materi
103
A. Abstrack Writing
The writing process is the series of actions required to produce a coherent written
text. It is a key term in the teaching of writing.
Approaches to the process
Cognitive process theory of writing (Flower–Hayes model) See also:

Cognitive and linguistic theories of composition Overview of cognitive model
Flower and Hayes extend Bitzer's rhetorical situation to become a series of
rhetorical problems, i.e., when a writer must represent the situation as a problem
to be solved, such as the invocation of a particular audience to an oversimplified
approach such as finding a theme and completing the writing in two pages by
Monday's class.[3]
In "The Cognition of Discovery" Flower and Hayes set out to discover the
differences between good and bad writers. They came to three results from their
study, which suggests that good writers envelop the three following characteristics
when solving their rhetorical problems:
Good writers respond to all of the rhetorical problems
Good writers build their problem representation by creating a particularly rich

network of goals for affecting a reader; and
Good writers represent the problem not only in more breadth, but in depth.[4]
Flower and Hayes suggest that composition instructors need to consider showing
students how "to explore and define their own problems, even within the
constraints of an assignment".[4] They believe that "Writers discover what they
want to do by insistently, energetically exploring the entire problem before them
and building for themselves a unique image of the problem they want to solve
104
Criticism of cognitive model
Patricia Bizzell argues that even though educators may have an understanding
of "how" the writing process occurs, educators shouldn't assume that this
knowledge can answer the question "about 'why' the writer makes certain choices
in certain situations", since writing is always situated within a discourse community
(484[full citation needed]). She discusses how the Flower and Hayes model relies
on what is called the process of "translating ideas into visible language" (486[full
citation needed]). This process occurs when students "treat written English as a set
of containers into which we pour meaning" (486[full citation needed]). Bizzell
contends that this process "remains the emptiest box" in the cognitive process
model, since it de-contextualizes the original context of the written text, negating
the original. She argues that "Writing does not so much contribute to thinking as
provide an occasion for thinking..."
Social model of writing process
"The aim of collaborative learning helps students to find more control in their
learning situation. [5]
Even grammar has a social turn in writing: "It may be that to fully account for
the contempt that some errors of usage arouse, we will have to understand better
than we do the relationship between language, order, and those deep psychic forces
that perceived linguistic violations seem to arouse in otherwise amiable people".[6]
So one can't simply say a thing is right or wrong. There is a difference of degrees
attributed by social forces.[7]
Expressivist process theory of writing
According to the expressivist theory, the process of writing is centered on the

writer's transformation. This involves the writer changing in the sense that voice
and identity are established and the writer has a sense of his or her self. This theory
became popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s. According to Richard Fulkerson's
105
article "Four Philosophies of Composition", the focus of expressivism is for writers
to have "... an interesting, credible, honest, and personal voice". Moreover,
proponents of the expressivist process view this theory as a way for students to
become fulfilled and healthy both emotionally and mentally. Those who teach this
process often focus on journaling and other classroom activities to focus on student
self-discovery and at times, low-stakes writing. Prominent figures in the field
include John Dixon, Ken Macrorie, Lou Kelly, Donald C. Stewart and Peter Elbow.
Historical approaches to composition and process
An historical response to process is concerned primarily with the manner in

whichwriting has been shaped and governed by historical and social forces. These
forces are dynamic and contextual, and therefore render any static iteration of
process unlikely.
Notable scholars that have conducted this type of inquiry include media
theorists such as Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, Gregory Ulmer, and Cynthia
Selfe. Much of McLuhan's work, for example, centered around the impact of written
language on oral cultures, degrees to which various media are accessible and
interactive, and the ways in which electronic media determine communication
patterns. His evaluation of technology as a shaper of human societies and psyches
indicates a strong connection between historical forces and literacy practices.
Autistic autobiographies
As appealing as document sharing may be for students with autism in

particular,[8] being able to contextualize one's life story in the context of their
disability may prove the most powerful expression of the writing process overall.
Rose illustrates [8] that creating narrative identity in a conventional sense is quite
difficult for autistic students because of their challenges with interpersonal
communication. The narratives of autistic students can sometimes be troubling to
neurotypical peers with whom they share their work, as Rose notes in quoting
autistic autobiographer Dawn Price-Hughes, "Sometimes reaching out and
communicating isn’t easy–it can bring sadness and regret. Some of my family and
106
friends, after reading the manuscript for this book, were deeply saddened to learn
how I experienced my world."
Rose points to the well-known work of Temple Grandin and Donna Williams
as examples of autistic autobiographies and analogizes toward the usefulness of
women's autobiographies championed by Susan Stanford Friedman to show
women's inter-connectivity, suggesting the same can be learned through autistic
autobiographies. She writes that such works can minimize the "pathologisation of
difference" which can easily occur between autistic students and neuroytpical peers
can be broken down by such autobiographies. As Rose directly says, "I argue here
that awareness of the relationality of autistic life writing, and the recognition of its
corollary status as testimonio and attention to the material relations of the
production of these texts is particularly useful in assessing their social significance."
From a rhetorical perspective the use for students with disabilities (not just
autistic students) seems to be promising. It would appear to foster a sense of a
community among students with disabilities and helping these voices be brought in
from the margins similarly to the way Mike Rose refers to students from
disadvantaged backgrounds and their needs in Lives on the Boundary.
Structure
An academic abstract typically outlines four elements relevant to the completed

work:
The research focus (i.e. statement of the problem(s)/research issue(s) addressed);

The research methods used (experimental research, case studies, questionnaires,
etc.);
The results/findings of the research; and The main conclusions and

recommendations
It may also contain brief references,[6] although some publications' standard

style omits references from the abstract, reserving them for the article body (which,
by definition, treats the same topics but in more depth).
107
Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements. Typical
length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but very rarely more than a page and
occasionally just a few words.[7] An abstract may or may not have the section title
of "abstract" explicitly listed as an antecedent to content. Abstracts are typically
sectioned logically as an overview of what appears in the paper, with any of the
following subheadings: Background, Introduction, Objectives, Methods, Results,
Conclusions.[citation needed] Abstracts in which these subheadings are explicitly
given are often called structured abstracts by publishers. In articles that follow the
IMRAD pattern (especially original research, but sometimes other article types),
structured abstract style is the norm.[citation needed] (The "A" of abstract may be
added to "IMRAD" yielding "AIMRAD".) Abstracts that comprise one paragraph
(no explicit subheadings) are often called unstructured abstracts by publishers. They
are often appropriate for review articles that don't follow the IMRAD patternwithin
their bodies.[citation needed]
Example
Example taken from the Journal of Biology, Volume 3, Issue 2.:[8]
The hydrodynamics of dolphin drafting
by Daniel Weihs, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of

Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
Abstract:
Background Drafting in cetaceans is defined as the transfer of forces between

individuals without actual physical contact between them. This behavior has long
been surmised to explain how young dolphin calves keep up with their rapidly
moving mothers. It has recently been observed that a significant number of calves
become permanently separated from their mothers during chases by tuna vessels. A
study of the hydrodynamics of drafting, initiated inmechanisms causing the
separation of mothers and calves during fishing-related activities, is reported here.
Results Quantitative results are shown for the forces and moments around a
108
pair of unequally sized dolphin-like slender bodies. These include two major
effects. First, the so-called Bernoulli suction, which stems from the fact that the
local pressure drops in areas of high speed, results in an attractive force between
mother and calf. Second is the displacement effect, in which the motion of the
mother causes the water in front to move forwards and radially outwards, and water
behind the body to move forwards to replace the animal's mass. Thus, the calf can
gain a 'free ride' in the forward-moving areas. Utilizing these effects, the neonate
can gain up to 90% of the thrust needed to move alongside the mother at speeds of
up to 2.4 m/s. A comparison with observations of eastern spinner dolphins (Stenella
longirostris) is presented, showing savings of up to 60% in the thrust that calves
require if they are to keep up with their mothers.
Conclusions A theoretical analysis, backed by observations of free-swimming

dolphin schools, indicates that hydrodynamic interactions with mothers play an
important role in enabling dolphin calves to keep up with rapidly moving adult
school members.
© 2004 Weihs; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article:
verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any
purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL.
B. Report Writing
How to write a report
Report writing is an essential skill in many disciplines. You should develop

effective report writing skills at university because it’s highly likely you’ll be
writing reports in the workplace.
A report is formal written document used to provide concise information on

a specific subject. It can be used to communicate the results of an experiment,
inform on the progress of a project or to make recommendations.
An effective report is an accurate presentation of information. It should be

objective, concise and structured to guide the reader through the main points. The
109
sections contained in a report will depend on the report type and specific task
requirements. It’s your responsibility to find out what to include in your report. A
basic report could include the following sections:
1. Preliminary parts
Title page and AcknowledgementsThe Title page should include the

title of the report, who it was commissioned by (or for the purposes of
university - your lecturer, course code, and student number) and the date.
Executive Summary or AbstractThe Abstract (or Executive Summary)

provides a summary of the main points of the report. It briefly covers the
aims, objectives, research methods, and the findings of the report. It also
identifies what action is required. Although the Abstract is located at the
beginning of the report, it is usually written last as it is a summary of the
whole report.
Table of ContentsThe Table of Contents shows the structure of the report.
2. Body of the report
Introduction Capture the reader’s attention! State the aims and

objectives of the report, the problem or situation that prompted the report and
identify what the report intends to achieve. You should also include
definitions, research methods and background history (if relevant).
Methodology The Methodology explains what you did and how you
did it. It could be the materials used in an experiment, the subjects involved
in a survey, or the steps you took in a project.
Results or Findings This is where you present the findings from your
experiment,survey, or research project.
DiscussionThis is where the facts or evidence are presented and discussed.

Conclusions Provide implications from the content of the report.
Recommendations Describe a clear course of action. The
110
recommendations should demonstrate your professional competence in a
specific situation and be clearly aligned with your conclusions.
3. Supplementary parts
References This is where you acknowledge all the sources used in the
report. Forfurther information, see the Referencing module. Appendices The
Appendices contains additional graphical, statistical or other supplementary
material. Each item should be clearly labelled (e.g. Appendix 1) and referred
to in the report.
111
BAB XII
WRITING

• Main structure pattern
• Letter writing
• Assignment for writing
• Formal style letter
• Useful expression in letter
• Letter of application
• Curriculum vitae writing
5. Materi
112
A. Main Structure Pattern
Language is the most powerful and central tool in achieving our educational
goal. When it comes for examining language, words are focal points and we begin
our investigation of language structure by looking at words from four of the
followingperspectives:
Their parts should be meaningful.
Their sounds of syllables that make them up.
The principles that organize them into phrases and sentences. The semantic
relationships that link them in sets.
Its only through language, a person tries to express is thought , feelings, moods,
aspiration which influence the ultimate and deepest foundation of the society.
Importance of language in the Modern World
English plays an important role in our present Educational system and also in
our National life. it has become one of the common language and a person one who
is fluent in speaking English can be a world citizen. India is a multi-lingual country
were there are many languages spoken in different parts of our country. English
language helps to communicate with ease .through structural approach we can learn
English or any other language fluently. structural approach teaches to learn
sentences in a systematic manner which involves the structure, sequencing and
pattern arrangement of a words to make a proper and complete sentences with
meaning. Today importance of English cannot be under estimated. It is a global
language and it is the language of opportunities for the millions of youth around the
world.
Maximum Use of the Foreign Language
The emphasis by structural approach on the teaching of the graded structures

of a language means that the classroom should have the maximum foreign language
environment. This is characteristic feature in structural approach. Where grammar-
113
translation method is used, the classroom is characterized by two factors: 1)
practice in reading and writing and 2) maximum use of mother-tongue. In reaction
to these practices structural approach advocates methods which would include - a)
practice in the speech-skills, not because reading and writing should be neglected
(as would be the case in the direct method), but that the teaching of the graded
structures can be better undertaken through aural-oral work.
About Structural Approach
The Structural Approach is a technique wherein the learner masters the

pattern of sentence. Structures are the different arrangements of words in one
accepted style or the other. It includes various modes in which clauses, phrases or
word might beused. It is based on the assumptions that language can be best learnt
through a scientific selection and grading of the structures or patterns of sentences
and vocabulary.
Definition
This approach as Kripa K. Gautam states "is based on the belief that language
consists of 'structures' and that the mastery of these structures is more important
than the acquisition of vocabulary. Since structure is what is important and unique
about a language, early practice should focus on mastery of phonological and
grammatical structures rather than on mastery of vocabulary." Kulkarni
"emphasizes the teaching and learning of the basic items or materials that constitute
the framework of language." Whereas according to Yardi 'structures' as an "internal
ordering of linguistic item", and further adds that structures may be defined as
"device that we use to make signal, to convey meanings, and indicate
relationship."[1]
Objectives
According to Menon and Patel the objectives of the new structural approach are as
follows:-
To lay the foundation of English by establishing through drill and repetition about
114
275 graded structures.
To enable the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of about

3000 root words for active use.
To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lesson.
To teach the four fundamental skills, namely understanding, speaking, reading

and writing in the order names.
To lay proper emphasis on the aural- oral approach, activity methods and the
condemnation of formal grammar for its own sake.[2]
Main features of structural approach
The structural approach makes use of the following features for teaching the
language:
Word order - Word order or the pattern of form is very important in Language for
e.g:
• Jo broke his toy
• The toy broke Jo
sentence a) Jo broke his toy - makes proper sense. it shows the arrangement or
pattern of words.
The presence of function words:
Function words help in modifying meaning considered the following sentence -for
e.g:
• I ate an ice cream.
• I'm eating an ice cream.
• I will eat an ice cream.
In the above given example, we can see the modified meaning. the use of few
Inflections:
115
By adding an affix, the base form of the word can be altered.e.g:
• In verbs: I play; he plays; I am playing ; I played
• In nouns; One boy; two boys; one man In adjective and adverb: Great -
Greater - GreatestPrinciples of the structural
• approach
Prof. F.G.French has entitled the following principles underlying the structural
approach:
Importance of Framing Language Habits.
Importance of Speech - The structural approach is based on the principle of

effective used of speech.
Importance pupil's activity.
The Principles of Oral work - Oral work is the basis and all the rest are built up
from it.
Each language as its own Grammar - Instead of teaching Grammar of the target
language and its structures are to be taught.[clarification needed]
Creation of different types of meaningful situations by dramatization, facial

expression, actions etc. Is stressed upon.
One item of language is taught at one time.Mastery of structures is emphasized.
Selection of structures
How should a teacher select the structure to teach the learner. This involves
the selection of structures. In the structural approach mainly the focus will be on
structures. The following principles should be kept in mind while selecting
structures :
Usefulness - the structures, which are more frequent in use should be introduced
first
116
Productivity - some if the structures are productive, other structures can be
built upon. for e.g: we have two sentence pattern- a) Mr. Roy is here b) Here is
Mr.Roythe former pattern is productive because we can frame many sentences on
the same pattern like - He is there etc.
Simplicity - The simplicity of the structure depends upon the form and the
meaning.
Teach-ability - Items easy from teaching point of view.
Frequency - The structures must be selected with a high frequency of occurrence.

Range - to know, in how many contexts it is applicable
Coverage - A word covering a number of meanings For e.g: Meals
Learnabiliy - teacher should focus on the items that are easy for students to learn
should be taken first.
Gradation of Structure
Structural approach upholds the teaching of English as a foreign language

through the teaching of the structures of the language. The questions which
structural approach attempts to answer primarily are: (1) should the structural items
and sentence patterns to be graded? (2) how shall they be graded? and (3) what
should be the fundamental principles of grading the structural items? through
gradation of structure, we can get answers for the following Questions.
Gradation means grouping synonyms. In structural approach, gradation of structure

can be taught by using the following patterns that should be taught at early stages:
Grouping :-
• Phonetic grouping - group according to sound. for example: cat, rat, mat
etc.
• Lexical grouping - grouping according to words used in same situation.
• grammatical grouping - pattern of sentences similar should be taught
117
together.
• Semantic grouping - Words having similar meaning grouped together.
• Structure Grouping - selecting items that are fit for each other.
1. Sequencing :-
• Grammatical sequencing - it will tell that it follows which structure.

e.g.: I waswatching a movie. I was watching a movie with my friend.
• Semantic sequencing - A word having different meanings e.g.: The ball

isthere, under the bed. There are many balls in the bag.
• Lexical sequencing - It Tells which word follows which e.g.: sit-stand,

come-go, high-low
2. Types of patterns of sentences:
there are different patterns of sentence. as follows below:
• Two- part patterns like She goes (she / goes)
• Three-part patterns e.g: He is reading (He / is / reading )
• Four-part patterns e.g: Geetha went to school ( Geetha/went/to/school)
• Patterns beginning with 'there', 'wh' type question e.g: There are five
baskets inthe rack. What is your name?
• Patterns of Command and Request e.g: come here, sit down , stand up
etc.
• Formal pattern - like Good Morning, Thank You etc.
118
3. Sentence Patterns
The structures may have the following pattern like:
• Statement of Fact - mention simple facts e.g: Pinky gets up at 6 a.m.

She takesbath. she eats her breakfast. she goes to school. ( subject-verb-
object pattern )
• Imperative sentence - Question form verb-subject-object pattern e.g:

Did Pinkycome to school today? has she taken her breakfast ?
• Imperative sentence ( imply compliance) subject remains hidden. e.g.:

(Pinky)Come here , Close the door , Bring your book etc.
4. Phrase Patterns
Sentence using phases are called Phrase pattern. e.g: That book is 'on the table'
B. Letter Writing And Assignment For Writing
News from My Lad by James Campbell, 1858-1859 (Walker Art Gallery)
A letter is one person's written message to another pertaining to some matter

of common concern.[1] Letters have several different types: Formal letters and
informal letters. Letters contribute to the protection and conservation of literacy.[1]
Letters have been sent since antiquity and are mentioned in the Iliad.[2] Both
Herodotus and Thucydides mention letters in their histories.
The study of letter writing
Due to the timelessness and universality of letter writing, there is a wealth of

letters and instructional materials (for example, manuals, as in the medieval ars
dictaminis) on letter writing throughout history. The study of letter writing usually
involves both the study of rhetoric and grammar.[6]
Advantages of letters
François Boucher - The Secret Message, 1767 (Herzog Anton Ulrich

Museum) Letters are a way to connect with someone not through the internet.
119
Despite email,letters are still popular, particularly in business and for official
communications.Letters have the following advantages over email:
No special device is needed to receive a letter, just a postal address, and the letter
can be read immediately on receipt.
An advertising mailing can reach every address in a particular area.
A letter provides immediate, and in principle permanent, physical record of

communication, without the need for printing. Letters, especially those with a
signature and/or on an organization's own notepaper, are more difficult to falsify
than is an email and thus provide much better evidence of the contents of the
communication.
A letter in the sender's own handwriting is more personal than an email.
If required, small physical objects can be enclosed in the envelope with the
letter. Letters are unable to transmit malware or other harmful files that can be
transmitted by email.
Letter writing leads to the mastery of the technique of good writing.
Letter writing can provide an extension of the face-to-face therapeutic encounter.

There are a number of different types of letter:
Audio letter Business letter
Cease and desist letterChain letter
Cover letter Crossed letter Dear John letterEpistle
Form letterHate mail
Hybrid mail (semi-electronic delivery)Informal letter
Letter of credence Letter of credit Letter of intent Letter of introductionLetter of

marque Letter of resignation Letter of thanks Letter to the editor Letters patent
Love letter
120
National Letter of IntentOpen letter
Poison pen letterQuery letter
Recommendation letter and the closely related employment reference letterSales

letter
C. Formal Style Letter & Useful Expression In Letter AndLetter Of Application
A business letter is usually a letter from one company to another, or between

such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The
overall style of letter depends on the relationship between the parties concerned.
Business letters can have many types of contents, for example to request direct
information or action from another party, to order supplies from a supplier, to point
out a mistake by the letter's recipient, to reply directly to a request, to apologize for
a wrong, or to convey goodwill. A business letter is sometimes useful because it
produces a permanent written record, and may be taken more seriously by the
recipient than other forms of communication.
Margins
Side, top and bottom margins should be 1 to 1 1/4 inches (the general default
settings in programs such as Microsoft Word). One-page letters and memos should
be vertically centered.
Font formatting
No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which
is usually underlined.
Punctuation
The salutation or greeting is generally followed by a comma in British style,

whereas in the United States a colon is used. The valediction or closing is followed
by a comma.
Indentation formats
121
Business letters conform to generally one of six indentation formats: standard,
open, block, semi-block, modified block, and modified semi-block. Put simply,
"semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "modified" means that
the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.
Standard
The standard-format letter uses a colon after the salutation and a comma after the
complimentary closing.
Open
The open-format letter does not use punctuation after the salutation and no
punctuation after the complimentary closing.
Block
In a block-format letter, all text is left aligned and paragraphs are not indented.
Modified block
In a modified-block format letter, all text is left aligned (except the author's
address, date, and closing), paragraphs are not indented, and the author's address,
date, and closing begin at the center point.
Semi-block
Semi-block format is similar to the Modified block format, except that the first
line of each paragraph is indented.
Modified semi-block
In a modified semi-block format letter, all text is left aligned (except the
author's address, date, and closing), paragraphs are indented, and the author's
address, date, and closing are usually indented in same position.
D. Curriculum Vitae Writing
Example of a CV.
122
A curriculum vitae (English: /kəˈrɪkjʊləm ˈviːtaɪ, -ˈwiːtaɪ, -ˈvaɪtiː/)[1][2]
(often shortened CV, resume or vita) is a written overview of a person's experience
and other qualifications for a job opportunity. It is akin to a résumé in North
America. In some countries, a CV is typically the first item that a potential employer
encounters regarding the job seeker and is typically used to screen applicants, often
followed by an interview. CVs may also be requested for applicants to
postsecondary programs, scholarships, grants and bursaries. In the 2010s, some
applicants provide an electronic text of their CV to employers using email, an
online employment website or using a job-oriented social-networking-service

website, such as LinkedIn.
In the United Kingdom, most Commonwealth countries, and Ireland, a CV

is short (usually a maximum of two sides of A4 paper), and therefore contains only
asummary of the job seeker's employment history, qualifications, education, and
some personal information. Some parts of Asia require applicants' photos, date of
birth, and most recent salary information. CVs are often tailored to change the
emphasis of the information according to the particular position for which the job
seeker is applying. A CV can also be extended to include an extra page for the
jobseeker's publications if these are important for the job.
In the United States, Pakistan, Canada, Australia, Germany, India, and Cuba
a CVis a comprehensive document used in academic circles and medical careers
that elaborate on education, publications, and other achievements. A CV contains
greater detail than a résumé, a shorter summary which is more often used in
applications for jobs, but it is often expected that professionals use a short CV that
highlights the current focus of their academic lives and not necessarily their full
history. A CV is generally used when applying for a position in academia, while a
resume is generally used when applying for a position in industry, non-profit, and
the public sector.[3]
Etymology, spellings and pronunciation
Curriculum vitae is a Latin expression which can be loosely translated as [the]
123
course of [my] life. In current usage, curriculum is less marked as a foreign
loanword. Traditionally the word vitae is rendered in English using the ligature æ,
hence vitæ,[4] although this convention (curriculum vitæ) is less common in
contemporary practice.
The plural of curriculum vitae, in Latin, is formed following Latin rules of

grammar as curricula vitae, and is used along with curricula vitarum,[5] each of
which is debated as being more grammatically correct than the other.
124

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Dosen Pengampu:

Rahma Wardani, S.Pd., M.Pd

“BUKU AJAR MODUL BAHASA INGGRIS”

EVA TRIANA SAPUTRI 2263411030

M. DAFFA RAMZILLAH 2263411039

ELLIA NOR FITRI 2263411021

PROGRAM STUDI ADMINISTRASI BISNIS

Kotabaru, 04 Juli 2023

KATA PENGATAR ....................................................................................... I

KONSEP DASAR BERBAHASA INGGRIS

2. Kemampuan Akhir Yang Diharapkan

Konsep Dasar Berbahasa Inggris

4. Sub Pokok Bahasan

• Bentuk dasar dan standar penulisan

• Dasar percakapan dan mendengarkan

• Formulasi dasar diskusi dan presentasi

Proses Pembuatan Kalimat

B. DASAR PERCAKAPAN DAN MENDENGARKAN

Conversation theory regards social systems as symbolic, language-oriented

Conversation theory describes interaction between two or more cognitive

conversations about a subject matter which serves to make knowledge explicit.

Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels:

• Natural language (general discussion)

• Object languages (for discussing the subject matter)

• Metalanguages (for talking about learning/language)

Through recursive interactions called "conversation" their differences may be

From conversation theory, Pask developed what he called a "Cognitive

A succinct account of these operators is presented in Pask Amongst many

In Commentary toward the end of Pask, he states:

In order to facilitate learning, Pask argued that subject matter should be

Pask identified two different types of learning strategies:

Serialists – Progress through a structure in a sequential fashionHolists – Look

His Girl Friday (1940) Bringing Up Baby (1938)

Important factors in delivering a banter is the subtext, situation and the

Different methods of story telling could be used in delivering banter, like

One element of conversation is discussion: sharing opinions on subjects that

Subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding and awareness.

Other people (usually absent), which may be either critical, competitive, or

Oneself, which sometimes indicate attention-seeking behavior or can provide

Most conversations may be classified by their goal. Conversational ends may,

Functional conversation is designed to convey information in order to help achieve

Self-presentation is behavior that attempts to convey some information about

Two types of self-presentational motivations can be distinguished

The expression of the audience-pleasing motive varies across situations, especially

The self-construction motive is presumably a fairly stable disposition and

KONSEP DASAR BERBAHASA INGGRIS

2. Kemampuan Akhir Yang Diharapkan

Mahasiswa diharapkan memahami tentang structure dan grammar yang terdapat

Structure And Grammar

4. Sub Pokok Bahasan

• Bentuk tenses dasar

Bentuk, Pengertian, Rumus, dan Contoh Tenses

Present merupakan suatu kata kerja yang bisa dibilang menunjukan

Present tense adalah suatu bentuk kata kerja yang digunakan

Negatif : S + DO/DOES + NOT + V1

(+) he drinks milk

(- ) he doesn’t drink milk

(?) does he drink milk ?

b. Present Continuous Tense